Biological

Macromolecules
•Objectives
•a. Explain how the structures of
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,
and proteins determine their
properties and functions
•Keywords
• a. Carbohydrates m. Nucleic acid
• b. Saccharides n. Nucleotides
• c. Glycosidic bond o. Phosphodiester bond
• d. Proteins p. Amphiphilic
• e. Amino acid q. Hydrophilic tendency
• f. Peptide bond r. Hydrophobic tendency
•Keywords
•g. Lipids s. Functional group
•h. Triglyceride t. Carboxylic acid
•i. Glycerol u. Alcohol
•j. Fatty acid v. Amine
•k. Phospholipids w. Fischer structure
•l. Steroids x. Haworth structure
• Keywords
• a. Carbohydrates m. Nucleic acid
• b. Saccharides n. Nucleotides
• c. Glycosidic bond o. Phosphodiester bond
• d. Proteins p. Amphiphilic
• e. Amino acid q. Hydrophilic tendency
• f. Peptide bond r. Hydrophobic tendency
• g. Lipids s. Functional group
• h. Triglyceride t. Carboxylic acid
• i. Glycerol u. Alcohol
• j. Fatty acid v. Amine
• k. Phospholipids w. Fischer structure
• l. Steroids x. Haworth structure
•Trapezoidal Tangram
•macromolecules are comprised
mainly of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen,
•and yet many different
substances are formed, all with
varied properties.
•carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids
•carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and
nitrogen
 Carbohydrates
•1. What elements do you see in
the structure/ formula?
•2. What do you notice with the
chemical formula of glucose?
•1. What similarities do you see in the
structures?
•2. What differences do you see in the
structures?
•fructose (example) can be found in fruits
(source), and fruits are sources of energy
•(function).
•Another would be cellulose (example)
which can be found in plant stems, leaves,
bark, roots which serves as the structural
material of plants (function).
•Compare monosaccharides and
disaccharides with
polysaccharides to show the
relationship of structure and
property/function
•there is rigidifying of the molecules as more
saccharides are attached and more branches
are created. In the process of creating longer
chains, water is being released.
•This can be related to loss of
mobility/flexibility of polysaccharides. These
molecules are also less soluble in water.
•Carbohydrate
• The word carbohydrate may be broken down to carbon and
hydrate. From the chemical formula of carbohydrate, notice
that the ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1, which can be rewritten as
Cn(H2O)n. Carbohydrates can be seen as hydrates of carbon.
This is a traditional but incorrect
• understanding of carbohydrates but it still presents a useful
picture of the molecule. Another term for carbohydrate is
saccharide. This term is derived from the Latin word saccharum
referring to sugar--a common carbohydrate.
•Carbohydrates are classified either as
simple or complex.
•Simple sugars are monosaccharides
and disaccharides.
•Complex sugars are polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of
the human body. The different saccharides that
humans eat are converted to glucose which
• can be readily used by the body. Around 4
kilocalories is derived from one gram of
carbohydrate. Should there be an excessive
consumption of carbohydrates, the excess is
converted to glycogen which is stored in the liver
and in muscles.
•Glycogen is a slow-releasing carbohydrate.
•Monosaccharide (one saccharide)
•Glucose Used in dextrose, blood sugar;
the form utilized by the human body
•Galactose Found in milk and milk
products
•Fructose Found in fruits and honey
•The above monosaccharides all have the same
chemical formula of C6H12O6 and its structure
is the one that made the difference in its
properties.
•For example, galactose o
(163-169 C) has a
•higher melting point than glucose (148-
o
155 C). Glucose is sweeter than galactose.
•Disaccharide (two saccharides)
•Maltose Glucose + Glucose Found in malt
•Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Found in
regular table sugar, sugarcane, and sugar
beet
•Lactose Glucose + Galactose Found in
milk and milk products
•Individual saccharides are
connected via glycosidic bonds. A
water molecule is released when
•two saccharides are combined.
•Polysaccharide (many saccharides)
•Starch / Amylose Composed of 250 -
400 glucose molecules connected via
α-1-4-
•glycosidic bond
•Storage form of glucose in plants
• Amylopectin Like amylose but has more branches
attached via α-1-6 glycosidic bond
• Storage form of glucose in plants
• Glycogen Composed of more glucose, more
highly branched (same type of bond
• as amylopectin)
• Storage form of glucose in animals, stored in the
liver and muscles
•Cellulose Composed of glucose units
connected via β-1-4 glycosidic bond,
•linear chain arranged in a parallel manner
•Structural material in plants--cell wall in
wood, wood fiber
•Cannot be digested by humans
Fischer structure of various monosaccharides
•Carbohydrates are classified either as
simple or complex.
•Simple sugars are monosaccharides
and disaccharides.
•Complex sugars are polysaccharides.
•1. Why are nucleic acids named so?
•2. What comprises nucleic acids?
•3. What is another term for nucleic acids?
•4. What are the three parts of a
nucleotide?
•5. What are common examples of nucleic
acids?
•6. What is the primary role of DNA?
•7. How does RNA help in protein
synthesis?
•8. What are the bases of DNA? of RNA?
•9. How are DNA and RNA similar?
•10. How are DNA and RNA different?
•Carbohydrates are classified either as
simple or complex.
•Simple sugars are monosaccharides
and disaccharides.
•Complex sugars are polysaccharides.
•Carbohydrates are classified either as
simple or complex.
•Simple sugars are monosaccharides
and disaccharides.
•Complex sugars are polysaccharides.
• Methanol and Water--Hydrogen bonding
• Measure out 50 mL of water and 50 mL of methanol in separate
100 mL graduated cylinders.
• Mix the methanol into the water.
 Invisible force
•The surface tension between the
water and the wire mesh holds
the water in the jar.
Types of Intermolecular Forces

•intramolecular forces
and
•intermolecular forces of
attraction
• Intramolecular forces are many times stronger than
intermolecular forces of attraction.
• Intramolecular forces are forces that hold
molecules together.
• They are forces within a molecule.
• Intermolecular forces are forces that form between
molecules, atoms, or ions.
• The comparison above shows the relative strengths
of intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces
in terms of energy involved.
• Intermolecular forces are responsible for the
condensed phases of substances (liquid and solid
form).
• Solids and liquids will not exist without them.
 Van der Waals forces
•Van der Waals forces, named after
Johannes Diderik van der Waals who
first proposed these forces.
 Main Types of Intermolecular forces:
•1. Ion-ion interaction
•2. Dipole-dipole interaction
•3. Hydrogen bonding
•4. Dispersion forces also known as
London forces in honor of Fritz London.
•Ion-ion interaction exists between
oppositely charged ions. It occurs between
ionic compounds.
•Most ion-ion interaction is strong and
compounds which have them have
•high melting and boiling points.
 Ion-ion interaction
•Ions of like charges repel while opposite
charges attract. The compound orients itself in
such a way as to minimize repulsion.
•The strength of ion-ion interaction is inversely
proportional to the square of distance between
the ions. This is the strongest intermolecular
force.
•The table above shows that the
smaller ions have stronger ion-ion
interaction compared to larger ions.
2. Dipole-dipole interaction
• Occurs between polar molecules.
• This is due to the partial positive pole and the partial
negative pole of the molecule. Average dipole-dipole
interaction is relatively weak, around 4kJ/mol.
• This interaction is effective over a very short range.
• The strength of dipole-dipole interaction is inversely
proportional to distance raised to the fourth power (d4).
Dipole-dipole
interaction
•The figure above shows the partially
charged poles of the molecules, and the
attraction and repulsion between them.
•Both attraction and repulsion occur
simultaneously.
 Hydrogen Bond
• Hydrogen bond is a very strong dipole-dipole
interaction. Hydrogen bond occurs in polar molecules
containing H and any one of the highly electronegative
elements, in particular F, O, N. Hydrogen tends to be
strongly positive due to the strong tendencies of F, O, or
N to attract the electron towards it.
• The highly electronegative elements make hydrogen
strongly positive.
 Hydrogen Bond
•Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the
unusually high boiling point and melting
point of water as compared to compounds of
similar molecular weight and geometry.
Typically, H-bond is in the range of 15-20
kJ/mol.
comparing the boiling points of hydrogen with
compounds
3. Hydrogen Bond
•Notice that the trend from row 3 to 5 is
increasing but there is an unusually high value
for elements in row 2 containing F, O, and N.
•If the trend were uniform throughout, the values
for row 2 would be lower than the values in row
3 (as is evident in CH4). Instead, there is a
deviation due to H-bonding.
 the uniqueness of H-bonds
• The ability of water to form hydrogen bonds relates to its
ability to be a universal solvent.
• Due to its polarity, it is able to dissolve (or interact)
• with ionic compounds and polar molecules.
• Hydrogen bonding is also very important to life in
general as the H-bond prevents water from quickly
evaporating into the atmosphere.
• In freezing temperature, the H-bond causes the water molecules
to form a crystal lattice thereby increasing its volume.
• This is why ice floats on water.
• This prevents the water beneath from cooling down further as
the ice sheet acts a protective layer.
• This allows marine creatures to survive in cold weather. H-
bonding in water is also important in the hydration of organic
• molecules and in the formation of peptide bonds within
•In the experiment where methanol
(CH3OH) is mixed with water, H-bonding
is responsible for the
•decrease in volume of the solution and the
production of heat.
Dispersion Forces or London Forces
• Dispersion force is present in all molecules. It is the only force
present in nonpolar molecules. It is very weak and acts in very
small distances. It is formed due to the attraction
• between the positively charged nucleus of an atom with the
negatively charged electron cloud of a nearby atom. This
interaction creates an induced dipole. The strength of
dispersion forces is inversely proportional to distance raised to
the 7th power (d7). Without dispersion forces substances
would not be able to condense to liquid and solid phase.
• The image above shows a lone iodine molecule having equal
electron density. When several iodine molecules are exposed to
each other, an induce dipole is created. This is shown in the
uneven electron density of the iodine molecules.
• As the molecular weight of molecules increases (which also
corresponds to an increased number of electrons), the
polarization increases due to dispersion forces. Sometimes,
dispersion forces can be stronger than dipole-dipole interaction
or even H-bonding.
•The above diagram shows that the increase in
boiling point in correlation with the increased
molecular weight of the different compounds
is attributed to increased dispersion forces.
•a. Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE)
•b. Kevla
•c. Carbon fibers
•d. Polyurethane
•e. Tempered glass
•f. Ultra-high strength concrete
•g. Thermoplastic
•- intramolecular vs intermolecular forces
•- Van der Waals forces
•- ion-ion interaction
•- dipole-dipole interaction
•- H- bond
•- dispersion forces
•-boiling point
•- melting point
•- surface tension
 Surface tension
• A phenomenon caused by cohesive forces (intermolecular
forces) between molecules allowing liquids to create a thin film
on its surface. This causes liquids to acquire a certain shape
when put on a container or dropped on surfaces. In a container,
the bulk of a liquid has a balance of intermolecular forces in all
direction. There is a net inward force on the surface since there
are no liquids there. This creates surface tension. Stronger
intermolecular bonds equates to stronger surface tension.
• Experiment with the jar with wire mesh and water
not spilling over despite being tipped over
completely. This is due to H bonding.
• Paper clips in the water experiment.
• Certain insects or reptiles being able to
• walk/ glide over water. (water striders, fisher
spiders, basilisk lizard).
•Basilisk lizard or the Jesus
lizard being able to walk in
water by virtue of surface
tension
• Experiment with the jar with wire mesh and water
not spilling over despite being tipped over
completely. This is due to H bonding.
• Paper clips in the water experiment.
• Certain insects or reptiles being able to
• walk/ glide over water. (water striders, fisher
spiders, basilisk lizard).
Water striders are also able to walk or
stride in the water due to surface
tension.
Fish spider
•Liquid mercury being able to glide on
a surface. Show a video of mercury on
a surface but not wetting the surface
(as is expected with liquids). Warning:
Mercury is toxic.
• The video shows how strongly mercury holds on to its surface. It
is able to change shape without breaking. The strong
intermolecular forces hold the mercury together.
• Once you have shown the learners the various phenomena, bring
their attention to the shape of the water’s surface (from the
experiment). Have them imagine water as tiny polar droplets
beside each other. Make them think of the reason why the water
does not spill immediately and creates an invisible elastic film on
its surface.
• Formation of meniscus
• Concave meniscus
• Occurs when there is stronger adhesive force
between the container and the liquid than the
liquid’s molecules. The adhesive force overcomes
the cohesive force of the liquid.
• This causes the liquid to climb up the sides of the
container.
•Adhesion - interaction between
different materials touching each
other e.g. Tape and paper, skin and
glass, etc.
•Cohesion - interaction between same
materials
•Convex meniscus
•Occurs when there is stronger
cohesive force between the liquid’s
molecules than the adhesive force
between the liquid and the container.
This causes the liquid to create a dome
shape on its surface.
•Viscosity
•Viscosity is the resistance of a
liquid to flow. The more viscous a
liquid is the thicker its consistency.
In layman’s term it is the measure
of the thickness of a liquid.
•Capillary action
•A phenomenon wherein a liquid is able to
rise up on a narrow tube. Adhesive forces
between the tube and the liquid allow the
liquid to
•exceed its weight. The narrower the tube,
the higher the liquid will reach.
•Adhesion - interaction between
different materials touching each
other e.g. Tape and paper, skin and
glass, etc.
•Cohesion - interaction between same
materials
Identify the most probable intermolecular force of
attraction in the following:

• 1. KCl ----KCl 6. CH3OH——CH3OH

• 2. NH3——NH3 7. H2——H2
• 3. Na2S——Na2S 8. CuO——CuO
• 4. HF——HF 9. SbH3——SbH3
• 5. MgS——MgS 10. CO2——CO2
• Describe the relationship of the following
properties with intermolecular forces of attraction.
a. Boiling point / evaporation
• b. Surface tension
• c. Capillary action
• d. Convex and concave meniscus
• e. Viscosity
• Boiling point - solutions with stronger
intermolecular forces (IMF) have higher boiling
points than solutions with weaker intermolecular
forces. The solutions with stronger IMF holds it
molecules together stronger hence making it harder
for the solution to evaporate and eventually boil.
•Surface tension - this is a phenomenon
wherein a liquid creates a seemingly thin
film on its surface. The stronger the IMF,
the stronger is its surface tension.
•Capillary action - this is the ability of
fluids to rise in narrow tubes. The IMF
between the surface of the tube and the
liquid allows the liquid to rise provided
that the IMF between the surface and the
liquid is stronger than the cohesive forces
within the liquid.
• Convex and concave meniscus - a convex meniscus
is formed when the cohesive forces within a liquid
is stronger than the adhesive forces between the
liquid and the surface of the container. Concave
meniscus on the other hand is the opposite wherein
the adhesive forces is stronger than the cohesive
forces. The cohesive and adhesive forces are both
due to IMF.
•Viscosity - this is the measure a
liquid’s resistance to flow.
Generally, the stronger is the IMF
in the liquid the more viscous it is.
• Boiling point - solutions with stronger
intermolecular forces (IMF) have higher boiling
points than solutions with weaker intermolecular
forces. The solutions with stronger IMF holds it
molecules together stronger hence making it harder
for the solution to evaporate and eventually boil.
A drop of mercury being vibrated from ~120Hz down to ~10hz filmed at regular speed. The high density and surface tension cause it to resonate at different frequencies in different ways. The higher the frequency the more nodes it will form on its edge. See this in slow motion: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q
SHOW MORE

• The contraction and relaxation of the mercury is due to changes in the surface
tension of, and charge on, the mercury drop. When the mercury is not in contact
with the iron nail, it's surface becomes oxidized and the positive mercury ions
repel each other, causing the mercury pool to relax (ie. lower its surface tension).
The relaxation causes the mercury to come into contact with the iron nail, which
has a sufficiently negative electrochemical potential to reduce the mercury ions
to mercury metal. The surface tension of the mercury increases and the pool
contracts, causing the contact with the nail to be broken. The mercury surface
reacts with the acid and becomes oxidized again, thereby, completing one cycle
of the oscillation.