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Teaching of Psychology
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The Use of Visuals in Undergraduate ª The Author(s) 2021

Neuroscience Education: Recommendations Article reuse guidelines:

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for Educators DOI: 10.1177/00986283211000326

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Qendresa Sahiti1 and Jennifer A. Stamp1

Abstract
Introduction: There is a history of overlap between art and science education, particularly in anatomy and other related medical
specialties. Technological advances have increased exposure to visual images and creation and sharing of image-based content is
commonplace. Statement of the Problem: The use of visual content and activities in education typically declines after early
childhood, after which most teaching and learning relies heavily on text-based curricula. Incorporating visual content into edu-
cation makes optimal use of human cognition; visual and verbal processing channels can operate independently, so using both
allows for dual coding and enhanced memory. Literature Review: In this paper, we review the literature on the use of visual
techniques in teaching undergraduate neuroscience. Teaching Implications: Image-based content can offer learners an
additional cognitive resource and also engage English language learners and those with reading challenges, which might not benefit
as much from a solely text-based approach. Conclusion: We recommend educators consider the use of (1) learner-generated
drawing, (2) 3-D modeling, and (3) infographics to improve learning outcomes among undergraduate neuroscience students. We
provide resources and practical suggestions for implementing the aforementioned techniques.

Keywords
visual literacy, drawing, infographic, 3D model, neuroscience education

Smartphones and computers have made creating and sharing It proposes that we have we have distinct neural “channels” for
pictures and videos easy with the widespread use of GIFs, processing these types of information. Using both of these
animations, and emoticons to enhance text-based communica- channels to learn new material leads to better comprehension
tion. Some social media platforms are designed to facilitate than using either one alone. Mayer and Anderson (1992) fur-
image-sharing; the popularity of social media platforms Insta- ther supported Clark and Paivio’s (1991) dual coding theory in
gram and Snapchat highlight this. The power and influence of their experiments investigating problem solving ability and
images for conveying meaning has emphasized the importance retention of the mechanics of a bicycle tire pump or automobile
of visual literacy, which can be understood as “an evolving brakes among students who were given animations or narra-
concept best defined as the ability to think and learn in terms tions alone, animations and narrations simultaneously, or no
of images” (Kaplan & Mifflin, 1996, p. 107). For example, a instructions at all. Participants presented with animations and
McIntosh apple missing a bite automatically triggers an asso- narrations performed best on tests of problem-solving ability.
ciation with the Apple brand. This single image conjures up Their study demonstrated the efficacy of employing multime-
thoughts of the company history, product value and cost. As dia in teaching increases when words and pictures are presented
such, marketing has effectively adopted the use of visual ima- concurrently (Mayer & Anderson, 1992).
gery to convey large amounts of information to consumers Using visuals in content delivery supports learning for stu-
(Manic, 2015). However, simply being exposed to visual infor- dents with reading difficulties, particularly dyslexia (Lyon
mation does not guarantee visual literacy (Brumberger, 2011).
As such, visual literacy education is important to develop skills
1
required for comprehending information presented in our Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
visual-based world. Canada
Educators have an opportunity to explicitly teach visual
Corresponding Author:
literacy skills to capitalize on the benefits of visual learning. Jennifer A. Stamp, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie
Clark and Paivio’s (1991) dual coding theory highlights the University, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4R2.
benefits of using visual in conjunction with verbal information. Email: [email protected]
2 Teaching of Psychology XX(X)

et al., 2003). Despite their challenges with text-based informa- representations of anatomy, surgical techniques, and neurolo-
tion, individuals with dyslexia have superior visuospatial abil- gical disorders by these early physicians and artists have served
ities, particularly in visual comparisons and holistic as a powerful educational tool for aiding the understanding of
visuospatial processing (Schneps et al., 2007; von Károlyi those seeking to learn more about the mechanisms of the ner-
et al., 2003). Thus, the use of visual information may be a vous system and the mind (Geranmayeh & Ashkan, 2008; Lor-
powerful tool to engage these learners that might otherwise usso, 2008).
become alienated in the text-based environments of main- Most Introductory Psychology textbooks show Wilder Pen-
stream schooling. field’s body maps of the motor and somatosensory cortices,
Visual learning can also aid English language learners in most commonly displayed as body parts superimposed upon
their understanding of course material, as visual elements can their corresponding areas of cortex. 3D sculptures created from
provide contextual information from which to infer meaning these maps to show the distortion of the body’s representation
(Rousseau & Tan, 1993). Visuals allow learners to employ the in the brain and are amongst the most recognizable images in
dual coding theory to visualize the abstractions of language. the undergraduate neuroscience teaching (Griggs, 1988).
Gersten and Baker (2000) note that because of the fleeting Despite the widespread use of these famous images as teaching
nature of the spoken word, visualizations like mind-maps, gra- tools, there are few experimental studies on the use of visually
phic organizers, story maps, and word banks allow learners to presented information in teaching undergraduate neuroscience
increase their understanding of words by allowing them to (Arantes et al., 2018; Chudler & Konrady, 2006). The objective
pause, process, and reflect on the meaning. The visual nature of this paper is to review the available research on visual neu-
of IKEA furniture instructions provides a salient example of the roscience education to argue for the application of visual learn-
use of visuals to communicate ideas across different languages. ing techniques in the teaching of undergraduate neuroscience.
Visuals are especially effective in the teaching and learning Specifically, we recommend that educators implement (1)
of scientific information (Bobek & Tversky, 2016; Stein & learner-generated drawings, (2) 3-D modeling, and (3) info-
Power, 1996; Van Meter & Garner, 2005). Significant learning graphics in the teaching of undergraduate neuroscience courses
gains have been demonstrated with the use of visually based to increase understanding and promote active learning.
learning modules in chemistry and geology (Dangur et al., Visual learning techniques easily allow for students to use
2014; Gagnier et al., 2017). Gurnon et al. (2013) argued that active, rather than passive, strategies for learning science (Chi,
blending art and science creates a unique opportunity to foster 2009; Freeman et al., 2014; Michael, 2006). Active learning
curiosity and a motivation to learn about science in university involves participation in activities that encourage learners to
students who would be otherwise less engaged in “pure” sci- critically reflect on information (Collins & O’Brien, 2003). The
ence courses. In addition, the science, technology, engineering, advantages of active learning in undergraduate teaching are
art, and math (STEAM) initiative proposes that art should be supported by a meta-analysis of 225 studies showing better
integrated into math and science to provide the essential crea- performance on assessments and lower failure rates in under-
tivity and innovation piece required to transition concepts and graduate STEM courses when active learning practices were
ideas into applicable real-world settings (Land, 2013). Nobel employed (Freeman et al, 2014). Active learning strategies
laureates, the greatest scientists in their respective fields, are used in these studies varied widely, so it is not possible to
more likely to engage in artistic pursuits than other scientists, assess if visual learning techniques specifically enhanced stu-
suggesting that artistic ability and creativity may promote the dent performance. However, techniques such as learner-
innovative ways of thinking that lead to academic success and generated drawings necessarily involve more learner action
scientific breakthrough (Root-Bernstein et al., 2008). Integrat- than a traditional didactic lecture and are therefore more enga-
ing science and arts benefits science learning by leveraging the ging. In fact, Poh et al. (2010) showed that arousal, measured
curiosity and creativity of artistic ways of thinking. via skin conductance, dips substantially during lectures com-
Historically, medical specialties like neurology and neuro- pared to other activities such as laboratory work or independent
surgery have relied on the visual presentation of the complex- study.
ities of the nervous system through drawing or painting Active learning works by allowing the learner to construct
(Geranmayeh & Ashkan, 2008; Lorusso, 2008). Physicians meaning through mental modeling of concepts by integrating
specializing in these neuroscience-focused fields were required new information with previous knowledge (Michael, 2006).
to possess some artistic ability. Furthermore, some of the most These mental models can include visual components as well
prominent artists in history, like Michelangelo and Leonardo as language-based explanations. Chi (2009) distinguishes this
DaVinci, engaged in human dissection and depicted their direct act of constructive learning from active learning. Active learn-
observations through art. The Creation of Adam by Michelan- ing involves engaging the learner’s attention by encouraging
gelo, arguably one of the most famous art works of all time, can them to do something physical while learning, while construc-
be interpreted as a coded representation of the brain and parts tive learning takes active learning a step further by encouraging
of the nervous system (Meshberger, 1990). In addition, carica- individuals to produce output that goes beyond the information
tures of neurological conditions and facial expressions were initially provided. Interactive learning goes even further by
used to convey the physical manifestations of illness and encouraging collaboration with other people or systems which
how the mind expressed emotion (Lorusso, 2008). Visual can provide learning opportunities through exposure to
Sahiti and Stamp 3

differing perspectives. Interactive activities are better for learn- Because drawing is accessible and easy to implement, much
ing than constructive activities, which in turn are superior to of the research on the use of visuals in neuroscience education
active activities. Engagement in active learning in STEM (sci- has focused on this tool. Slominski et al. (2017) conducted a
ence, technology, engineering, and math) disciplines increases study in which they asked undergraduate neurophysiology stu-
examination performance, particularly in small classes. (Free- dents to draw and label representations of synaptic signaling,
man et al., 2014). which was helpful in revealing gaps in knowledge that could
then be more specifically targeted by subsequent interventions.
An earlier study by Hay et al. (2013) asked individuals at
Recommendations various stages in academia (undergraduate to principal inves-
tigator) to draw a neuron and subsequently had a different
Learner-Generated Drawing group sort the drawings based on the creator’s experience level
Active and constructive learning can be incorporated into neu- and not the quality of the drawings. They found that under-
roscience education through drawing. Scientists practice draw- graduate students’ drawings were more likely to resemble text-
ing daily through data visualization, experimental design, and book representations of neurons, while expert drawings were
science communication (Ainsworth et al., 2011). Drawing is a more simplistic and naturalistic, perhaps reflecting the experts’
constructive activity that requires the student to organize their own thoughts and hypotheses about neurons. After they incor-
background knowledge to create a cohesive visual representa- porated an intervention to make students physically act out the
tion. While engaging in drawing, learners are using a variety of mechanism of a neuron, the undergraduate students’ drawings
learning processing simultaneously (Wu & Rau, 2019). Draw- began to resemble the experts’ depictions.
ing activates verbal and text-based representations of a con- Educators could incorporate learner-generated drawings
cept, which must then be mapped on to visual representations, into the teaching of neuroscience, especially where neuroanat-
thereby activating the dual coding process previously shown to omy and physiology are involved. Neurons are the building
aid learning (Clark & Paivio, 1991). The accuracy of learner- blocks of the nervous system, so understanding their structure
generated drawings is predictive of performance, indicating and function is fundamental knowledge in neuroscience. There
that drawings serve to confirm or facilitate comprehension, are several ways to incorporate neuron drawings in an under-
or both (Van Meter & Garner, 2005). Drawing also facilitates graduate curriculum, depending upon the nature of the class. If
model-based reasoning, helps students become better writers, a class allows for tutorial time, a drawing of a single neuron
and increases affect and motivation for science learning (Ains- could be used as a formative assessment to determine students’
worth et al., 2011; Quillin & Thomas, 2015; Van Meter & understanding of neuronal structure. A drawing can be assessed
Garner, 2005). However, simply instructing students to draw quickly by an instructor or teaching assistant and provides
without clarifying what or how to draw may be insufficient opportunity for incorporation of feedback. This approach can
(Van Meter & Garner, 2005). For optimal application of be scaffolded so that once the structure of a single neuron is
learner-generated drawing, educators should provide support mastered, the next formative assessment could focus on how
and adequate instruction. two neurons form a circuit. Similar learner-generated drawings
Evidence supporting drawing as a powerful learning tool could then be used as summative assessments, although would
shows that it alters the brain and improves memory. One study require manual grading. If auto-grading is the only option (e.g.,
investigated the impact of post-retirement activities on the sta- multiple choice exams for large class enrollments), students
bilization of well-being and development of associated neural could answer questions based upon a neuron image to demon-
networks (Bolwerk et al., 2014). They showed that producing strate their knowledge. Images have better resolution in an
art during a 10-week visual art class resulted in greater func- online environment compared to traditional paper exams, and
tional connectivity between the frontal and parietal cortices to colour can be used effectively without the added cost of colour
the posterior cingulate cortex compared to participants who printing.
only cognitively evaluated art (Bolwerk et al., 2014). This The class sizes of many first-year courses at larger post-
change in functional connectivity was associated with psycho- secondary institutions usually rely upon automated exam grad-
logical stress resilience. Drawing has also been associated with ing, which makes it challenging to incorporate drawing-based
improvements in memory when compared to writing; when assessments. The Introduction to Psychology and Neuroscience
participants are asked to draw or write words, those in the course at our own university has an enrollment of 1000 stu-
drawing condition perform better on a memory task (Wammes dents, so we encouraged neuron drawings with an art contest.
et al., 2018). Older adults seem to be more sensitive to the The Neuron Art Battle is a voluntary bonus activity that
memory benefits of drawing, but these findings hold true across requires students to submit an original drawing of two neurons
different measures of memory for adults of all ages (Meade communicating for a chance to win a small prize (see Figure 1
et al., 2018). Interestingly, even the practice of preparing to for a student example). A large class can produce a large num-
draw benefits memory through engagement of the elaborative ber of submissions, but it takes little time to assess errors in an
processes required to generate a drawing (Wammes et al., image, and common misconceptions can be communicated to
2018). the class as a whole. For a complete description of the Neuron
4 Teaching of Psychology XX(X)

Figure 1. A winning student submission for the Neuron Art Battle in the Introduction to Psychology and Neuroscience class at Dalhousie
University. Students were instructed to hand draw a depiction of two neurons communicating to submit in a class-wide contest for a chance
to win a prize.

Art Battle and lesson materials, including a grading rubric and be manipulated to model neurophysiological processes (Chu-
student instructions, see Stamp (2021, February, 15). dler & Konrady, 2006). These models can be used as study aids
Students are incentivized to deepen their understanding of or as methods of evaluation graded through a rubric.
the relationship between structure and function by creating a Digital 3-D modeling has emerged as an effective visualiza-
drawing that is not only anatomically correct, but also shows tion tool for teaching neuroscience, and neuroanatomy in par-
how the structures work together to facilitate synaptic trans- ticular (Arantes et al., 2018). Most of what we know about the
mission. Furthermore, interactive tasks that require students to internal structures of the human brain is based upon anatomical
work together to represent a neuroscience concept through analysis of 2-D brain slices, either from post-mortem samples
drawing facilitate collaboration and reflection through discus- or neuroimaging. The use of digital 3-D modeling tools
sion and strengthen comprehension. Students may also start by improves understanding of neural structures and leads to better
creating individual drawings and then later group together to test scores, compared the use of cadaveric anatomical models
discuss similarities and differences. Educators could also (Allen et al., 2016; Drapkin et al., 2015). The benefits of digital
encourage the use of learner-generated drawings outside of 3-D models appear to be independent of students’ previous
class as active studying tools. visuospatial abilities (Ruisoto Palomera et al., 2014). There-
fore, viewing and manipulating 3-D models is a strategy that
has great potential for use by all students regardless of their
3-D Modeling prior abilities.
Physical 3-D models of the brain help students visualize the Digital 3-D models are an accessible and affordable option
complex arrangements of brain structures and their relation- for learners and educators, since initiatives like Brainfacts.org,
ships with one another (Estevez et al., 2010). The ability to HumanBrainProject.eu, and TheBrainObservatory.org allow
physically manipulate a 3-D rendering of a brain is associated manipulation of anatomically accurate 3-D human brain mod-
with higher test scores on questions requiring 3-D mental rota- els for free (see Figure 2). These online platforms allow sophis-
tion (Estevez et al., 2010). Neuroscience educators can encour- ticated views of the nervous system that include detailed views
age learners to use clay and other household items like pipe from multiple perspectives. One simple way to incorporate 3-D
cleaners and beads to create labeled and colour-coded repre- brain models is by using them in classroom lectures by project-
sentations of the brain, neurons, or other sense organs that can ing onscreen and manipulating them live, which would provide
Sahiti and Stamp 5

faster than grading written text answers. This activity could

also be altered for auto-grading, so that students are given
anatomical directions and must “hunt” for an image that
matches one from several options. Although this may be cum-
bersome on a traditional paper-based exam, this approach
works well in an online learning environment. For a complete
description of a neuroanatomy treasure hunt activity, student
and teacher instructions, and a sample grading rubric, see
Stamp (2021a, February 6).

Infographics
Although the use of infographics in neuroscience specifically
has not been studied to date, infographics are effective tools for
engaging both learners and educators in the modern science
classroom (Fadzil, 2018). Infographics are visualizations of
data and information that convey a message in a concise, clear,
and aesthetic fashion. They use graphs, charts, diagrams, icons,
and pictures to weave a narrative about the data and clarify the
“big picture” of a concept that may be difficult to grasp (Lamb
& Johnson, 2014). Infographics promote greater academic
achievement and learners believe that they also improve reten-
tion and comprehension of material, increase positive affect
and confidence, and promote the acquisition of life skills (Sha-
bak Arlwele, 2017). When students in an online post-secondary
course were provided with instructor-created summary info-
graphics, they stated that both comprehension and retention
of course material were improved, and that the infographics
served as a useful content summarization and reminder (Elena
Gallagher et al., 2017). Fadzil (2018) found that pre-service
science teachers that engaged in an infographic creation assign-
ment not only perceived it as a meaningful experience, but also
felt that their own conceptual science knowledge was
increased. This provides evidence for the potential of info-
graphics to engage educators as well as learners.
Neuroscience educators could adopt the use of infographics
in their teaching to help explain intricate studies and concepts.
The complexities of the nervous system have led to a
“neurophobia” among some learners who believe their neu-
roscience knowledge to be insufficient (Abulaban et al.,
Figure 2. Screenshots of an online 3-D model of a human brain from 2015). Infographics could be a tool to dispel some of this
different perspectives, obtained for free at Brainfacts.org (Society for neurophobia, particularly in first-year or lower-level courses
Neuroscience, 2017). where understanding the “big picture” of scientific concepts
and literature is emphasized. Learners could be tasked with
learners with dual streams of verbal and visual information. creating infographics for assessment, either in groups or alone,
Educators could incorporate manipulation of 3-D brain models which would encourage them to work together to critically
into online learning modules and assignments, like a brain analyze, condense, and accurately pictorially represent content.
treasure hunt. Large structures like the hippocampus change This would work particularly well in teaching neuroanatomy,
in size, shape, and position along the anterior-posterior extent which is an inherently visual topic. Alternatively, instructors
of the brain. A 2-D section through the brain will show a could provide learners with infographics to supplement their
different perspective of this structure depending upon the plane understanding of concepts or literature (see Figure 3). By being
of orientation. Students can manipulate 3-D brain models exposed to both the complete work and the low-text, condensed
according to specific neuroanatomical directions and submit infographic version, learners could use these pairs as models
an image of the hippocampus from a specific perspective, for how to effectively summarize and condense literature. A
demonstrating their knowledge of terms and structures. This final advantage for the use of infographic assignments is their
would require manual grading, but this type of grading is much accessibility. There are several user-friendly online programs
6 Teaching of Psychology XX(X)

We have recommended that neuroscience educators employ

the use of learner-generated drawing (Ainsworth et al., 2011;
Hay et al., 2013; Quillin & Thomas, 2015; Slominski et al.,
2017; Van Meter & Gardner, 2005; Wu & Rau, 2019), 3-D
modeling (Allen et al., 2016; Arantes et al., 2018; Chudler &
Konrady, 2006; Drapkin et al., 2015; Estevez et al., 2010;
Ruisoto Palomera et al., 2014), and infographics (Elena Galla-
gher et al., 2017; Fadzil, 2018; Shabak Arlwele, 2017) in their
instruction to improve student learning. Neuroscience educa-
tors should continue the practice of ancient neuroanatomists
and neuroscientists of embracing the complimentary nature
of art and neuroscience by using the recommendations outlined
in this paper.

Authors’ Note
Qendresa Sahiti is now at the Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie Univer-
sity, Halifax, NS, Canada.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Molly Wells for allowing us to include her
Neuron Art Battle submission. More of her work can be found at
mollywellsart.ca. We are also grateful to the Society for Neuroscience
for allowing us to use their images and to Dr. Steven Dukeshire for
helpful comments on the manuscript.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Open Practices
Figure 3. Example infographic that outlines the methodology and
main findings of a neuroscience paper discussed in lecture for Intro-
duction to Psychology and Neuroscience students at our university This article has received badge for Open Materials. More information
(Woollett & Maguire, 2011). Educators can provide learners with about the Open Practices badges can be found at http://www.psycho
similar infographics to aid in their understanding or assign learners logicalscience.org/publications/badges.
to create infographics of their own.
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