Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements 

How Are Elements Heavier than Iron Formed

Objective: To describe how elements heavier than iron are formed.
Definition of Terms: Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from pre-existing or seed nuclei.
Review: In the previous lessons, you have learned about the types of nucleosynthesis. The big bang nucleosynthesis produced
hydrogen and helium, whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis produced elements up to iron in the core of the stars.
Preview Question: If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
Learn about it!
The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It started by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to form
beryllium-8 accompanied by a release of energy in the form of gamma radiation (γ). This process continues until nickel-56. However, nickel-
56 is unstable and undergoes positron (+10β) emission. Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with lower atomic number.
Z x→Z y+ +1 β
A −1A 0

A is mass number, Z is atomic number, x is the seed nucleus, and y is the new nucleus formed.
Nickel-56 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through subsequent emission of two positrons.
28 Ni→27 Co+ +1 β→26 Fe+ +1 β
56 56 0 56 0

Learn about it! :The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes unfavorable. This
is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different
pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.
Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a heavier isotope of the element.
Z x+ 0 n→Z y
A 1 A+1

For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

26 Fe+301n→26 Fe
56 59

The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (−10β) decay. This decay results in an increase in the number of protons of the
nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.
Z x→Z y+ −1 β
A +1A 0

Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-59 undergoes beta decay to produce cobalt-59.
26 Fe→27 Co+ −1 β
59 59 0

Learn about it!: Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.

Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of neutrons. It is termed slow because the rate of neutron capture
is slow compared to the rate of −10β decay. Therefore, if a −10β decay occurs, it almost always occurs before another neutron can be
captured.
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a large number of neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate
of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may still be combined with another neutron just before it undergoes −10β decay. The r-
process is associated with a supernova. The temperature after a supernova is tremendously high that the neutrons are moving very fast.
Because of their speed, they can immediately combine with the already heavy isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis is also called supernova
nucleosynthesis.
Learn about it! : Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova, when there is a tremendous amount of
energy available. It is because the addition of a proton to the nucleus is not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion, which is the repulsive
force between particles with the same charge.
Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.
Z x+1 p→Z+1 y + γ
A 1 A+1

For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to produce technetium-95.

42 Mo+1 p→43 Tc + γ
94 1 95

Try it! : Nuclei, stable or radioactive, may be a product of s-, r-, or p-process. The nuclei produced by the s-process are called s-nuclei,
whereas those from r- and p-processes are called r- & p-nuclei, respectively. Go over the web & look for the ff. nuclei and classify them as s-,
r-, or p-nucleus. 1. xenon-136 ______ 2. tellurium-122 _______ 3. barium-132 ______ 4. antimony-121 _______ 5. cesium-133 ________
Tips : Big bang, stellar, and supernova nucleosynthesis are natural nuclear transformation processes. These nuclear reactions are natural,
that is, they happen in nature. These processes produced the elements we have in the periodic table. However, note that not all of the
elements are naturally occurring. Some of them are artificially made such as Flerovium (Fl) and Livermorium (Lv).
What do you think? What process is used for the production of the synthetic elements?
Key Points
1. Fusion reactions cannot account for the synthesis of nuclei heavier than 2656Fe.
2. Neutron and proton capture processes are responsible for the synthesis of nuclei heavier than 2656Fe.
3. Seed nucleus is the starting material for the formation of heavier isotopes or new nuclei.
4. Neutron capture process can be either slow (s-process) or rapid (r-process).
5. Neutron capture process is often accompanied by subsequent −10β decay.
6. The r-process and proton capture are processes that happen in a supernova because a tremendous amount of energy is needed for
them to occur.
Evaluation: ¼ SOP. Write the letters which corresponds to your answers.
1. __ is the process by which nuclei are synthesized from pre-existing ones. (answer: nucleosynthesis)
2. Neutron capture process is often accompanied by _ decay. a. −10β b. 11p c. 10β d. 24He
3. Slow neutron capture process is also called _. a. s-process b. n-process c. r-process d. p-process
4. Which of the following processes cannot synthesize nuclei heavier than 2656Fe?
a. fusion with 24He b. rapid neutron capture c. slow neutron capture d. proton capture
5. Which of the following are requirements for rapid neutron capture process?
a. high proton density b. high neutron density c. extremely high temperature d. high alpha particles density
6. Which of the following are the net effects of a proton capture? a. Increase in atomic number
b. Increase in mass number c. Decrease in number of neutron d. Decrease in atomic number
7. Which of the following are the net effects of a neutron capture? a. Decrease in atomic number
b. Decrease in the number of protons c. Increase in the number of neutron d. Increase in mass number
8. Which of the ff. is most likely a product of 2860Ni undergoing two consecutive neutron captures which are immediately followed
by a −10β decay? a. 3061Zn b. 3062Zn c. 2961Cu d. 2962Cu
9. Which of the following is most qualified to be called an r-process?
a. 2860Ni+201n→2962Cu + −10β b. 2856Ni+801n→2964Cu + −10β c. 2448Cr+24He→2652Cu d. 2962Cu+11p→3063Zn
10. Which of the ff. is most likely the seed nucleus of 4294Mo that underwent two p-processes and an s-process?
a. 4095Zr b. 3994Y c. 45100Rh d. 4499Ru

 Q1

 Exact Value
 Question
 _ is the process by which nuclei are synthesized from pre-existing ones.
 Correct answer
 nucleosynthesis
 Explanation
 The term nucleosynthesis means the formation of a nucleus, characterized by a specific number of protons and neutrons.
 Report errors
 Q2

 Single Answer
 Question
 Neutron capture process is often accompanied by _ decay.
 Correct answer
0
 −1 β
1
 1 p
0
 1 β
4
 2 He
 Explanation
 In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. It is often accompanied by −10β decay, which increases the number
of protons of the nucleus by 1.
 Report errors
 Q3

 Single Answer
 Question
 Slow neutron capture process is also called _.
 Correct answer
 s-process
 n-process
 r-process
 p-process
 Explanation
 The s in s-process stands for slow. It is termed slow because the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the rate
of −10β decay.
 Report errors
 Q4

 Single Answer
 Question
 Which of the following processes cannot synthesize nuclei heavier than 2656Fe?
 Correct answer
 fusion with 24He
 rapid neutron capture
 slow neutron capture
 proton capture
 Explanation
 Fusion reactions with 24He can form nuclei up to 2856Ni only, but nickel-56 is radioactive and decomposes to 2656Fe.
 Report errors
 Q5

 Multiple Choice
 Question
 Which of the following are requirements for rapid neutron capture process?
 Correct answer
 high proton density
 high neutron density
 extremely high temperature
 high alpha particles density
 Explanation
 Rapid neutron capture process requires high temperatures so that neutron bombardment can happen even before beta-minus
decay happens.
 The high neutron density is required so that there is an abundant supply of neutron for the process to occur.
 Report errors
 Q6

 Multiple Choice
 Question
 Which of the following are the net effects of a proton capture?
 Correct answer
 increase in atomic number
 increase in mass number
 decrease in number of neutron
 decrease in atomic number
 Explanation
 Proton capture means addition of a proton, 11p to the nucleus. This process adds 1 to the proton count, hence the atomic
number increases. Since a proton is added, the mass number also increases.
 Report errors
 Q7

 Multiple Choice
 Question
 Which of the following are the net effects of a neutron capture?
 Correct answer
 decrease in atomic number
 decrease in the number of protons
 increase in the number of neutron
 increase in mass number
 Explanation
 Neutron capture means addition of a neutron, 01n to the nucleus. This process adds 1 to the neutron count while keeping the
proton count unchanged. Since neutron is added, the mass number also increases.
 Report errors
 Q8

 Single Answer
 Question
 Which of the following is most likely a product of 2860Ni undergoing two consecutive neutron captures which are immediately
followed by a −10β decay?
 Correct answer
61
 30 Zn
62
 30 Zn
61
 29 Cu
 2962Cu
 Explanation
 Nickel-60 decays into copper-62.
 2860Ni+201n→2962Cu+−10β
 Report errors
 Q9

 Single Answer
 Question
 Which of the following is most qualified to be called an r-process?
 Correct answer
 2860Ni+201n→2962Cu+−10β
 2856Ni+801n→2964Cu+−10β
 2448Cr+24He→2652Cu
 2962Cu+11p→3063Zn
 Explanation
 The r-process is characterized by the addition of a large number of neutrons before −10β decay happens.
 Report errors
 Q10

 Single Answer
 Question
 Which of the following is the most likely the seed nucleus of 4294Mo that underwent two p-processes and an s-process?
 Correct answer
 4095Zr
 3994Y
 45100Rh
 4499Ru
 Explanation
 3994Y is the seed nucleus of 4294Mo that underwent two p-processes and an s-process.