CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND PROJECTS

Markku Käpylä , PhD, Docent, is a university lecturer retired from the University of Jyväskylä. His research interests are
biological and environmental education.

MARKKU KÄPYLÄ
Department of Teacher Education, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
[email protected]

A phenomenological view of pictures in teaching

and a novel method of analysing them
Abstract
In this paper a novel method for analysing the content and teaching potential of pictures is presented.
It is the four-field method, which is based on phenomenological thoughts about human experience,
which combines factual knowledge with emotions and personal and social meanings. A biological
example is given. Around this idea a course unit for using pictures in science teaching was organized.
It was used in the training of both primary and secondary level teachers. From picture analysis the
course unit proceeds to planning the use of pictures in teaching. A classification of the teaching func-
tions of pictures is presented.

Introduction
My long experience as a teacher educator tells me that pictures are rarely used in teaching in spite of
their abundance in textbooks (see also Pozzer & Roth, 2003) and “reading” of pictures is not explicitly
taught. Student teacher’s ability to use pictures for teaching purposes is poor. Perhaps teachers and
students think that the ability to “read” pictures is inherent and easy (Solomon, 1984). However, the
skill of picture comprehension develops as slowly as text comprehension and it must be deliberately
taught (e.g. Pozzer-Ardenghi & Roth, 2005). There are very few efforts to develop learning strategies
from illustrations (Schlag & Ploetzner, 2011). Almost without exception teaching is directed to lear-
ning predetermined content in a predetermined way. The emphasis is on factual content. This paper
is an attempt to develop another way of seeing and using pictures in science education, which starts
from the analysis of human experience and puts equal emphasis on the affective domain and personal
and social meanings. This approach is more typical of humanities and humanistic environmental edu-
cation (Knapp & Goodman, 1983; Knapp, 1992). I hope that this approach will help teachers in the ef-
fective use of the pictures in teaching, and at the same time promote the integration of school subjects.

The pictures in science classes can roughly be divided into two categories (1) Representational pic-
tures trying to present their object as it appears. (2) Symbolic pictures not resembling the external
appearance of the object. There is a wide variety on picture types ranging from photographs and
realistic drawings to schematic drawings and diagrams, but most textbook pictures are photographs
or naturalistic drawings (Pozzer & Roth, 2003). This paper mostly deals with naturalistic pictures.

The question of the effect of pictures in learning is complicated. Some studies show that learning
from text alone has been more successful than learning from text and pictures (Hannus, 1996; Rasch

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&Schnotz, 2009). Hannus (1996) even recommended that textbooks should only have a small amount
of pictures and mostly schematic drawings. A third of the students in the study of Kearsey and Turner
(1999) suggested a move away from the modern textbook to the more traditional format involving
more line diagrams. In some other studies a general positive effect of pictures has been found (Reid
1990a). More detailed studies have shown that pictures increase comprehension if explained in the
text, and that the content of pictures not explained in the text was not learned at all (Reid, 1990b;
Hannus. 1996). Apparently pictures have a strong positive effect on recalling things, but not neces-
sarily on understanding. Abstract concepts are learned rather from text than from pictures, and pic-
tures do not necessarily promote learning concepts (Reid 1990a; 1990b; Rasch & Snotz, 2009).

The effect of the pictures in teaching is also dependent on student cognitive ability. Above-average
ability pupils benefit from pictures but among below-average ability students learning is impaired.
Obviously pictures disturb concentration on the text in below-average ability pupils (Hannus, 1996;
Reid, 1990b). A possible explanation is found in cognitive load theory: pictures mean an extrane-
ous cognitive load, which means a decrease in working memory capacity (Cook, 2006). This hap-
pens when learners have to repeatedly search for text segments while analysing the picture (Florax &
Ploetzner, 2010). Also learning styles (e.g. visual and verbal learners) affect the way pictures are used
in learning (Mayer & Massa 2003).

There is a very considerable body of knowledge concerning the learning effects of different picture
qualities. From an educational point of view one of the most important is colour. Colours definitely
make pictures more interesting but do not necessarily promote understanding. More details are seen
in coloured pictures even if qualities directly dependent on colour are excluded. An unwanted result
is that colours often direct attention to details, which are not scientifically important (Reid, 1990a;
Reid & Miller, 1980). In many cases simplified line drawings promote learning better than detailed
colour pictures.

The most important thing in explaining the variation of picture interpretations is the learner’s prior
knowledge (Cook, 2006). Other meaning making resources are the textbook text and teacher’s talk.
Picture and text interaction is very important in reading textbook pictures (Reid, 1990b). Main text
and picture captions are a resource in making sense of the picture. These, however, do not guarantee
that students will interpret the picture in the intended way (Pozzer-Ardenghi & Roth, 2005). Hannus
(1996) found that the details given only in the pictures were not learned at all, thus making it neces-
sary to explain the picture in the text. To make meaning-making easier it is important to place text
and pictures near each other (Florax & Ploetzner, 2010) and that the picture caption gives guidance
for reading and interpreting the picture (Pozzer-Ardenghi & Roth, 2005).

The purpose of textbook pictures is in most cases clear. They illustrate or explain the main points
of the factual knowledge given in a text chapter. In some cases pictures have no obvious educational
purpose and are called merely decorative to quote Pozzer and Roth (2003). There might still be a
good reason for using these pictures. Pictures immediately catch students’ attention and this is one of
the major functions of pictures in textbooks (Kearsey & Turner, 1999; Pozzer-Ardenghi & Roth 2005).
Pictures thus seem to make the subject or topic more interesting. The teaching functions are usually
divided into affective, e.g. increasing motivation, and cognitive, which makes understanding of the
content easier. There are some attempts in the literature to classify the teaching functions of pictures
(Hannus, 1996; Hatva, 1987; Pozzer & Roth, 2003; Reid, 1990a) and in this paper I present my own
attempt at classification.

The poor use of pictures by teacher students during their teaching practice frustrated me. I decided to
develop a course unit to improve the use of pictures in teaching. Gradually a simple tool for analyzing
pictures in planning teaching was developed. It is a four-field matrix based on the ideas of several
scholars on human experience (Berleant, 2000, pp. 85-134; Karjalainen, 1986; Tuan, 1977; Wag-

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ner, 1983). The main purpose of this article is to introduce this fairly simple analytical tool with an
example, and give guidelines for using of the results of picture analysis for planning the teaching. The
course unit on the use of pictures was part of a science teaching course for primary teacher students.
It was also included in a similar course for biology teacher students and in each case was taught as a
small group practical (about 16 students) practical lasting 3-4 hours.

A phenomenological view of seeing the picture and development of the

analysing tool
Learning phenomenology is fairly demanding and most science educators have ignored it. It follows
that different thinkers use different terminologies and many ideas in phenomenology are contra-
ry to everyday thinking. Phenomenological theory is given here as a minimum for understanding
pedagogical application. Interested readers are directed to some textbooks (Berleant 2000; Moran
2000; Smith, Flowers & Larkin 2009; Wagner 1983). Phenomenology studies human experience.
“Everything for a man is experience” (Berleant, 2000: 85). I accept the wide definition by Tuan (1977,
p. 8): “Experience is a cover-all term for various modes through which a person knows and con-
structs reality”. The experience is mainly emotional; in Tuan’s (1977, p. 9) words: “Emotion tints all
human experience, including the high flights of thought”. Emotion is quickly qualified as something
to avoid or something to strive after. Feelings are thus intentional. In feeling intention and affection
coincide in the same experience. Experience seems passive, but it means acting and learning (Tuan,
1977, p. 9).

Human experience is seen as a whole, bodily, and multi-sensory (Lefebvre 2002, p. 33; Pink, 2011).
In experience the information of all the senses is fused. Sensory experience as such does not con-
tain meanings, which are constructed in people’s minds. However, what is perceived and understood
depends on earlier knowledge and earlier experiences. Already existing mental models or cognitive
schemata are activated (Seufert, 2003; Staver, 1998). Experience is also partly independent of time
and place. Present sensual information is fused to memories of the past and images and hopes for the
future. Present experience is also affected by memories and imaginations of other places, which might
be imaginary as in religious experience.

Photograph is a caught moment in the continuous flow of time. In interpreting the picture this is
helpful because it allows us to stand back and take a theoretical view. The spectators own life world
is always the starting point of interpretations. What we see in the picture is affected by our past ex-
periences, our existing knowledge structures and our world view. Many of the personal and social
meanings, which we use to “read” the pictures, are not actually seen in the picture. According to Tuan
(1979) perception and conception are a continuum in human experience. Seeing is an act of intellect,
but to see further requires an additional effort of abstraction. People have to deliberately make a
choice and exclude a mass of details to understand the main features and processes of the underlying
reality. This means putting information within a larger context.

Experience is a whole, internal and external world and individual and social realities are inseparable
(Adams, 1999). That is why this view is also called holistic. However, experience cannot be thought
of as a whole. We can only analyze it one aspect at a time. Talking and writing about an experience is
always a selection (Wagner, 1983). If we want to analyze an experience we have to divide it analytically
into several layers or parts. Art historian Erwin Panofsky has been the most influential person to de-
velop the idea of layers in the perception of pictures (paintings). His three layers (subject matter and
meanings unified) are (Panofsky, 1972: 3-17): (1) Primary or natural subject matter, (2) Secondary or
conventional matter: personifications, motives, images etc., (3) Intrinsic meaning of the content: the
discovery and interpretation of symbolic values, the basic attitude of a nation, class or a period. Panof-
sky’s ideas have influenced human geographers’ view of landscapes (Karjalainen, 1986; Cosgrove &
Daniels, 1989).

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Karjalainen and Raivo (1995) divide landscape or environment into three layers of seeing: (1) The
objective layer is formed by concrete objects; The subjective layer is our personal sensual experience
and feelings elicited by the object; (3) The representative layer is formed by cultural meanings, mes-
sages and symbols. In this classification the objective subject matter is separated from personal and
social meanings. The classification can be the same whether the object is real or a picture of it. This
classification is very useful and informative in teaching and it is fairly easily understood by students.
For many years I used this three layer classification in my teaching and I still consider it very fruit-
ful. A somewhat similar three-layer classification is impersonal, personal, and interpersonal (see e.g.
Mansour (2007).

Other classifications have also been used. In an educational context it is common to separate the cog-
nitive and affective domains of an experience. Observations can be direct if immediately understood
or indirect if understood only after the interpretation of cultural meanings (cf. Panofsky’s third layer).
With natural objects some knowledge structure must be used in order to make sense of the object.

After some years of thinking and trials in classroom I designed a four-field matrix, where the axes
are direct / indirect and cognitive / affective observations. It was then noticed that the three layers of
Karjalainen and Raivo (1995) can be placed onto a four-field matrix (Table 1). Objective (cognitive)
content is divided into directly and indirectly observable parts, with the latter needing theorizing and
interpretation. Direct affective refers to subjective sensual experience. Indirect affective refers to the
representative layer, cultural aspects of seeing. Clearly these categories cannot be strictly separated,
because all these function together and affect each other in an experience.

Table 1. The four-field method for analysing pictures.

Cognitive domain Affective domain
Direct observations Directly observed objects and details Immediate feelings and attitudes
aroused by the picture

Indirect observations Interpretations based on knowledge Socially mediated attitudes, symbols

structures and meanings

The course unit was organized around the four-field-method. First the three-layer and the four-field
methods were introduced. Then an exemplary analysis of the snail picture (se below) was done using
class discussion. The use of the four-field analysis results in planning teaching was the next phase,
where the results of the snail picture analysis were applied. The longest period of the course was spent
on an application exercise, where students analysed a self-selected picture. The course unit ended
with a short summary of the most important research findings on using pictures in teaching.

Exemplary analysis of a picture: the vineyard snail

Let us take a fairly simple example, a picture of an animal, a snail (Fig. 1). I chose this picture because
of its relative simplicity, and because a picture of the whole animal or plant is a typical biological
picture in primary school and lower secondary school textbooks and teaching. The vineyard snail is a
type of animal commonly used in biology teaching.

A simple way to introduce students to some principles of seeing is to ask them to list the items and de-
tails they see in the picture (Table 2). The number of picture details listed varied from 5 to 15, average
10.0. The frequency of observation and the order of items in the list provide good material for the dis-
cussion of human picture reading. The results of 50 primary school teacher students are given in Table
2. In many cases students did not know the correct names of the animal parts, but it was usually easy
to guess what they meant. No one mentioned the head or the tail, which is understandable, because

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 A phenomenological view of pictures in teaching and a novel method for analysing them

these parts are not

clearly separated from
the body. Only one of
the lower pair of ten-
tacles is visible in the
picture, which is why
many students sup-
posed it to be some
kind of snout. Many
named the knobs at
the end of longer ten-
tacles, but only a few
knew that these are the
eyes. Every-one who
named the foot (sole)
also mentioned its un-
dulating fringe. Fig. 1. The vineyard snail (Helix pomatia).

Table 2. The frequency and order of details seen by primary teacher students in the picture of the
vineyard snail.
Item or detail Frequency of Mean order in the list
mention
1. Snail (the whole animal) 50 1.2
2. Longer tentacles 48 3.1
3. Shell 47 3.1
4. White clover leaves 41 6.3
5. Longer grass straw in foreground 37 5.5
6. Tubercles of skin 32 6.3
7. Fallen brown leaf in the foreground 24 7.8
8. Lawn 23 6.4
9. Light brown colour of the animal 21 7.0
10. Foot (sole and the undulating foot-fringe) 21 7.3
11. Pine needles on the ground 20 8.3
12. Fallen catkins on the ground 20 8.4
13. Smaller tentacles 19 6.5
14. Growth lines of the shell 18 7.2
15. Soil 16 7.6
16. Spiral structure of the shell 15 7.1
17. Dewdrops 15 8.3
18. The knobs in the of longer tentacles (eye-spots) 12 7.3
19. The misty background of the picture 9 7.7
20. Pieces of thin twigs on the ground 9 8.7
21. Dead hay straw 3 9.0
22. Small stones 2 10.5

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All 50 students mentioned the whole animal and it was first in the list for 46 students. Almost all
mentioned the longer tentacles and the shell. In reading the picture the first thing is to find out what
it is. The snail schema is then activated in the memory. I think that this schema is constructed from
the general outline of the animal and maybe the non-segmented body (no one mentioned this feature
separately). From the snail schema in the mind, people pick out some important diagnostic features,
of which the most important seem to be tentacles and shell. These features are first checked to con-
firm the identification. After this other features are scanned. The list order is roughly the same for all
students.

The order of observing details seems to proceed from foreground to background, although in this
picture the background is blurred. It is well documented in research that details in the foreground are
seen more often (Reid, 1990a), thus explaining why white clover leaves, one prominent blade of grass,
and a brown leaf were high up on the list. According to this list the scanning of the picture seems
to proceed from the centre to the margins perhaps depending on the composition of this picture.
According to Hatva (1987) the order of scanning proceeds from the corners and edges to the centre.

The list above (Table 2.) belongs to the direct cognitive cell of Table 1. From there teachers and text-
books usually proceed to the indirect cognitive cell where the picture is further read with the help
of theories and generalizations. The affective domain is usually left out in science teaching, but the
four-field method implies its treatment. The four-field analysis of the snail picture is shown in Table
3. It is a generalized summary of the work and classroom discussion of many student groups during
the course. Only a short list of topics discussed during the course is given, but it is possible to proceed
much deeper in any of the cells.

Students’ knowledge of the biology of snails was meagre and that is why the indirect cognitive cell
was the most difficult for the students. The direct affective cell was the easiest. The cultural meanings
cell was fairly easy but needed classroom discussion. In the subject of biology cultural meanings are
usually not central, contrary to history, geography (see e.g. Rose, 2008), and arts. Usually pictures
in biology and geography teaching are used as unproblematic illustrations, although biology is also
closely associated with political and cultural meanings (e.g. Trommer, 1993).

Table 3. A four-field analysis of the picture of the vineyard snail.

Cognitive Affective

Direct observations Spiral shell, two pairs of antennae, Charming, disgusting, interesting
slimy skin, nodules on skin, stripes
on the shell, grass, etc.

Indirect observations Mollusc. Eyes on tip of the anten- Symbol of slowness. Foreteller of
nae. Herbivore. Needs moisture. rain in Finnish folklore. Delicacy in
Hermaphrodite. Withdraws into some areas but rejected as a food in
the shell during adverse weather Finland. A pest in gardening. Snail as
or if enemies are threatening. The a character in stories.
growth of the shell. Locomotion.

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The use of the four-field method of analysing pictures in planning teaching

Choosing and using the knowledge structures
While looking at the cognitive domain of the picture directly observable features are usually treated
first. To advance towards understanding, some central knowledge structure is needed, which gives
meaning to the details. There are of course many possible knowledge structures depending on the
particular case. In the case of animals and plants in introductory biology teaching two knowledge
structures usually prevail. One is the systematic knowledge structure: an organism is treated as a
representative of a larger group, in the case of the snail, mollusc and gastropod. Mollusc features
include a soft moist body without backbone, no segmentation and a limy shell. Another widely appli-
cable knowledge structure is ecological. How have the main problems of survival been solved? These
include especially energy supply, avoidance of enemies, and survival in adverse weather, reproduc-
tion, and dispersal, which together form a coherent strategy (Applegate, 1993).

Planning the classroom discussion and questioning strategies

The next phase of the planning for using a picture in teaching is planning the classroom discussion.
First, it should be decided whether to start from the cognitive or the affective domain. To arouse in-
terest it is good to start from the direct affective reactions, because these are what first come to mind.
The teacher can use this to arouse interest and these evoked feelings also help in remembering things.
In this paper I shall not go into further details on this aspect. I refer readers to an excellent book by
Harlen and Qualter (2004). The book focuses on primary science but the principles given are also
applicable to secondary school. A good article by Yip (2004) is concerned with questioning for con-
ceptual change. The two publications, like most guides on science teaching, treat the cognitive aspects
of questioning, and only a few books include the affective domain, e.g. Steinberg (1976) and Knapp
(1992). The most vital thing in planning the use of pictures and other teaching material is the intended
teaching functions. Teaching functions also largely determine the questioning strategies.

Planning the teaching functions of pictures

According to Pozzer and Roth (2003) the functions of photographs in biology textbook are divided
into four classes: decorative, illustrative, explanatory, and complementary. The classification of Reid
(1990a) is much longer. The actual functions of pictures in classroom teaching are far more diverse,
and teachers vary these according to context, learning objectives, and target group. Unfortunately
authentic classroom studies on this question are missing.

Teachers select pictures for several educational purposes, which can be roughly divided into cognitive
(relating to the content) and affective (relating to the feelings and personal or social meanings). This
division is not clear-cut, because in many teaching acts the affective and cognitive functions fuse.
According to Hannus (1996) the main affective functions are to 1) evoke feelings suitable for lear-
ning, and 2) convey attitudes and values. The main cognitive functions are to 1) direct attention, 2)
make recall easier, and 3) increase understanding. Hannus believes that other proposed functions
are subdivisions or specifications of these five main functions. The list below is mainly adopted from
Hannus (1996), but some details are added from Reid (1990a) and Hatva (1987). This list should not
be considered as exhaustive and definitive, but rather as a tentative check list helping teachers in their
planning. It does not matter if different people understand it differently, since its main function is to
make a teacher’s actions more deliberate. A detailed analysis of these categories is beyond the scope
of this article and the reader is referred to the literature cited.

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A classification of teaching functions of pictures

Main affective functions
1) Motivation (Evoke feelings suitable for learning)
- Arouse interest
2) Direct attention (with picture design)
3) Convey attitudes and values (e.g. nature conservation)
4) Motivate action (e.g. avoid smoking)

Main cognitive functions

1) Direct attention (with semiotic resources)
2) Make it easier to recall things
- Repetition (in text and pictures)
3) Increase understanding
- Make matters more concrete
- Spatial orientation
- Give a new viewpoint on the matter (transformation in Reid)
- Give a possibility to see things that are remote or difficult to observe
- To show the main idea or generalization of the subject matter
- To show the relations of parts
- Help to create mental images
- Give supplementary information to the text
- Organize information (maps, charts, diagrams)
4. Applying knowledge

An application exercise
The next phase in the course was to apply the knowledge to a new situation through teamwork. Stu-
dents were divided into small groups and they were given a selection of textbooks, which were com-
bined science textbooks. They analyzed one picture according to the assignment instructions below.
The results were presented to the others and discussed together. This exercise summed up the course
unit and tied it to the teacher’s main professional skills. After one exemplary analysis (the snail pic-
ture) students could fairly easily apply the analysing principle to a whole range of different types of
pictures in combined science textbooks (physics, chemistry, biology, geography and health educa-
tion). Some student groups succeeded almost without help but others needed guidance. This was
partly dependent on the selected pictures, because the content and possible teaching functions were
more obvious in some pictures than in others. Each group presented their work and the results were
discussed together. Unfortunately the students’ works were not systematically collected and docu-
mented and there was also no follow-up study afterwards.

Student assignment
1. Choose one picture, which you think is good in teaching.
2. Analyze the picture by using the four-field method.
3. Choose and plan the main knowledge structure to be taught.
4. Choose and plan the teaching functions used with this picture.
5. Plan the questions for classroom discussion.

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A summary of some research findings to guide the student teacher in the use of pictures
in the classroom
The course unit ended with a short summary of important research findings on the effects of pictures
on learning. This was considered important because in many cases teachers’ thinking about the ef-
fect of pictures on learning is contrary to research findings (Cook, 2006). This was the case among
my students, too. These points were discussed together and in the majority of cases students’ prior
knowledge was false.

The content of this unit is given in other parts of the article, especially in the introduction. A very
important source was the review article by Cook (2006), where the most critical points are given in a
table. The length of this part of the course unit depended on the time available and the interests of the
students. This was conducted as a classroom discussion, where the emphasis was on the picture and
text (and teacher talk) interaction.

Discussion
Compared to reading comprehension of text, knowledge about learning from pictures is very limited
(e.g. Schlag & Ploetzner, 2011), which is why teachers’ ability to use pictures in teaching is poor and
the reading of pictures is rarely taught. There is a shortage of learning strategies for picture compre-
hension (Schlag & Ploetzner, 2011). Common sense thinking of teachers about pictures is also largely
contrary to research findings (Cook, 2006). Teaching from pictures is mostly done in the cognitive
framework only and affective and cultural domains are avoided. However, practically all illustra-
tions contain cultural aspects, something which is better understood in history, geography and social
sciences than in science teaching.

Phenomenological thinking about human experience is the starting point of this study. Phenome-
nology is considered a very difficult subject yet the basic principles are not very difficult to acquire,
although the conclusions are often contrary to everyday thinking. There is no single truth about phe-
nomenology and people can use their own ideas within this framework (Wagner 1983). Human expe-
rience is seen as a whole, bodily and multisensory. Experience is the humans interface to the world.
If we apply this principle to education, feelings and personal and social meanings should be treated
together with factual knowledge, because all these aspects are integrated in the memory. This bodily
foundation of the existence of human people is almost totally ignored by science educators, which
means for instance that intersubjectivity cannot be treated adequately (Sages & Szybek, 2000).

The idea of the method developed in this study has its origin in art history and aesthetics, from where
it was adapted, for instance, to human geography. The three-layer analysis (objective, subjective and
representational layers) of seeing by Karjalainen and Raivo (1995) is very helpful and widely applica-
ble. I have used it with my students for studying urban and rural places, landscapes, buildings, interi-
ors and photographs. The students adopted it fairly easily, although this kind of thinking was new to
them. In this article a somewhat more complicated four-field analytical tool is given to promote the
meaningful reading of pictures and to help to plan the use of pictures in teaching. There are two di-
chotomies in the four-field: direct / indirect and cognitive / affective observations. For the best result
all the aspects shown in the four-field method should be integrated. This calls for more integration
between science and other school subjects.

With the four-field method I also want to stress the importance of the affective domain as equal to the
cognitive domain in science teaching. It connects emotions and personal and social meanings to fac-
tual knowledge and knowledge structures. In this way it is easier to make learning personally mean-
ingful and increase the possibility of more lasting knowledge structures. This principle is shared by
several alternative educational movements: e.g. confluent education (Brown, 1971; Steinberg, 1976),
holistic education (Miller, Cassie, & Drake, 1990) and humanistic education (Knapp & Goodman,

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1983; Knapp, 1992). These affective teaching methods have always remained marginal but I would
like to revive these ideas. Research is needed to reveal the effect of affective approaches on recalling
and comprehension. To my mind this approach is also in harmony with the Science, Technology,
and Society (STS)-approach in science education, which puts emphasis on decision making and the
consequences of science and technology issues for social (and personal) affairs (e.g. Mansour, 2009).

Pictures can be used for a multitude of purposes in teaching. These purposes can be divided into cog-
nitive and affective, of which the latter slightly prevail. This paper gives a classification of the teaching
functions of pictures. To make teaching from pictures more effective teachers should be aware of
the educational purposes of using the picture. These purposes guide the classroom discussion. The
presented list should be considered tentative, because authentic classroom research on this subject is
missing. I hope that this article will encourage teacher educators to study this question further.

I think that the most important benefit of the four-field method is that it helps the teacher to plan
teaching in several ways. It clarifies many aspects of the pictures as well as of the text. It helps, for
example, to clarify the content and picture – text interaction, to foresee the emotional reactions of
students, to reveal the possible connections of the content to personal and social issues, to structure
the lesson and to plan discussion questions. In short, it helps the teacher to see natural connections
between pedagogy and the content.

When I used and developed this method for over a decade, students were usually enthusiastic. After
the lesson they often remained behind for comments and discussion and said that this was something
new and very interesting to them. Unfortunately the effectiveness of the method was not tested, and I
hope that someone else would do it. One reason was that it was only afterwards that I had the oppor-
tunity to learn the theoretical foundations of phenomenology.

The four-field method is supposed to be a tool for the teacher and I have not used it with pupils, al-
though the simpler three-layer method might be suitable for pupil use. These methods can be used
in the way I have done, but I hope that this article will encourage teachers and teacher educators to
develop their own methods and report them. It should be remembered that the method I present here
is only one of the endlessly possible ways of looking at pictures, which suggests that only unstable and
fragmentary structures can be found. It is impossible to form a coherent theory of pictures (Mitchell,
1995, p. 420).

Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. Tiina Silander, head of the Department of Teacher Education, University of Jy-
väskylä, for offering me working facilities after retirement. I also thank prof. Jouni Viiri for useful
criticism and encouragement.

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