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Historical observations
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Orbit and rotation
Habitability and search for life
Moons
Exploration
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In culture
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Mars
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Mars
regular Bayer filter[1]
Designations
Alternative names the Red Planet
Adjectives Martian
Orbital characteristics[6]
Epoch J2000
Aphelion 249261000 km
(154884000 mi; 1.66621 AU)[2]
Perihelion 206650000 km
(128410000 mi; 1.3814 AU)[2]
(141634956 mi; 1.52368055 AU)[3]
Eccentricity 0.0934[2]
(1.88085 yr; 668.5991 sols)[2]
(2.1354 yr)[3]
(86700 km/h; 53800 mph)[2]
1.850° to ecliptic
Inclination
5.65° to Sun's equator
1.63° to invariable plane[4]
Longitude of 49.57854°[2]
ascending node
Satellites 2
Physical characteristics
(2106.1 ± 0.1 mi)
Equatorial radius 3396.2 ± 0.1 km[a] [7]
Polar radius 3376.2 ± 0.1 km[a] [7]
Flattening 0.00589±0.00015[5][7]
Volume 1.63118×1011 km3[9]
(0.151 Earths)
Mass 6.4171×1023 kg[10]
(0.107 Earths)
Mean density 3.9335 g/cm3[9]
(0.1421 lb/cu in)
(12.2072 ft/s2; 0.3794 g)
(18100 km/h; 11250 mph)[12]
24h 39m 36s
24h 37m 22.7s[9]
(870 km/h; 540 mph)[2]
21h 10m 44s
North pole declination 52.88650°[7]
Albedo 0.170 geometric[14]
0.25 Bond[2]
temperature)[15]
Surface equivalent 27 μSv/h[19]
dose rate
Atmosphere[2][20]
0.00628 atm
1.93% argon
1.89% nitrogen
0.146% oxygen
0.0557% carbon monoxide
0.0210% water vapor
Historical observations
Main article: History of Mars observation
The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars when the
planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of
years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars, which are distinguished
because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth. [29]
Ancient and medieval observations
The ancient Sumerians named Mars Nergal, the god of war and plague. During
Sumerian times, Nergal was a minor deity of little significance, but, during later times,
his main cult center was the city of Nineveh.[30] In Mesopotamian texts, Mars is referred
to as the "star of judgement of the fate of the dead." [31] The existence of Mars as a
wandering object in the night sky was also recorded by the ancient Egyptian
astronomers and, by 1534 BCE, they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the
planet.[32] By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were
making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of
their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods, or 42
circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. They invented arithmetic methods for making
minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. [33][34] In Ancient Greece, the
planet was known as Πυρόεις.[35] Commonly, the Greek name for the planet now referred
to as Mars, was Ares. It was the Romans who named the planet Mars, for their god of
war, often represented by the sword and shield of the planet's namesake. [36]
In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon
during an occultation, indicating that the planet was farther away.[37] Ptolemy, a Greek
living in Alexandria,[38] attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars.
Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-
volume collection later called the Almagest (from the Arabic for "greatest"), which
became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries.
[39]
Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese
astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE.[40] In the East Asian cultures, Mars
is traditionally referred to as the "fire star" (Chinese: 火星), based on
the Wuxing system.[41][42][43]
During the seventeenth century A.D., Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of
Mars that Johannes Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative
distance to the planet.[44] From Brahe's observations of Mars, Kepler deduced that the
planet orbited the Sun not in a circle, but in an ellipse. Moreover, Kepler showed that
Mars sped up as it approached the Sun and slowed down as it moved farther away, in a
manner that later physicists would explain as a consequence of the conservation of
angular momentum.[45]: 433–437 When the telescope became available, the diurnal parallax of
Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was
first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. The early parallax
measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments. [46] The
only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of 13 October 1590, seen
by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg.[47] In 1610, Mars was viewed by Italian
astronomer Galileo Galilei, who was first to see it via telescope.[48] The first person to
draw a map of Mars that displayed any terrain features was the Dutch
astronomer Christiaan Huygens.[49]
Martian "canals"
Main article: Martian canals
By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface
features to be identified. On 5 September 1877, a perihelic opposition of Mars occurred.
The Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22-centimetre (8.7 in) telescope
in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained
features he called canali, which were later shown to be an optical illusion.
These canali were supposedly long, straight lines on the surface of Mars, to which he
gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means "channels" or "grooves",
was popularly mistranslated in English as "canals". [50][51]
Influenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an
observatory which had 30- and 45-centimetre (12- and 18-in) telescopes. The
observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in
1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars
and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. [52][53] The canali were
independently observed by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis
Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time. [54][55]
The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark
areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals led to speculation
about life on Mars, and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and
vegetation. As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed.
During observations in 1909 by Antoniadi with an 84-centimetre (33 in) telescope,
irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.[56]
Physical characteristics
Comparison: Earth and Mars
Animation (00:40) showing major features of Mars
Video (01:28) showing how three NASA orbiters mapped the gravity field of Mars
Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth, with a surface area only slightly less
than the total area of Earth's dry land.[2] Mars is less dense than Earth, having about
15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's
surface gravity. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by ferric
oxide, or rust.[57] It can look like butterscotch;[58] other common surface colors include
golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on the minerals present.[58]
Internal structure
Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense
materials.[59][60] Current models of its interior imply a core consisting primarily of iron and
nickel with about 16–17% sulfur.[61] This iron(II) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich
in lighter elements as Earth's.[62] The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed
many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but it appears to be dormant.
Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in the
Martian crust are iron, magnesium, aluminium, calcium, and potassium. The average
thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 kilometres (31 mi), with a maximum thickness
of 125 kilometres (78 mi).[62] By comparison, Earth's crust averages 40 kilometres (25 mi)
in thickness.[63][64]
Mars is seismically active. In 2019, it was reported that InSight (now offline) had
detected and recorded over 450 marsquakes and related events.[65][66] In 2021 it was
reported that based on eleven low-frequency marsquakes detected by
the InSight lander the core of Mars was indeed liquid and had a radius of
about 1830±40 km and a temperature around 1900–2000 K. The Martian core radius is
abnormally large, accounting for more than half the radius of Mars and about half the
size of the Earth's core. To this, it has been suggested that the core contains some
amount of lighter elements like oxygen and hydrogen in addition to the iron–nickel alloy
and about 15% of sulfur.[67][68]
The core of Mars is overlaid by the rocky mantle, which does not seem to have a
thermally insulating layer analogous to the Earth's lower mantle.[68] The Martian mantle
appears to be solid down to the depth of about 500 km, where the low-velocity
zone (partially melted asthenosphere) begins.[69] Below the asthenosphere the velocity of
seismic waves starts to grow again; and at the depth of about 1050 km lies the
boundary of the transition zone extending down to the core.[68]
Surface geology
Main article: Geology of Mars
Curiosity's view of Martian soil and boulders after crossing the "Dingo Gap" sand dune
The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and
containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine. These
nutrients are found in soils on Earth. They are necessary for growth of plants.
[89]
Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of
7.7, and contains 0.6% of the salt perchlorate,[90][91] concentrations that are toxic to
humans.[92][93]
Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of
craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. The
streaks can start in a tiny area, then spread out for hundreds of metres. They have been
seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly
accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after
avalanches of bright dust or dust devils.[94] Several other explanations have been put
forward, including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms. [95][96]
Hydrology
Main article: Water on Mars
Martian plain covered by water ice, precipitated through adhering to dry ice, observed by Viking 2 lander
Proportion of water ice present in the upper meter of the Martian surface for lower (top) and higher (bottom)
latitudes
Water in its liquid form cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric
pressure, which is less than 1% that of Earth, [22] except at the lowest of elevations for
short periods.[60][97] The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water. [24][25] The
volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be enough to cover the
entire surface of the planet with a depth of 11 metres (36 ft).[98] Large quantities of ice are
thought to be trapped within the thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from Mars
Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) show large quantities of ice at
both poles,[99][100] and at middle latitudes.[101] The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice
in shallow Martian soil on 31 July 2008.[102]
Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's
surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across
the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by
the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these
structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava. [103][104] One
of the larger examples, Ma'adim Vallis, is 700 kilometres (430 mi) long, much greater
than the Grand Canyon, with a width of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and a depth of 2
kilometres (1.2 mi) in places. It is thought to have been carved by flowing water early in
Mars's history.[105] The youngest of these channels are thought to have formed only a few
million years ago.[106] Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian surface,
finer-scale, dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the
landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution strongly imply that they were
carved by runoff resulting from precipitation in early Mars history. Subsurface water flow
and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks, but
precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases. [107]
Along crater and canyon walls, there are thousands of features that appear similar to
terrestrial gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the Southern Hemisphere
and to face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude. A number of authors have
suggested that their formation process involves liquid water, probably from melting ice,
[108][109]
although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide
frost or the movement of dry dust.[110][111] No partially degraded gullies have formed by
weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that
these are young features, possibly still active.[109] Other geological features, such
as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters, are further evidence for warmer, wetter
conditions at an interval or intervals in earlier Mars history. [112] Such conditions
necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of
the surface, for which there is independent mineralogical, sedimentological and
geomorphological evidence.[113] Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the
surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such
as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. [114]
Polar caps
Main article: Martian polar ice caps
North polar early summer water ice cap (1999); a seasonal layer of carbon dioxide ice forms in winter and
disappears in summer.
South polar midsummer ice cap (2000); the south cap has a permanent carbon dioxide ice cap covered with
water ice.[115]
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous
darkness, chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25–30% of the atmosphere
into slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice).[116] When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the
frozen CO2 sublimes. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water
vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were
photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.[117]
The caps at both poles consist primarily (70% [citation needed]) of water ice. Frozen carbon
dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north
cap in the northern winter only, whereas the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover
about eight metres thick. This permanent dry ice cover at the south pole is peppered
by flat floored, shallow, roughly circular pits, which repeat imaging shows are expanding
in some places and retreating in others. [118] The northern polar cap has a diameter of
about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi),[119] and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres
(5.7×1016 cu ft) of ice, which, if spread evenly on the cap, would be 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)
thick.[120] (This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres (1.01×1017 cu ft) for
the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 kilometres
(220 mi) and a thickness of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi).[121] The total volume of ice in the south
polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km.
[122]
Both polar caps show spiral troughs, which recent analysis of SHARAD ice
penetrating radar has shown are a result of katabatic winds that spiral due to
the Coriolis effect.[123][124]
The seasonal frosting of areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of
transparent 1-metre-thick slabs of dry ice above the ground. With the arrival of spring,
sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO 2 builds up under a slab,
elevating and ultimately rupturing it. This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas
mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust. This process is rapid, observed happening in the
space of a few days, weeks or months, a rate of change rather unusual in geology –
especially for Mars. The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a
spiderweb-like pattern of radial channels under the ice, the process being the inverted
equivalent of an erosion network formed by water draining through a single plughole. [125]
[126]
A cross-section of underground water ice is exposed at the steep slope that appears bright blue in this
enhanced-color view from the MRO.
Mars without a dust storm in June 2001 (on left) and with a global dust storm in July 2001 (on right), as seen by
Mars Global Surveyor
Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due
to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the Martian seasons
are about twice those of Earth's because Mars's greater distance from the Sun leads to
the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary
from lows of about −110 °C (−166 °F) to highs of up to 35 °C (95 °F) in equatorial
summer.[17] The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot
store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of
Martian soil.[211] The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just
43% of the amount of sunlight.[212][213]
If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial
tilt is similar to Earth's. The comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a
significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere
and winter in the north, and near aphelion when it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere
and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere are
more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the
case. The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than the equivalent
summer temperatures in the north by up to 30 °C (54 °F).[214]
Mars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System, reaching speeds of over
160 km/h (100 mph). These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms
that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and
have been shown to increase the global temperature. [215]
Dust storms on Mars
18 November 2012
25 November 2012
6 June 2018[216]
29 September 2022
Locations of the Opportunity and Curiosity rovers are noted.
Mars's average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (143 million mi), and its
orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer
than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. [217] A Martian year is
equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours. [2]
The axial tilt of Mars is 25.19° relative to its orbital plane, which is similar to the axial tilt
of Earth.[2] As a result, Mars has seasons like Earth, though on Mars they are nearly
twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer. In the present day epoch,
the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb.[20]
Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other
planets in the Solar System, only Mercury has a larger orbital eccentricity. It is known
that in the past, Mars has had a much more circular orbit. At one point, 1.35 million
Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth
today.[218] Mars's cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to Earth's cycle of
100,000 years.[219]
Mars approaches Earth in a synodic period of 779.94 days. Earth orbits the Sun the
closest to Mars's orbit around the Sun, and Mars orbit is the second closest to Earth
after the orbit of Venus. Therefore, their closest approaches, the inferior conjunctions,
are the second closest for Earth after those with Venus, and the closest for Mars to any
other planet. The gravitational potential difference, and thus the delta-v
needed to transfer between Mars and Earth is the second lowest for Earth and the
lowest for Mars to any other planet, while transfers can possibly be optimized with
Venus flybys.[220][221]
During the late nineteenth century, it was widely accepted in the astronomical
community that Mars had life-supporting qualities, including the presence of oxygen and
water.[222] However, in 1894 W. W. Campbell at Lick Observatory observed the planet
and found that "if water vapor or oxygen occur in the atmosphere of Mars it is in
quantities too small to be detected by spectroscopes then available". [222] That observation
contradicted many of the measurements of the time and was not widely accepted.
[222]
Campbell and V. M. Slipher repeated the study in 1909 using better instruments, but
with the same results. It wasn't until the findings were confirmed by W. S. Adams in
1925 that the myth of the Earth-like habitability of Mars was finally broken. [222] However,
even in the 1960s, articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside
explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for
the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem were being published as
late as 1962.[223]
The current understanding of planetary habitability – the ability of a world to develop
environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life – favors planets that have
liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within
the habitable zone, which for the Sun is estimated to extend from within the orbit of
Earth to about that of Mars.[224] During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's
thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for
extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for
habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may
have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life. [225]
The environmental conditions on Mars are a challenge to sustaining organic life: the
planet has little heat transfer across its surface, it has poor insulation
against bombardment by the solar wind due to the absence of a magnetosphere and
has insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water
instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically
dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and
minerals between the surface and interior of the planet. [226]
Scoop of Mars soil by Curiosity, October 2012
Estimated surface radiation dosage map in rem on a colour scale of 0.027 to 0.055 rem per day (a rem is
10 millisievert)
Moons
Main articles: Moons of Mars, Phobos (moon), and Deimos (moon)
Enhanced-color HiRISE image of Phobos, showing a series of mostly parallel grooves and crater chains,
with Stickney crater at right
Enhanced-color HiRISE image of Deimos (not to scale), showing its smooth blanket of regolith
Exploration
Main article: Exploration of Mars
(view • discuss)
Interactive image map of the global topography of Mars, overlain with locations of Mars Lander and Rover
sites. Hover your mouse over the image to see the names of over 60 prominent geographic features, and click
to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations, based on data from the Mars Orbiter
Laser Altimeter on NASA's Mars Global Surveyor. Whites and browns indicate the highest elevations (+12 to
+8 km); followed by pinks and reds (+8 to +3 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevations (down
to −8 km). Axes are latitude and longitude; Polar regions are noted.
(See also: Mars map; Mars Memorials map / list)
← Beagle 2 (2003)
Curiosity (2012) →
InSight (2018) →
Mars 2 (1971) →
← Mars 3 (1971)
Mars 6 (1973) →
↑ Opportunity (2004)
← Perseverance (2021)
← Phoenix (2008)
← Sojourner (1997)
Spirit (2004) ↑
↓Zhurong (2021)
Viking 1 (1976) →
Viking 2 (1976) →
In culture
Main articles: Mars in culture and Mars in fiction
See also: Planets in astrology § Mars
The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells, 1897, depicts an invasion of Earth by fictional Martians.
Mars is named after the Roman god of war. This association between Mars and war
dates back at least to Babylonian astronomy, in which the planet was named for the
god Nergal, deity of war and destruction.[284][285] It persisted into modern times, as
exemplified by Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, whose famous first
movement labels Mars "the bringer of war".[286] The planet's symbol, a circle with a spear
pointing out to the upper right, is also used as a symbol for the male gender. [287] The
symbol dates from at latest the 11th century, though a possible predecessor has been
found in the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri.[288]
The idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians became widespread in the late
19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books
on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling,
dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works. [289] Many other
observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been
termed "Mars Fever".[290] High-resolution mapping of the surface of Mars revealed no
artifacts of habitation, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars still
continues. Reminiscent of the canali observations, these speculations are based on
small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as "pyramids" and the
"Face on Mars".[291] In his book Cosmos, planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote: "Mars
has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes
and fears."[51]
The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by
nineteenth-century scientific speculations that its surface conditions might support not
just life but intelligent life.[292] This gave way to many science fiction stories involving
these concepts, such as H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, in which Martians seek to
escape their dying planet by invading Earth, Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in
which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization, as well as Edgar Rice
Burroughs' Barsoom series, C. S. Lewis' novel Out of the Silent Planet (1938),[293] and a
number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.[294] Since then, depictions of
Martians have also extended to animation. A comic figure of an intelligent
Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared in Haredevil Hare (1948) as a character in
the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of
popular culture to the present.[295] After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned
pictures of Mars as it really is, a lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars
were abandoned; for many science-fiction authors, the new discoveries initially seemed
like a constraint, but eventually the post-Viking knowledge of Mars became itself a
source of inspiration for works like Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy.[296]