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Timing and origin of silicic volcanism in northwestern Mexico: Insights from

zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes and geochemistry of rhyolite
ignimbrites from Palmarejo and Guaz...
Article in Lithos · January 2019

DOI: 10.1016/j.lithos.2018.11.010
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Timing and origin of silicic volcanism in northwestern Mexico: Insights

from zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes and geochemistry of
rhyolite ignimbrites from Palmarejo and Guazapares in
Southwest Chihuahua
Munazzam Ali Mahar ⁎, Philip C. Goodell, Arturo Ramírez, José García
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, United States
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Precise timing and constraints for magma source(s) are critical to understand the post-subduction
Received 5 June 2018 tectonomagmatic evolution of the world's largest Cenozoic Silicic Large Igneous Province in western Mexico.
Accepted 13 November 2018 We provide in-situ zircon U–Pb ages and Hf isotope compositions of rhyolitic ignimbrites exposed in the
Available online 17 November 2018
Palmarejo and Guazapares at the northwestern extremity of Sierra Madre Occidental. Four rhyolite ignimbrite
samples from Palmarejo yielded zircon weighted mean U–Pb ages between 23 and 24 Ma. However, five individ-
Keywords:
Ignimbrites flare-up
ual analyses from one sample yielded the oldest age of 25.09 ± 0.41 Ma (MSWD = 1.7, n = 5). A rhyolitic tuff
Sierra Madre Occidental from the Guazapares district yielded older individual dates varying from 25.7 to 28.6 Ma with a main population
Palmarejo yielding a weighted mean age of 27.31 ± 0.36 Ma. Zircon U–Pb ages suggest that the ignimbrite flare-up in south-
Postsubduction extension western Chihuahua remained restricted to the Early Middle Oligocene to Early Miocene. We suggest that the zir-
U-Pb Geochronology con U–Pb dates N24 Ma (particularly from Guazapares) are the antecrystic zircons included from the underlying
Hf isotopic composition older ignimbrites. The zircon U–Pb dates of 25–28 Ma are related to the culmination of syn-extensional first
ignimbrite flare-up and bimodal volcanism started as early as 35 Ma. The first ignimbrite flare-up is possibly
resulted from the detachment of the leading edge of the Farallon slab around 35–28 Ma. The younger age of
24–23 Ma from Palmarejo can be correlated to the second episode of ignimbrite flare-up erupted during the per-
vasive regional extension, normal faulting and onset of formation of metamorphic core complexes. This second
flare-up is resulted by the subsequent events of break off/rollback of the Farallon plate. The positive Hf isotope
composition (εHf (t) = +1.0 to +5.8) and concomitant mafic volcanism suggest partial melting of subcontinental
lithospheric mantle and the overlying Laramide crust by upwelling of decompressing asthenosphere during post-
Laramide regional extension. This interpretation is consistent with the successive detachments, fragmental
removal and/or rollback of the leading edges of the Farallon slab beneath the western continental margin of
North America. We did not find any xenocrystic zircon inheritance neither from the Laramide plutonic base-
ment/roots of the Jurassic Guerrero terrane nor from the Proterozoic North American crust. However, zircon in-
heritance of Laramide age has been reported from the Guazapares district. Partial melting of Laramide basement
was possibly facilitated by the heat advection and ponding of subcontinental lithospheric mantle-related
magmas in the crust during the Cenozoic regional extension.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction thickness of 1 km (Best et al., 2016). During the ignimbrite flare-ups,

basalts were also erupted producing classic bimodal volcanism and
In the Late Eocene, Laramide subduction-related, arc magmatism the large volumes have led to the concept of a Sierra Madre Occidental
ended in western Mexico and the Late Eocene-Early Miocene witnessed Silicic Large Igneous Provence (SLIP) (Bryan et al., 2008; Bryan and
large-scale silicic volcanism throughout western Mexico during the Ferrari, 2013).
Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) ignimbrite flare-up (Ferrari et al., The ignimbrite flare-ups followed N30 m.y. of subduction-related
2007; Bryan and Ferrari, 2013; Bryan et al., 2014). The ignimbrite magmatism. From 100 to 60 Ma, magmatism mainly occurred to the
flare-up covers an area of about 400,000 km2 with a maximum west, closer to the plate margin (Ferrari et al., 2018). During the later
phases of Laramide Orogeny in southwestern North America, from
⁎ Correspondent author. ~50–40 Ma, the volume of subduction-related magmatism decreased
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Mahar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.11.010
0024-4937/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.A. Mahar et al. / Lithos 324–325 (2019) 246–264 247
but spread inland and was distributed over a larger area, ~500 km wide, Eocene-Miocene Upper Volcanic Supergroup (UVS) (McDowell and
covering most of western and central Mexico (Ferrari et al., 2018). Keizer, 1977; Ferrari et al., 2018 and references therein). The LVC is
The timing of silicic and bimodal volcanism varies from Late Eocene comprised of intermediate, subduction-related magmatic rocks formed
(40 Ma) to Early Miocene (23 Ma) (Ferrari et al., 2007, 2013, 2018). between 90 and 40 Ma. The magmatic rocks associated with the LVC are
Two main pulses of regional ignimbrite flare-up were recorded during dominantly andesitic to rhyolitic volcanics, ash-flows, ash-fall tuffs,
Early-Middle Oligocene and Early Miocene (Ferrari et al., 2007, 2013, volcaniclastic sedimentary assemblages, and granitic (including grano-
2018). dioritic and dioritic) plutons (e.g., Staude and Barton, 2001; Ferrari
The origin of magmas that generated the large volumes of Cenozoic et al.,2007; Ortega-Gutiérrez et al., 2014; Mahar et al., 2016). The LVC
silicic and bimodal volcanic rocks in North America has been a controver- is unconformably overlain by Eocene to Miocene rhyolitic ignimbrites,
sial topic. Many hypotheses revolve around the crustal and mantle con- andesites, dacites, and basalts of the UVS (e.g., Swanson and
tributions with respect to the plate tectonic configuration at the time of McDowell, 1984). There were periods of bimodal and discontinuous
the ignimbrite flare-ups (e.g., Ferrari et al., 2002, 2007; Bryan et al., volcanism after each silicic ignimbrite episode. The ages of these rocks
2008, 2013; Ferrari et al., 2018). Cameron et al. (1980) suggested that range from 33 to 17.6 Ma (Cameron et al., 1989). The magmatism
the ignimbrite flare-up and silicic volcanism was the result of fractional related to the UVS (also known as the SMO Silicic Large Igneous Prov-
crystallization of basaltic parental magmas. Smith et al. (1996) proposed ince (SLIP) is predominantly associated with the Cenozoic (i.e., Early
crystal fractionation of andesitic parental magmas. In contrast, partial Eocene to Early Miocene) regional ignimbrite flare-ups during the
melting of the crust has also been proposed (e.g., Ruiz et al., 1988, 1990). post-Laramidic regional extension (e.g., Ferrari et al., 2002; Bryan
Zircon inheritance data indicate that multiple crustal contributions et al., 2008 Murray et al., 2013; Bryan et al., 2014; Murray and Busby,
from Proterozoic, Mesozoic (xenoliths), and Tertiary sources were likely 2015; Ferrari et al., 2018). However, this LVC-UVS subdivision is
involved in the ignimbrite flare-up (e.g., Bryan et al., 2008). Ferrari et al. somewhat simplistic, Murray et al. (2013) assigned the Latest
(2013) suggested that the ignimbrite flare-up was not the result of Oligocene-Early Miocene age for the mafic and intermediate volcanic
fractional crystallization processes alone. They emphasized the role of rocks from the Guazapares. These rocks were previously speculated as
intrusion of a large amount of mafic melt in the crust. More recently, the arc-related andesites associated with the LVC. More recently, mag-
Ferrari et al. (2018) reviewed the geochronological, geochemical and matic rocks of northern Mexico were further subdivided (Ferrari et al.,
geophysical data and suggested that the Cenozoic volcanism triggered 2018).
by fragmental removal of the Farallon plate beneath western continen- The ignimbrite flare-ups are spatially and temporally related to the
tal margin (e.g., Sigloch, 2011; Pavlis et al., 2012). The detachment of Basin and Range extensional deformation in southwestern North
Farallon slab resulted in the thinning and partial melting of the overrid- America between 32 Ma and 12 Ma, but extension magnitudes vary
ing lithospheric base as well as the upwelling of decompressing widely across the province (e.g., Aguirre-Diaz and McDowell, 1993;
asthenospheric mantle underneath. The detachment of pieces of Aranda-Gómez et al., 2000; Ferrari et al., 2018). Different mechanisms
the Farallon slab is consistent with the enhanced mantle-related have been linked to the ignimbrite flare-up and extension of the
magmatism and formation of numerous extensional basins in western Basin and Range province of North America (Ferrari et al., 2013). One
Mexico (Ferrari et al., 2018). hypothesis is that boundary forces, such as trench retreat, rollback and
In this paper, we provide geochemistry, in-situ LA-ICP-MS zircon steepening of the subducting Farallon plate, are dominant (e.g., Best
U–Pb geochronology and LA-ICP-MS zircon Hf isotope compositions of and Christiansen, 1991; Ward, 1991; Bohannon and Parsons, 1995;
rhyolitic ignimbrites from southwestern Chihuahua that are parts of Dickinson, 2002; McQuarrie and Oskin, 2010). These plate boundary
the Sierra Madre Occidental ignimbrite sequence (Fig. 1). Our new zir- effects provide the conditions for gravitational collapse of crust, exten-
con U–Pb dating coupled with previous data provide important sional deformation, mantle upwelling and large-scale silicic volcanism
constraints for the timing of ignimbrite flare-up in the regional tectonic (e.g., Gans et al., 1989; Harry et al., 1993; Leeman and Harry, 1993;
context. The Hf isotope composition provides important insights for the Axen, 1995; Humphreys, 1995; Wong et al., 2010). These processes, or
magma source region history of the Cenozoic ignimbrite flare-up. We a combination of forces, were probably active in northwest Mexico,
integrated the isotopic data with the available geological, geochemical which led to the ignimbrite flare-up of the UVS.
and geophysical information to propose a coherent Late Cretaceous to The magma sources of the subduction-related Late Cretaceous to
Cenozoic tectonomagmatic evolution of the “southern granite Tertiary batholiths remains controversial with regard to the relative con-
domain” (Valencia-Moreno et al., 2001) of northwestern Mexico. tributions of mantle versus crustal-derived melts (e.g., Valencia-Moreno
et al., 2001; Henry et al., 2003; Pérez-Segura et al., 2009; González-León
2. Regional geologic and tectonic framework of northwestern et al., 2011; Ortega-Gutiérrez et al., 2014; Mahar et al., 2016). Based on
Mexico the REE pattern, whole rock Sr and Nd isotope compositions, zircon Hf
isotope compositions and absence of zircon inheritance, a dominant con-
The study area lies at the western margin of Sierra Madre Occidental tribution of mantle-derived magmas is suggested for the plutons in the
(SMO), approximately 270 km southwest of Chihuahua City (Fig. 1a). southwestern Chihuahua and northern Sinaloa (“southern granite
The SMO consists of a north- to northwest-trending volcanic plateau, domain” of Valencia-Moreno et al., 2001) (Mahar et al., 2016; and refer-
about 1200 km long and 300 km wide, averaging 2000 m above sea ences therein). Based on Sr–Nd isotopes [initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.7051 to
level. It extends from the US-Mexico border to its intersection with 0.7136) and εNd (−13.6 to −3.7)] and highly evolved zircon Hf isotopes
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Fig. 1b). Late Cretaceous-Paleocene composition (εHf (t) = −24.9 to −7.5), the Sonoran batholithic belt to
plutonism and subsequent Cenozoic silicic to bimodal volcanism are at- the north (northern granite domain” of Valencia-Moreno et al., 2001)
tributed to the subduction of the Farallon Plate beneath North America is interpreted to be strongly influenced by the partial melting of
and subsequent opening of the Gulf of California (e.g., Ferrari et al., LREE-enriched, mafic to intermediate Proterozoic basement
2007). Tectonically, the region corresponds to the Mesozoic Guerrero (e.g., Valencia-Moreno et al., 2001; Henry et al., 2003; Housh and
terrane described by Campa and Coney (1983) which is interpreted as McDowell, 2005; Arvizu et al., 2011; González-León et al., 2011; Pérez-
a Mesozoic oceanic arc assemblage that collided with North America Segura et al., 2013; González-León et al., 2016). Geochemically and isoto-
during the Cretaceous (Umhoefer, 2003; Talavera-Mendoza et al., pically, the Sonoran plutonic belt (northern granites) is comparable to
2007). The study area is located at the boundary between Guerrero the evolved Mazatzal crustal block (1.7–1.6 Ga) in southeastern Arizona
and North American Craton (Fig. 1a, c). Lithologically, the igneous (González-León et al., 2016). However, Valencia-Moreno et al. (2001)
rocks of the SMO are divided into so-called two groups, 1) The suggested the possible contribution of mantle-derived melts that melted
Late-Cretaceous to Eocene Lower Volcanic Complex (LVC), and 2) the the lower crustal roots and subsequently mixed with it.
248 M.A. Mahar et al. / Lithos 324–325 (2019) 246–264
Compressional deformation structures in the SMO are not con- accompanied by extensive normal faulting between 14 and 12 Ma
spicuously apparent due in part to the intense overprinting of nor- (e.g., Stock and Hodges, 1989). However, Ferrari et al. (2013) sug-
mal faulting associated with regional post-Laramide extensional gested that the early stages of extension at ~29 Ma, marks the ini-
deformation, which occurred predominantly between the Late Eo- tiation of the opening of the Gulf of California. New insights from
cene and Oligocene (Ferrari et al., 2007). The transition from a com- the plutonic and volcanic rocks suggest that incipient regional ex-
pressional to extensional regime occurred at ~ 33 Ma, recorded by tension began in Late-Eocene and culminated by the opening of
the first occurrences of peralkaline ignimbrites and transitional ba- Gulf of California at 14 to 12.5 Ma (Duque-Trujillo et al., 2015;
salts (McDowell and Mauger, 1994). The Basin and Range province Ferrari et al., 2018). Basin and Range deformational structures such
extends from the western US into Central Mexico. The broadest, as NW-directed block faults are widespread in Chihuahua. Extension
late-stage of extensional deformation in the southern Basin and in Sonora was more intense, resulting in the exhumation of meta-
Range province took place during the Middle Miocene at about morphic core complexes subparallel to the SMO (Davis and Coney,
13 Ma (Parsons, 1995). The opening of the Gulf of California was 1979).
Fig. 1. a) Regional geological map of northwestern Mexico, trace of Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) and batholitic intrusions in the states of Sonora, Sinaloa and Chihuahua are shown (from
Servicio Geológico Mexicano). The red star is the location of Fig. 2. The bold dashed line shown in (a) is the hypothetical location of the southern edge of Proterozoic North America is based
on the 0.706 Sri (Valencia-Moreno, et al., 2001). The northern and southern granite domains are from (Valencia-Moreno et al. (2001). Locations of metamorphic core complexes and ex-
tensional basin are from Ferrari et al. (2018). Zircon U–Pb ages and Hf isotopes composition of Chihuahua-Sinaloa granodiorites and Sierra Pinta granites in Sonora are from Mahar et al.
(2016) and Arvizu et al. (2011) b) Geographic extent map of the Sierra Madre Occidental in northwestern Mexico and its southern intersection with the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
(modified from McDowell and Keizer, 1977; Bryan et al., 2008). c) Tectono-stratigraphic terrane map of Mexico in relation to the Sierra Madre Occidental (modified from Sedlock
et al., 1993). CUI – Cuicateco Terrane; M – Mixteco Terrane; TMVB – Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt; Z – Zapoteco Terrane. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3. Geological setting of the study area sandstone sequence (KaCz-Ar) is overlain by an andesitic conglomerate
(KtalCg). Above these units are Cretaceous laminated siltstones
The Palmarejo and Guazapares mining districts are located in the and fine-grained sandstones (Ktal) interbedded with andesitic
southwestern Chihuahua in the Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) epiclasts, tuff, rhyolites (KtalRHY) and amygdaloidal andesites (Ktam).
epithermal belt (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 2 shows the geologic mapping by Overlaying these units are Cretaceous andesite, sandstones and
the Servicio Geológico Mexicano (SGM) (Consejo de Recursos gritstones with polymict conglomerates (Ktat). These Cretaceous
Minerales, 2004) placing andesitic rock with lesser amounts of volcano-sedimentary units correspond to the LVS and are overlain by
rhyodacite volcanic tuffs and related intrusions of the LVS in the west- the Tertiary rhyolitic ignimbrites, rhyolite intrusions, rhyolitic lava and
ern margin of the district. Other exposed units of the LVS consist of rhy- tuffs (ToTR), rhyodacites (ToRD), and basalts (TmB) of the UVS covered
olite, volcanoclastics, and related shallow intrusions overlain by by Quaternary alluvium (Qho). The intrusive units found in the district
andesitic porphyry intrusions. are Cretaceous granodiorite plutons (KsGd), Cretaceous andesitic
In the study area, thicker layers of brecciated ignimbrites are interca- porphyries (Ktap), and Tertiary rhyolitic porphyries (ToPR) (Fig. 2).
lated with the thick, silicic and bimodal lava deposits. Fig. 3 shows the The structurally higher rhyolite ignimbrite unit (ToTR) is the subject
stratigraphic correlation of Palmarejo (this study) with the Guazapares of this study (Figs 2, 3). This is a 200 to 300 m thick stratified ignimbrite
district (Murray et al., 2013). At the base, a Cretaceous limestone- deposit which overlies the older ignimbrites. In the Guazapares district,
Fig. 2. a) Geological Map of the Palmarejo and Guazapares districts (modified from the Consejo de Recursos Minerales (CRM), 2004). Locations of studied samples, weighted mean U–Pb
ages and hafnium isotope composition are also shown.
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column in the Palmarejo district as compared to the Guazapares district to the east.
Murray et al. (2013) divided the ignimbrites into three stratigraphic volcaniclastic, fluvial-lacustrine deposits, rhyolite lava, and silicic brec-
zones, from top to bottom, 1) Sierra Guazapares Formation, 2) Témoris ciated intrusions.
Formation and 3) Parajes Formation (Fig. 3). The contact between these
formations is unconformable. The studied rhyolite ignimbrites in this
study (Fig. 3) can be correlated with the upper part of Sierra Guazapares 4. Sample description
Formation, which is a massive to stratified rhyolite ignimbrite. This rhy-
olite ignimbrite unit overlain by the high-silica rhyolite intrusions, A total of twelve rhyolitic ignimbrite samples were collected from
the Palmarejo and Guazapares districts (Fig. 2 and Table 1). Samples
Gat1, Gat2, Gat3 and Gpn were collected from Guerra Al Tirano, and
Table 1 Guadalupe Norte dome, respectively. Samples Gat1–3 were collected
Mineralogical description of studied rhyolitic ignimbrite. along a vertical section of a 200–300 m thick stratified ignimbrite de-
posit, Gat1 represents the top, Gat2 middle and Gat 3 represents the
Sample Description
lower part of the ignimbrite deposit. Eight samples were collected
SF1 HS – white; altered feldspars phenocrysts (b1 mm); disseminated pyrite; from the Guazapares district from San José (SJ), San Antonio (SA),
quartz + calcite veins (~2 mm wide). TS – strongly altered plagioclase
phenocrysts (b1 mm); dissemintated pyrite; amygdular quartz; quartz
San Francisco (SF1, SF2 and SF3) and Montecristo (MC1, MC2
and quartz + calcite veins (~2 mm wide). andMC3). Samples SF2, SF3, MC1, MC2 and MC3 were selected from
SF3 HS – light pink; altered; oxidized grains. TS – intensely altered to very the drillhole core logs carried out by the Paramount Gold & Silver
fine clay + quartz; disseminated oxide grains (possibly oxidized pyrite); Corp. The samples Gat1, Gat 2 and Gat 3 and SA, SJ and SC were collected
quartz veinlets.
from outcrops intruding andesites of the LVC. This andesitic unit is inter-
MC1 HS – white to very light orange; altered; phenocrysts: quartz (b1 mm),
altered feldspars (b2 mm); very few pyrite grains. TS – moderately calated with sandstone, gritstone and conglomerate and is previously
altered to quartz + clay; pheocrysts: plagioclase (b2 mm), quartz (b1 identified as a Paleocene-Eocene sandy andesite (TpeaS-A in Fig. 2).
mm), alkali-feldspar? (b0.8 mm); zircon (~0.003 mm); very few pyrite The samples Gpn, SF1–3 and MC1–3 represent exposures previously
grains; rare muscovite grains. identified as Oligocene rhyolitic tuff and rhyolites (ToRT-R; Figs. 2 and
MC2 HS – light pink; altered; quartz phenocrysts (b1 mm); oxidized grains.
TS – strongly to intensely altered to clay; quartz phenocrysts (b0.7 mm);
3). These ignimbrite outcrops correspond to the thicker Tertiary rhyolite
oxidized grains. and rhyolite tuff units (ToTR) (Figs. 2 and 3), and are overlain by the rel-
MC3 HS – white; altered; quartz veinlets; few scarce opaque grains; vesicles. atively thinner rhyodacite (TORD) and basalt units (TmB) (Fig. 3). All
TS – intensely altered to quartz + clay + carbonates; very fine-grained the samples except Gpn were analyzed for whole-rock elemental geo-
sericite; two muscovite grains (~1 mm); zircon (b0.25 mm); few scarce
chemistry. Four rhyolite ignimbrite samples (Gat1, Gat2, Gat3, and
opaque grains.
Gat1 HS – pink; phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), feldspar (b2.5 mm), biotite (b1 Gpn) from Palmarejo and one rhyolite tuff sample (SF1) from
mm); disseminated pyrite. TS – moderately altered groundmass to clay; Guazapares were further selected to conduct detailed in-situ and inte-
phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), plagioclase (b2.5 mm), biotite (b1 mm), grated zircon U–Pb geochronology and zircon hafnium isotopes
alkali-feldspar; fragmented phenocrysts; disseminated pyrite; zircon composition.
(b0.03 mm); quartz veinlets (0.2 mm wide).
Guerra Al Tirano samples (Gat1–3) are silicified altered pinkish to
Gat2 HS – pink; phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), feldspar (b2 mm), biotite (b1.2
mm); disseminated pyrite. TS – weakely altered groundmass to clay; pinkish gray, medium to fine-grained rhyolitic ignimbrites. The sample
phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), plagioclase (b2 mm), biotite (b1.2 mm), from Guadalupe Norte dome (Gpn) is an altered pinkish, fine-grained
alkali-feldspar; very fine-grained sericite; zircon (b0.1 mm); fragmented rhyolite. The San Francisco sample (SF1) is a grayish pink, moderately
phenocrysts; disseminated pyrite.
welded, vesicular and highly silicified and altered rhyolitic tuff. The
Gat3 HS – pink; phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), feldspar (b2.5 mm), biotite (b2
mm); disseminated pyrite. TS – weakely altered groundmass to clay; sample shows strong iron and manganese alterations. The drillhole
phenocrysts: quartz (b2 mm), plagioclase (b2.5 mm), biotite (b2 mm), sample SF2 and SF3 are gray to pinkish gray, altered medium to fine-
alkali-feldspar; zircon (~0.005 mm); disseminated pyrite; fragmented grained silicic ignimbrites, San José (SJ) and San Antonio (SA) are fine-
phenocrysts. grained, altered welded ash-flow tuffs. Three samples from Montecristo
HS – hand sample; TS – thin section. (MC1-3) are dominantly fine-grained altered rhyolitic ignimbrites.
Fig. 4. a) Palmarejo ignimbrite sample Gat1, quartz, plagioclase and biotite phenocrysts, b) ash flow rhyolitic tuff SF1, intensely altered groundmass and oxidized grains are shown,
c) Montecristo ignimbrite showing carbonate grains, opaque grains, and vesicles in an intensely altered groundmass.
4.1. Petrography of Palmarejo and Guazapares ignimbrites
Samples Gat1–3 are mainly composed of quartz, plagioclase, biotite,

and a few alkali-feldspar phenocrysts in a very fine-grained
hypocrystalline groundmass (Fig. 4a; Table 1). Sample SF1 has been
strongly altered to fine-grained clay + quartz. A number of
moderately-strongly altered relict plagioclase phenocrysts (b1 mm)
are also present. Disseminated pyrite, in small clusters and individual
grains, are present throughout the sample. Sample MC1 has been
moderately altered to quartz + clay. The groundmass is composed of
a mosaic of microcrystalline quartz + very fine-grained sericite + clay
± feldspars. Phenocrysts consist primarily of plagioclase, quartz, and
few alkali-feldspar grains. Sample MC2 has been strongly to intensely
alter to clay. A few relict, weakly altered to un-altered, quartz pheno-
crysts (b0.7 mm) are observed. Disseminated opaque grains are
interpreted to be oxidized pyrite. Sample MC3 has been intensely al-
tered to clay + quartz + sericite + carbonates. For detailed petro-
graphic description see Supplementary file S1.
4.2. Zircon CL petrography and origin
Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging is critical to identify internal

domains within the grains, grain cracks, mineral inclusions and
two-dimensional growth and recrystallization textures to guide spot
placement onto least disturbed growth domains. Zircons from Fig. 5. Representative cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircons. Note that larger pits
Palmarejo ignimbrites as well as San Francisco tuff show homogenous (40 μm) are the analyzed spots where both U–Pb and Hf isotope data were acquired.
broad cores with rims showing oscillatory zoning (Fig. 5). The studied encountered older dates N24 Ma, these older dates might represent
zircons show no mineral and fluid inclusions and lack dissolution, the presence of subtle antecrystic (1 to 4 Ma older) inheritance.
recrystallization and resorption textures. No xenocrystic zircons were In addition to Terra-Wasserburg plots and weighted mean age calcu-
observed as revealed by CL imaging (Fig. 5) as well as by U–Pb dating. lation, data were also scrutinized using linearized and relatively proba-
The studied zircons are prismatic, euhedral to subhedral and mostly bility density plots (Fig. 7). While relative probability plot shows the
elongated (i.e., higher aspect ratio up to 4:1) with a maximum length overall range and distribution of the age suites, the linearized probabil-
of 500 μm. In many cases, zircons show needle-like morphology typical ity plot evaluates whether the age population belongs to a normal distri-
of volcanic zircons. Palmarejo zircons generally have bright, broad, uni- bution, as the normal distribution will plot along the same linear trend
form and homogenous core with no resorbed edges. The uniform broad (Fig. 7). Any deviation from this linear trend towards the upper and
cores are surrounded by relatively thinner and darker overgrowth lower probability limits will indicate the existence of more than one
exhibiting strong oscillatory zoning. The SF1 zircons show both brighter age suites. We closely examined our U–Pb data to identify if there are
and darker cores, some of which are subhedral. Many grains have antecrystic zircons (zircons related to the older phases, possibly 1 to
needle-like morphology. Zircons from SF1 showed diffused to moderate 4 Ma of similar magmatism), slightly older antecrystic zircons are previ-
oscillatory zoning. ously reported from the northern SMO volcanic rocks by Bryan et al.
(2008), Ferrari et al. (2013) and Murray et al. (2013). For weighted
5. Methods mean age calculation and Terra-Wasserburg age plots, we did not in-
clude the individual dates with larger uncertainty exceeding 10%
Whole-rock geochemical analyses were performed by Activation (i.e., N2.5–3.0 Ma). Core and intermediate zones of zircons were ana-
Laboratories (ACT Labs) in Ancaster, Ontario, using methods described lyzed by using 30 μm beam size, while outer thinner rim was analyzed
on their website: http://www.actlabs.com/. Major elements, trace with a smaller beam size of 12 μm (Fig. 5). The outer rim was analyzed
elements, and rare earth elements (REE) were determined by in an attempt if they have formed during a younger thermal event.
Lithium Metaborate/Tetraborate Fusion–ICP and Lithium Metaborate/ For Sample Gat1, 13 analyses were carried out on zircon core and in-
Tetraborate Fusion–ICP/MS. The zircon U–Pb and zircon Hf isotopic termediate domain and 11 analyses were carried out on the outer rim.
measurements were performed using laser ablation multicollector in- Zircon grains are euhedral, homogenous and inclusion free, showing
ductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA–MC–ICP–MS) at the no xenocrystic cores. The uranium content of core and rim domains
LaserChron laboratory, the University of Arizona. Before analysis, zir- varies from 143 to 371 ppm, two analyses on rims show lower U con-
cons were imaged by Cathodoluminescence (CL) at the LaserChron centration of 27 and 30 ppm. The Th/U ratio generally varies from 0.3
SEM lab facility. The analytical methods for zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopic to 1.1 with one spot yielding a higher ratio of 1.7 (Supplementary file
measurements are fully described in Gehrels et al. (2008), Gehrels and S3). All analyses on the uniform core and intermediate domain yielded
Pecha (2014) and Cecil et al. (2011). Details of the methods are given individual dates varying from 21.1 to 23.5 Ma. The eleven analyses on
in the supplementary file S2. the outer rim yielded the similar overlapping dates varying from 21.5
to 24.5 Ma with a much smaller uncertainty to that of former (Fig. 7a).
The calculated weighted mean and Terra-Wasserburg ages are 23.09
6. Results
± 0.34 Ma (MSWD = 1.3, n = 18) and 23.16 ± 0.26 Ma (MSWD =
1.9), respectively (Fig. 8a). Six analyses with uncertainty higher than
Whole-rock geochemical data are listed in Table. 2. The zircon U–Pb
10% (i.e., N2.5 Ma) were excluded. The Terra-Wasserburg and weighted
and zircon Hf isotope data are listed in supplementary data Tables S3
mean ages are in agreement with former showing higher MSWD of 1.9.
and S4, respectively. Summary of the isotopic data presenting the
There is only one age group in this sample and the calculated age repre-
weighted mean zircon U–Pb ages, and weighted mean zircon Hf isotopic
sent the emplacement or eruption age of the host ignimbrite. However,
compositions of studied samples are made available in Table 3. Note
two analyses on the outer rim yielded the youngest dates of 21.5 ±
that, uncertainties for individual analysis given in the supplementary
1.6 Ma and 21.9 ± 0.4 Ma (Supplementary Table S3), the upper limit
U–Pb data Table S3 are reported at 1-sigma level and include only mea-
of these younger dates falls within or very close to the weighted mean
surement errors. Systematic errors are as follows (at 2-sigma level):
age of 23.1 ± 0.34 Ma. The oldest date of 24.2 ± 0.4 is yielded by an
1.1–1.3% (206Pb/238U) and 0.8–1.9% (206Pb/207Pb). Systematic errors
outer rim. If this older age is true, then it can be inferred that the
were included quadratically in the weighted mean ages. The weighted
weighted mean age of 23. 1 ± 0.34 Ma represent the final emplacement
mean epsilon Hf values shown in the tables and figures are at 2σ.
age that followed the incremental emplacement events started as early
as 24.2 ± 0.4 Ma (this oldest age is not included in the weighted mean
6.1. Whole-rock geochemistry age calculation).
For sample Gat2, a total of seventeen analyses were carried out on
The total alkali content (Na2O + K2O) of the studied samples ranges core and intermediate domain and 12 analyses were performed onto
from 7.4 to 12.1 wt% and the silica content ranges from 57.8 to 79.8 wt% or closer to outer rims. Zircon grains are euhedral, homogenous and in-
(Fig. 6; Table 2). Samples, Gat1, Gat2 and Gat3 from Palmarejo are clas- clusion free, no xenocrystic core has been observed. The core is gener-
sified as calc-alkaline rhyolites. Guazapares samples show composi- ally brighter homogenous and is surrounded by a thinner darker rim.
tional variation from trachyandesite (SA and SJ) to trachydacite (SF2) The zircon core and rims show similar uranium concentration from
to rhyolites (SF1, MC1, MC2 and MC3 and SF3). The anomalously high 113 to 324 ppm. Few spots show uranium concentration lower than
concentrations of K2O and Fe2O3 represent post-emplacement modifi- 100 ppm. Both core and rims show similar magmatic Th/U ratio with
cation resulted by sericitization and iron alterations, possibly due to in- an overall range of 0.5 to 1.0 with three values N1.3. All analyses on
teraction with hydrothermal fluids (Table 2). The compositional trend the uniform core and intermediate domain yielded individual dates
shown by Palmarejo ignimbrites is similar to the silicic volcanic rocks varying from 22.6 to 23.9 Ma. The outer rim yielded the similar overlap-
of the northwestern Mexico of similar ages (28–24 Ma) (Figs. 6a and b). ping dates varying from 22.1 to 23.8 Ma. The relative and linearized
probability plots are less scattered (Fig. 7b). Two zircon spots from
6.2. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon geochronology core yielded individual dates of 25.4 ± 2.6 Ma and 26.4 ±
4.6 Ma (Fig. 7b). However, these older dates showed larger
Core to rim domain of zircon grains yielded similar overlapping uncertainties (N 10%). Like Gat1, the outer rim from Gat2 shows smaller
dates ranging from 23 to 28 Ma. Zircon U–Pb dating did not reveal any uncertainty to that of core (Fig. 7b). Eight individual dates with uncer-
inheritance from the older Laramide granitic basement. However, we tainty N10% were not included. All analyses yielded a single age group
Table 2
Whole-rock major and trace element geochemical data of the studied samples.
Palmarejo mining district Guazapares mining district
Sample Gat1* Gat2* Gat3* SF1* SF2 SF3 SA SJ MC1 MC2 MC3
Lithology Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Trachydacite Rhyolite Trachy Trachy Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite
ignim ignim ignim tuff ignim ignim andesitic andesitic ignim ignim ignim
ignim ignim
SiO2 74.7 73.9 73.3 74.7 67.8 69.5 60.3 57.8 78.0 79.8 73.9
Al2O3 13.3 13.9 14.0 13.6 12.1 14.7 12.6 14.3 11.7 10.4 11.1
Fe2O3(T) 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.0 3.2 2.8 9.7 8.7 1.0 0.8 0.9
MnO 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.1
MgO 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.0 1.0 0.1 2.2 4.5 0.1 0.2 0.2
CaO 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.1 1.3 0.0 0.4 0.7 0.1 0.1 1.4
Na2O 3.8 4.0 4.2 0.9 1.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.3
K2O 3.6 3.7 3.8 7.1 7.6 11.9 7.6 7.3 7.4 8.5 9.2
TiO2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 1.6 1.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
P2O5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
LOI 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.2 4.4 1.3 3.1 3.8 0.9 0.9 1.4
Total 99.8 100.1 99.6 99.8 99.1 101.0 98.7 99.5 100.6 100.8 98.5
Sc 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 18.0 18.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Be 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 b1
V 18.0 19.0 17.0 13.0 24.0 75.0 134.0 160.0 10.0 21.0 18.0
Ba 1428.0 1453.0 1418.0 2177.0 1979.0 1423.0 3475.0 950.0 1645.0 1289.0 1599.0
Sr 160.0 177.0 158.0 91.0 102.0 123.0 247.0 261.0 78.0 58.0 60.0
Y 18.0 16.0 15.0 12.0 22.0 25.0 46.0 23.0 16.0 17.0 14.0
Zr 99.0 103.0 107.0 144.0 122.0 149.0 232.0 139.0 77.0 79.0 73.0
Cr b 20 b 20 b 20 20.0 b 20 b 20 90.0 150.0 b 20 b 20 20.0
Co 1.0 1.0 2.0 b1 1.0 2.0 20.0 33.0 b1 b1 b1
Ni b 20 b 20 b 20 b 20 b 20 b 20 40.0 50.0 b 20 b 20 b 20
Cu b 10 b 10 b 10 b 10 50.0 b 10 20.0 70.0 b 10 b 10 b 10
Zn 40.0 50.0 40.0 b 30 4420.0 90.0 1110.0 3660.0 90.0 200.0 50.0
Ga 14.0 15.0 14.0 11.0 19.0 12.0 15.0 19.0 11.0 10.0 11.0
Ge 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 b1 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
As b5 b5 b5 16.0 71.0 138.0 30.0 10.0 21.0 29.0 48.0
Rb 78.0 83.0 82.0 180.0 184.0 340.0 241.0 222.0 205.0 250.0 267.0
Nb 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 5.0 6.0 14.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 7.0
Mo b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2 b2
Ag b 0.5 b 0.5 b 0.5 1.4 1.0 2.8 7.1 0.7 0.9 2.8 b 0.5
In b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2 b 0.2
Sn b1 1.0 b1 b1 1.0 1.0 1.0 b1 1.0 1.0 b1
Sb b 0.5 b 0.5 b 0.5 1.0 2.3 10.3 16.9 9.4 3.8 14.1 6.8
Cs 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.6 2.0 1.8 2.7 2.7 2.6
La 21.5 21.7 21.2 8.3 23.5 27.3 25.9 12.5 20.0 29.3 22.7
Ce 39.6 40.3 40.3 16.4 46.5 54.8 64.8 28.5 41.6 53.0 45.0
Pr 4.4 4.4 4.3 1.9 5.4 6.3 6.8 3.8 4.6 6.0 5.1
Nd 15.3 14.9 15.0 6.9 19.2 24.1 26.1 16.3 16.4 20.8 17.6
Sm 2.9 3.0 2.8 1.5 3.9 5.0 5.5 3.8 3.2 3.7 3.1
Eu 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.8 1.2 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.5
Gd 2.7 2.5 2.5 1.4 3.4 4.6 5.5 3.7 2.6 3.0 2.6
Tb 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4
Dy 2.6 2.4 2.4 1.8 3.4 4.3 5.5 3.3 2.6 2.8 2.3
Ho 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.8 1.3 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4
Er 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.0 2.5 4.2 1.9 1.4 1.7 1.3
Tm 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Yb 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.4 4.8 1.7 1.4 1.8 1.3
Lu 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Hf 2.5 2.7 3.0 4.0 3.1 3.8 4.5 3.3 2.6 2.8 2.2
Ta 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.5
W b1 1.0 b1 1.0 1.0 21.0 2.0 3.0 6.0 4.0 2.0
Tl 0.5 0.5 0.4 1.8 1.9 3.0 2.2 2.2 1.9 2.1 0.9
Pb 11.0 12.0 12.0 11.0 563.0 78.0 273.0 686.0 14.0 16.0 23.0
Bi b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4 b 0.4
Th 5.2 5.6 5.5 4.1 4.3 4.7 1.6 1.3 4.8 10.0 5.4
U 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.1 2.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 2.4 2.2
with a weighted mean age of 23.28 ± 0.33 Ma (MSWD = 1.6, n = 23) thinner darker overgrowth. The U content of core varies from 80 to
(Fig. 8b). This age is identical to the Terra-Wasserburg age of 23.37 ± 359 ppm, with one core (Gat3-g1c; supplementary file S3) and one in-
0.21 Ma (MSWD = 1.6) (Fig. 8b). The calculated age of 23.28 Ma con- termediate domain showed the anomalously higher concentration of
strain the crystallization age and is considered as the time when the ig- 842 ppm and 561 ppm. Uranium content of three outer rims showed
nimbrite was emplaced. the lower concentration of 68, 51 and 14 ppm (see supplementary file
For sample Gat3, a total of 14 analyses were carried out on the core S3). The Th/U ratio varies from 0.6 to 1.1. Six analyses with larger uncer-
and intermediate domain while 16 analyses were done onto or close tainties (i.e., N10%) were not included in age calculations. The core and
to the outer rim. The core is broad and bright under CL and rimed by intermediate domain yielded individual dates varying from 23 to
Table 3
Summary of U–Pb dating and Hf initial values.
Sample Location Latitude (°N) Longitude (°W) Lithology U–Pb zircon age (MSWD, n) Antecrystic initial εHf(t) (MSWD, n)
inheritance
Gat1 Guerra Al Tirano Palmarejo 27°19′13.89″ 108°22′6.23″ rhyolitic ignimbrite 23.1 ± 0.34 Ma No +4.6 ± 1.0 (1.8, n = 10)
(1.3, n = 18)
Gat2 Guerra Al Tirano Palmarejo 27°19′14.63″ 108°22′6.11″ rhyolitic ignimbrite 23.3 ± 0.33 Ma No +3.3 ± 0.8 (2, n = 13)
(1.6, n = 23)
Gat3 Guerra Al Tirano Palmarejo 27°19′3.10″ 108°22′19.17″ rhyolitic ignimbrite 23.4 ± 0.33 Ma 1–2 Ma older +4.7 ± 0.9 (1.4, n = 10)
(0.64, n = 9)
Gpn Guadalupe Norte Palmarejo 27°39′25.65″ 108°22′33.82″ rhyolitic ignimbrite 23.7 ± 1.1 Ma No +0.6 ± 2.2 (2.2, n = 4)
(0.65, n = 4)
SF1 San Francisco Guazapares 27°24′40.05″ 108°18′29.17″ rhyolitic Tuff 27.3 ± 0.36 Ma 1–2 Ma older +1.6 ± 0.9 (1.7, n = 12)
(0.53, n = 8)
24.6 Ma (Fig. 7c). One analyzed spot Gat3-G46C yielded the oldest date and 28.1 ± 1.3 Ma (see Supplementary file S3). Three individual dates
of 32.1 ± 5.6 Ma. However, given the larger uncertainty, it is difficult to from the core domain yielded dates older than 30 Ma. However, larger
interpret if this represents a xenocrystic or antecrystic inheritance. Six- uncertainties of N12% in these older dates (i.e., N4 Ma) precludes further
teen analyses on outer rims yielded similar, overlapping but relatively interpretation. The outer rim yielded individual dates varying from 25.7
more scattered individual dates varying from 20.8 to 26.9 Ma. The to 28.6 Ma with much lower uncertainties (Fig. 7d). The Terra-
Terra-Wasserburg plot yielded an age of 23.63 ± 0.55 Ma with a larger Wasserburg plot yielded an age of 27.48 ± 0.69 Ma with a larger
MSWD of 2.5 (Fig. 8c). Three age populations have been identified with MSWD of 3.5 (Fig. 8e). This indicates the presence of more than one
subtle age differences. A group of nine analyses yielded a weighted age population. A group of eight individual analyses yielded a weighted
mean age of 23.42 ± 0.33 Ma (MSWD = 0.64, n = 9). Four analyses mean age of 27.31 ± 0.36 Ma (MSWD = 0.53, n = 8). This is considered
yielded relatively younger age of 22.37 ± 0.35 Ma (MSWD = 0.63, n as the main age population. Five analyses yielded a slightly younger age
= 4). Five analyses yielded the oldest age of 25.09 ± 0.41 Ma (MSWD of 26.35 ± 0.35 Ma (MSWD = 1.16, n = 5). Four analyses yielded an age
= 1.7, n = 5) (Fig. 8c). of 28.53 ± 0.50 Ma (MSWD = 0.23, n = 4) (Fig. 8e).
Sample Gpn, collected ~ 4 km north of the Guerra Al Tirano
area, yielded a weighted mean age of 23.7 ± 1.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.65, 6.3. LA-ICP-MS Lu–Hf isotopic analyses
n = 4) (Fig. 8d). This age is similar to the other three samples from
Guerra El Tirano. The weighted mean zircon initial Hf isotope composition εHf (t) is
For one sample SF1 from Guazapares district, a total of 13 analyses calculated for the individual U–Pb crystallization dates of each zircon
were carried out on the core and intermediate domain and 15 analyses spot. Three samples from the Guerra Al Tirano (Gat1, Gat2 and Gat3),
were done on the outer rim. Both core and rim show oscillatory zoning, yielded radiogenic and positive weighted mean εHf (t) of +4.6 ± 1.0
sector zoning is also observed. Core is generally broad and bright, and (MSWD = 1.8, n = 10), +3.3 ± 0.8 (MSWD = 2.0, n = 13), and
rims are relatively thinner and darker, brighter rims were also observed. + 4.7 ± 0.9 (MSWD = 1.4, n = 10), respectively (Figs. 9a-c). Four anal-
The U content varies from 68 to 359 ppm (see Supplementary file S3). yses (rim to core) on two grains from the Guadalupe Norte ignimbrite
The Th/U ratio varies from 0.4 to 1.2. Out of 28 analyses 11 analyses (Gpn) yielded a heterogeneous (i.e., larger MSWD) Hf isotopes compo-
were not included in age calculation due to larger uncertainty sition with weighted mean εHf (t) = +0.6 ± 2.2 (MSWD = 2.2, n = 4)
(i.e., N10%). The core and intermediate domain yielded individual (Fig.9d). However, given the small number of analyses, this less radio-
dates varying from 24.3 to 32.6 Ma (Fig. 7d). All of these dates yielded genic Hf composition remained inconclusive. Sample SF1, from the
larger uncertainties except two analyses yielding dates of 28 ± 2 Ma San Francisco area, yielded a weighted mean εHf (t) of +1.6 ± 0.9
Fig. 6. a) Total alkali–silica plot showing the fields of magmatic rocks according to Le Bas et al. (1986). b) Geochemical classification after Frost and Frost, (2008). Field for laramidic plutons
(90–50 Ma) in the northwestern Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa and Chihuahua) is from Bagby et al. (1981), Valencia-Moreno et al. (2001), Henry et al. (2003) and Mahar et al. (2016). Field for
bimodal volcanic rocks of northwestern Mexico (28–20 Ma) is those shown in Ferrari et al. (2018).
Fig. 7. Relative and linearized probability plot showing overall range of U–Pb data from core, inner and outer rim of the studied zircons.
(MSWD = 1.7, n = 12) (Fig. 9e). It should be noted that the San zircons (~2–3 Ma older) (Fig. 7a, b, c). In contrast, Guazapares
Francisco rhyolitic tuff yielded the least radiogenic weighted mean Hf district showed older individual dates dominantly vary from 26
isotope composition. All 49 analyses yielded radiogenic and variable to 28 Ma.
Hf isotope composition varying from εHf (t) = −0.6 to +7.8 with a ma- Our youngest weighted mean ages of ~ 23–24 Ma from Palmarejo
jority (85%) of the samples ranging from +1.0 to +5.8. The weighted coincides well with the youngest age populations of 22.9 to 24.6 Ma
mean Hf isotope composition of all zircons is εHf (t) = +3.3 ± 0.5 from the Sierra Guazapares Formation and from the upper section of
(MSWD = 3, n = 47). The larger scattering is evident from the high Témoris Formation in Guazapares district (Murray et al., 2013) about
MSWD value of 3. Four analyses yielded extreme positive values ranging 6 to 10 km east and northeast of our study area (Figs. 2, 3). The Sierra
from +6.0 to +7.8 (Fig. 9f). Only three analyses yielded negative values Guazapares Formation, mainly composed of rhyolitic lavas/plugs and
ranging from −0.6 to −0.5. rhyolitic ignimbrites, overlies the Témoris. Formation that is mainly
composed of rhyolitic ignimbrites, andesite lavas intercalated with con-
glomerates and breccia in the upper part while the lower part is domi-
7. Discussion nantly basaltic. Our oldest weighted mean age populations of ~25 Ma
from Palmarejo and youngest age population of 26 Ma from Guazapres
7.1. Timing of ignimbrite flare-up in northwestern Mexico are comparable to the older age population with weighted mean age
varying from 25 to 26 Ma from Sierra Guazapares and upper section of
In the Palmarejo district, U–Pb dates mainly vary from 21 Ma Témoris Formation. The SF1 sample Terra-Wasserburg age of 27.48 ±
to 24 Ma (Figs 7, 8 and Table 3). However, some older dates of ~ 0.69 Ma and its oldest age population of 28.53 ± 0.50 Ma (MSWD =
25 Ma indicate the possibility of the presence of antecrystic 0.23, n = 4) are comparable to the oldest age populations of ~ 27 to
Fig. 8. (a-e) Concordia age and weighted mean age plots for zircons from the studied plutonic rocks. Error ellipses and calculated ages are given at the 95% confidence level. MSWD—mean
square of weighted deviates.
29.5 Ma from Parajes Formation that underlies the Témoris Formation western Chihuahua records both Early to Middle Oligocene and Early
(Murray et al., 2013). Miocene flare-ups. Previously, it is widely accepted that the first ignim-
We interpret that the younger and main age population clustering brite flare-up occurred 32–28 Ma and was regarded as the rapid and
around 23–24 Ma is the initiation of the main and second pulse of Ceno- pervasive silicic volcanism that occurred over a 500 km wider region
zoic silicic magmatism in the Palmarejo and Guazapares mining district (Ferrari et al., 2007; Bryan and Ferrari, 2013; Ferrari et al., 2018). In Chi-
during the regional extension and normal faulting. Older ages N25 Ma huahua, this earlier volcanic event is recorded at 28–30 Ma, ~33 Ma, and
from Palmarejo and 27–29 Ma from Guazapares district are possibly 35–36 Ma (McDowell and McIntosh, 2012). During the earlier stages of
antecrystic ages and represent the earlier phases of ignimbrite flare- eruptions, the volcanism was primarily silicic in the form of caldera-
up underneath. This interpretation is consistent with previous U–Pb zir- forming ignimbrites, but soon it became bimodal by the introduction
con ages from Guazapares where ages older than 25 Ma from Témoris of increased mafic lavas during the second ignimbrite flare-up, predom-
and Sierra Guazapares formations and those around 29.5 Ma from the inantly in northwestern Mexico. Northwestern Mexico dominantly re-
Parajes formation were interpreted as antecrystic ages, and the younger cords the first ignimbrite flare-up at 32–28 Ma. The second ignimbrite
ages clustering around ca. 24.5–23 Ma were regarded as the initiation of flare-up 24–18 Ma, characterized by silicic and bimodal volcanism, is
silicic magmatism (Murray et al., 2013). Our new zircon U–Pb data, mainly reported from the southern part of the SMO. Our U–Pb data,
coupled with previous zircon U–Pb geochronology suggests that coupled with recent zircon U–Pb dating (Galván-Gutierrez, 2012;
Fig. 9. (a-f) Weighted mean zircon Hf isotopic composition [εHf (t)] of studied samples.
Murray et al., 2013; Murray and Busby, 2015) (Fig. 10), suggest that in et al., 2017) possibly, those inherited from the Late Cretaceous Laramide
southwestern Chihuahua and in the adjacent regions, this second ig- granitic basement. Increased temperature conditions (N800 °C) are pos-
nimbrite flare-up is pronounced. However, by this time (i.e., 24 to sible as Cenozoic volcanism occurred during regional extension and is
18 Ma), the magmatism remained more focused to the western conti- accompanied by asthenosphere upwelling and heat advection (Ferrari
nental margin closer to the future Gulf of California (Ferrari et al., 2018). et al., 2018).
Murray et al. (2013) reported older inheritance of 76, 50, and 38 Ma In the Palmarejo and Guazapares districts, basalts and basaltic an-
within the 27 to 29.5 Ma from Parajes Formation. Bryan et al. (2008) re- desitic rocks are frequent in the form of small exposures and as interca-
ported inheritance from Mesozoic and Proterozoic basement within the lation within the rhyolitic ignimbrites which is the typical character of
42 to 32 Ma ignimbrites from northeastern SMO. And this is likely as the second ignimbrite flare-up (Fig. 2). Also, the timing of ignimbrite
north central Chihuahua region is reportedly underlain by North flare-ups in southwestern Chihuahua, largely overlaps with the regional
American southward extended Proterozoic crust (Valencia-Moreno mafic volcanism in northwestern Mexico (e.g., Southern Cordilleran Ba-
et al., 2001; see Fig. 1). Bryan et al. (2008) also reported the antecrystic saltic Andesite (SCORBA, Cameron et al. 1989) (Fig. 11) The Southern
zircons showing dates from 20 to 37 Ma in southwestern ignimbrites Cordilleran Basaltic Andesite (SCORBA) is one of the most extensive
with U–Pb ages varying from 29 to 20 Ma. However, we did not find mafic lavas erupted in western Mexico, southwestern New Mexico,
xenocrystic inheritance as 28 Ma is the oldest date with reasonable un- and south-central Arizona during 29–20 Ma (Fig. 11). Based on the
certainty from sample SF1. Our U–Pb data, as well as CL imaging re- near bulk Sr and Nd isotope composition, the origin of these mafic
vealed that no xenocrystic inherited core is present. Also, no resorbed, lavas is attributed to melting of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle
truncated texture has been observed which is consistent with the ab- (Cameron et al., 1989).
sence of xenocrystic zircons within the Cenozoic rhyolitic melt. How- Further to the north, the silicic ignimbrite flare-up in the western
ever, it is likely that, before the final emplacement of ignimbrite, USA started as early as 37 Ma and lasted until 31 Ma (Elston, 2001;
magma was sufficiently hot to dissolve the inherited zircons (Siegel Chapin et al., 2004; Best, et al., 2016) (Fig. 11). The lower limit of
Fig. 10. Zircon U–Pb ages within the Palmarejo and Guazapares districts. Red: this study, Blue: Galván-Gutierrez (2012), and Green: Murray et al. (2013). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
31 Ma is comparable to the oldest dates yielded by sample SF1 subduction-related batholiths in northwestern Mexico (Mahar et al.,
(i.e., 32.6 ± 4 Ma and 31.9 ± 5.3 Ma). Larger uncertainty in these 2016 and references therein). The apparent calc-alkaline composition
older dates precludes further interpretation related to the onset of of Palmarejo is consistent with the dominant intermediate volcanism
the silicic volcanism during the first ignimbrite flare-up. However, within 400 km of the paleo-trench during the second ignimbrite flare-
in Chihuahua, older ages ranging from 36 to 30 Ma are also reported up, lasting until 14 Ma. However, we propose that this calc-alkaline
(McDowell and McIntosh, 2012). Similar older ignimbrites are re- character should not be considered as a manifestation of active subduc-
ported in the west from Sonora and to the southeast in Durango tion at that time but was instead derived from the mantle lithosphere.
(Ferrari et al., 2018 and references therein). Nonetheless, Guazapares Therefore, an apparent geochemical similarity to the subduction-
ignimbrites erupted at the end of the first ignimbrite flare-up related magmatic rocks should be interpreted with caution, as also sug-
(~28–27 Ma) are comparable to the second pulse of ignimbrite gested by Ferrari et al. (2018). Guazapares volcanic rocks show enrich-
flare-up in the southwestern USA from 29 to 27 Ma (e.g., Mogollon- ment in K2O (Fig. 6), which is most likely the result of subsequent
Datil, Boot Heel, San Juan and Southern Rocky Mountain volcanic hydrothermal alteration. Likewise, Fe enrichment observed in the
field) (Chapin et al., 2004; Best et al., 2016 and references therein) Guazapares samples (Fig. 12a) might represent the incorporation of ex-
(Fig. 11). In the southwestern USA, the third pulse of ignimbrite cess Fe from hydrothermal solution.The REE pattern is also comparable
flare-up is recorded between 25 and 23 Ma. The zircon U–Pb ages to the earlier subduction-related Laramide plutons except the ignim-
from Palmarejo and Guazapares (25–23 Ma) coincides with this brites are considerably enriched in Nd (Fig. 12b). Similar to the other Ce-
last silicic volcanism in the southwestern USA (e.g., Southern Rocky nozoic silicic volcanic rocks in western Mexico, ignimbrites show
Mountain, Mogollon-Datil and San Juan). enrichment in lithophile elements like Rb, U, Th, and are depleted in
The Boot Heel (34–27 Ma; McIntosh and Bryan, 2000) and Eu, Sr and Y (Fig. 12c).
Mogollan-Datil (37–23 Ma; Chapin et al., 2004) ignimbrites are the clos-
est volcanic fields in New Mexico and Arizona of southwestern USA 7.2.2. Regional mafic volcanism and mantle-derived sources
(Fig. 11) and mark the northward extension of the syn-extensional Ce- Regional mafic volcanism in western Mexico and the southern USA
nozoic ignimbrite-flare-up in relation to the geometry of the Farallon invoked the dominant role of mantle-derived magmas during the Ceno-
slab underneath. The timing of onset of the Cenozoic ignimbrite flare- zoic (Ferrari et al., 2018). The Neogene mafic rocks (28–24 Ma) in
up in the southwestern USA, which started at ~37 Ma, generally pre- northwestern Mexico are magnesian, subalkaline to mildly alkaline ba-
dates the first SMO ignimbrite flare-up which started around 32 Ma. saltic andesite, trachybasalt, basalt, Na basanite, and basaltic
This suggests that the episodic detachments and/or rollback of the trachyandesite (Fig. 6a). The intermediate rocks like trachdacite and
down-going Farallon slab occurred earlier in the southwestern USA dacite are less common during this time interval (Fig. 6a). In Chihuahua
than it did in the SMO. (and Trans Pecos Texas), there are occurrences of within-plate type
(high TiO2 and low Nb), Na alkaline, Fe-enriched basalts and hawaiite
7.2. Origin of magma sources for SMO ignimbrite flare-up which were emplaced 37–30 Ma (Ferrari et al., 2018) (Fig. 11). These
rocks are either present below the silicic volcanic rocks or as an interca-
7.2.1. Geochemical evolution lation within the ignimbrites (Cameron et al., 1989; Ferrari et al., 2018).
The Palmarejo ignimbrite is high-silica rhyolites (Figs. 6a and b and Similar Na-rich alkaline basalts are also reported further to the north in
Table 1). This trend is similar to the Late-Cretaceous Early Paleocene the Mogollan Datil (37–32 Ma) and Marysvale (28–23 Ma) volcanic
fields (Fig. 11). The observed geochemical signature is attributed to par- that the high-K SCORBA and lamprophyre dikes were produced in an
tial melting of enriched, asthenospheric mantle (Ferrari et al., 2018 and unequivocal extensional setting and represent within-plate magmatism
references therein). This asthenospheric-related within-plate volcanism of northwestern Mexico. Upwelling of asthenospheric melt facilitated
terminated by 30 Ma in northwestern Mexico and was replaced by the by the opening of a slab window started during the onset of the first ig-
regional subalkaline, high-K basaltic andesite (31 to 20 Ma) nimbrite flare-up and produced OIB-type magmatic rocks. Heat associ-
(i.e., SCORBA). They are either intercalated with or overlie the late ated with the upwelling asthenosphere partially melted the base of
Eocene-early Oligocene ignimbrite successions. The SCORBA mafic the lithospheric mantle producing the SCORBA.
rocks are enriched in the LILE and LREE and depleted in HFSE.
This coupled with the enriched Sr–Nd isotope composition, partial 7.2.3. Origin of radiogenic Hf isotope composition in the southern granite
melting of the metasomatized lithospheric mantle is suggested domain
(e.g., Cameron et al., 1980, 1989; McDowell, 2007; González-León To understand the role of partial melting of Laramide granitic basement
et al., 2010). This older metasomatized lithospheric mantle has variable during Cenozoic regional extension, we compared the Hf isotope composi-
components of asthenospheric derived magmas in northwestern tion of studied rhyolite ignimbrite with the spatially-related Laramide
Mexico (Ferrari et al., 2018). A lithospheric mantle source is also sug- granodiorite plutons. The observed Hf isotope composition of Cenozoic ig-
gested for the 25–21 Ma lamprophyre dike swarms described for west- nimbrites (dominantly varies from +1.0 to +5.8) is indistinguishable
ern Sonora (Orozco-Garza et al., 2013). Ferrari et al. (2018) suggested
Fig. 11. Oligocene and Miocene volcanic rocks of southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Eocene volcanic rocks are dominantly present in the northwestern part of United
States. Ages in the red rectangles show the timing of silicic ignimbrite volcanism in western North America (Ferrari et al., 2018 and Best et al., 2016). Field for high-K SCORBA magmatism is
after Cameron et al. (1989). Bold line shows the extent of deeper remnants of detached Farallon in the southwestern USA and northern Mexico. This interpretation is based on multi-fre-
quency P-wave tomography that suggests the fast seismic anomalies in the upper mantle and uppermost lower mantle (Sigloch, 2011). There is a shallow low-velocity zone in the upper-
most mantle underneath Gulf of California and western continental margin of Mexico (Wang et al., 2009; Di Luccio et al., 2014). This low-velocity zone is interpreted as the asthenospheric
upwelling beneath the Gulf of California and western Continental margin of Mexico. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
from the Laramide granodiorite plutons (εHf (t) = +1.8 to +5.2) located suggests the involvement of crustal melting in the generation of silicic
about 60 km southeast of the Palmarejo (Figs. 1 and 13 and Table 3) magmas. Alternatively, the observed trace element pattern can be ac-
(Mahar et al., 2016). No zircon inheritance of Laramide age was observed quired by the mixing of magma generated by fractionation of
in the studied ignimbrites as the overall variation of individual analyses metasomatized mantle-derived sources with the crustal melts.
ranged from 21 to 29 Ma and no xenocrystic inherited cores were ob- Based on the overlapping Hf isotopes composition of Cenozoic ig-
served in CL images. However, older inheritance of 76, 50, and 38 Ma has nimbrites with Laramide plutons coupled with trace element geochem-
been reported by Murray et al. (2013) from the spatially and temporally istry and regional geological context, we propose two possible origins,
(29.5–27 Ma) related Parajes Formation exposed in the Guazapares dis- 1) both Laramide plutons and Cenozoic volcanic rocks share similar
trict. Based on radiogenic Hf isotope composition (Fig. 13), Mahar et al. moderately radiogenic and metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric
(2016) proposed that the inheritance-free granitic plutons (~90–50 Ma) mantle source, magma thus generated have mixed with the crustal
in southwestern Chihuahua and northern Sinaloa are primarily derived melts, or 2) dominant partial melting of Laramide granitic basement
by partial melting of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle with minimal with variable contribution of metasomatized subcontinental litho-
contribution from evolved older crustal-derived melts. The role of mantle- spheric mantle.
derived magmas is also proposed for the Ba–Sr enriched intermediate For hypothesis-2, it is possible that the initial mantle-related
high-K subalkaline to potassic alkaline plutons emplaced in southeastern magmas ponded at the mid to lower crustal depth resulted in crustal
Mexico during the last 10 m.y. of the Laramide magmatism (50–40 Ma) anataxis and the melt thus generated have mixed with the mantle-
preceding the first ignimbrite flare-up during 38 to 28 Ma. During this derived magmas.
time, magmatism in northwestern Mexico is characterized by medium to Alternatively, for hypothesis-1, radiogenic Hf isotopes composition if
high-K basaltic andesite, andesite and fewer high-K rhyolites (Ferrari coupled with the spatially and temporally related regional within-plate
et al., 2018). The mineralogical and geochemical signature of these rocks volcanism, we propose fractional crystallization of mantle-derived
suggests the partial melting of the metasomatized lithospheric mantle, magmas that produced by the partial melting of the base of the
possibly impacted by the late-stage modification of subducting slab, such metasomatized lithospheric mantle by upwelling asthenosphere re-
as post-collision slab-break-off in northwestern Himalaya (e.g., Mahar sulted in the high-K SCORBA-type within-plate magmatism from 30 to
et al., 2014) and delaminated lower lithosphere as suggested for 20 Ma. Such mafic magma differentiated and has mixed with the crustal
post-Laramide magmatism in Sierra de Catorce, San Luis Potosí melt.
(e.g., Mascuñano et al., 2013). We favor the hypothesis-1 as this is more consistent with the re-
The REE data normalized to primitive mantle show a flatter REE pat- gional geological and tectonic context. Fragmental removal of the
tern. This REE pattern and relative enrichment in trace elements Sr, Rb, Farallon plate resulted in lithospheric thinning in the overriding plate
Th, U, K and Pb (Figs. 12c, d) and absence of strong Sr and Eu anomalies and upwelling of asthenospheric mantle underneath. The role of the
Fig. 12. a) Showing the boundaries between magnesian and ferroan series after Frost and Frost (2008). b, c) Primitive mantle-normalized rare earth element (REE) and trace element
pattern.
asthenosphere has been dominant from 38 to 30 Ma as evident by Na al- normal faults and extensional basins (Fig. 2). Metasedimentary and ba-
kaline basalts. There might be minor contributions from the more radio- saltic rocks are frequently found as an intercalation in the ignimbrites
genic decompressing asthenosphere during 30–20 Ma as indicated by (Fig. 2). The ages of the ignimbrites are comparable to the northwest-
the A-type rhyolites and lamprophyres in northwestern Mexico. How- ward basaltic-andesite lava flows intercalated with sediments associ-
ever, Hf isotope composition is considerably lower to be related to the ated with the high-angle normal faults range in age between 27 and
dominant direct contribution of the depleted mantle. We suggest that ra- 20 Ma (McDowell et al., 1997; Paz-Moreno et al., 2003). Earlier,
diogenic silicic volcanic rocks in the southern granite domain are possi- McDowell, (2007) identified the WSW-ENE directed extensional basin
bly the differentiated products of the regional SCORBA-type magmas in western Chihuahua, where 30 Ma basaltic andesite lavas are associ-
produced by the partial melting of metasomatized subcontinental litho- ated with high-angle normal faults. Recently, Murray et al. (2013) and
spheric mantle, partial melting of Laramide crustal basement is likely in- Murray and Busby (2015) reported the formation of WSW-ENE-
duced by the underplating of the SCORBA type magmas. The absence of directed extensional basins in the Guazapares and Cerocahui region in
Eu and Sr anomalies can either be related to the limited plagioclase frac- the southwestern Chihuahua, respectively. Based on the U–Pb dating
tionation or modified by subsequent hydrothermal alterations. on the bimodal volcanic rocks, the timing of formation of these basins
is suggested between 27.5 and 23 Ma. The NNW-SSE-directed high-
angle normal faults in these basins are parallel to the regional trend
7.3. Post-Laramide silicic volcanism and regional extension throughout western Mexico. More recently, based on detailed high-
resolution magnetic data, Molina (2016) proposed a larger circular
Throughout western Mexico, silicic volcanism has been related to structure named Témoris Caldera. The outer rim of this extensional
the post-Laramide regional extension as manifested by numerous ex- structure encompasses the Guazapares and Palmarejo mining districts.
tensional basins (in land: 30–18 Ma and coastal region; 18–12 Ma) Molina (2016) further interpreted a semicircular magnetic anomaly as
and metamorphic core complexes (25–15 Ma) (Ferrari et al., 2018) an inter-caldera resurgent rim just east and north of the Palmarejo dis-
(Fig. 1). The timing of extension gets younger, approaching 12 Ma to- trict. In western Chihuahua, normal faults cut the Late Eocene-Early Ol-
wards the Gulf of California. Ferrari et al. (2018) identified 39 exten- igocene ignimbrites. Ferrari et al. (2018) based on the occurrences of
sional basins in western Mexico. Out of these 39 extensional basins, widespread mafic lava flows along high-angle normal faults, suggested
sixteen are on the western side of the SMO core (i.e., Gulf Extensional that extension initiated at ~ 30 Ma. The timing of bimodal volcanism and
Province) extending from Magdalena in Sonora in the north to as far normal faulting in the SMO broadly coincides with the timing of exten-
south as Bolaños in Jalisco (for details of these basins see Ferrari et al., sional faulting and initiation of mafic volcanism in the Rio Grande rift
2018). In western Mexico, particularly in Sonora, western Chihuahua and Basin and Range province of North America (e.g., Ricketts et al.,
and in northern Sinaloa the age of the extensional basin varies from 2016).
30 to 18 Ma. This timing broadly coincides with our and previous zircon In southwestern Chihuahua, the Oligocene to Early Miocene exten-
U–Pb dating in northwestern Mexico (Ferrari et al., 2018). sional features were partly overprinted by the subsequent transtensional
The rhyolitic ignimbrites in Palmarejo (this work) and Guazapares oblique movement during Middle Miocene (b18 Ma) that resulted in the
districts (this work and Murray et al., 2013 and Murray and Busby, opening of the Gulf of California 14–12 Ma. The role of regional extension
2015) are closer to the eastern extremity of the Gulf Extensional Prov- in triggering the ignimbrite flare-up is supported by the radiogenic Hf
ince (Fig. 1). In the proximal regions (i.e., southeastern Sonora and isotope composition of rhyolitic ignimbrites, which suggest they are
northern Sinaloa), estimated crustal thickness varies from 28 to 21 km dominantly derived from partial melting of lithospheric sources. The
(Ferrari et al., 2018 and references therein) which is considerably thin- role of mantle-related sources is further supported by the bimodal volca-
ner than the core of the northern tip of the SMO (i.e., 55 km) (Bonner nism along northwest-southeast directed high-angle normal faults,
and Herrin, 1999). The ignimbrites are associated with high-angle within-plate magmatism and the lamprophyre dike complex
Fig. 13. Comparison of Hf isotope composition of Cenozoic ignimbrites (this study) in south west Chihuahua and Laramide plutons (Mahar et al., 2016) in the same region. Evolved Hf
isotope composition of northern granite domain (Permian and Late-Cretaceous granites at Sierra Pinta, northwestern Sonora) is from Arvizu and Iriondo (2011).
(e.g., Murray et al. 2013; Murray and Busby 2015; Ferrari et al., 2013, 17). southern granite domain of northwestern Mexico. Our new data
The timing of formation of extensional basins coupled with our new U– coupled with spatially related bimodal volcanism, within-plate rhyo-
Pb and radiogenic Hf isotope data suggest that the ignimbrite flare-up lites, lamprophyre dike swarms, ferroan rhyolites and formation of
was predominantly syn-extensional. The regional extension was primar- metamorphic core complexes (25–21 Ma) support the interpretation
ily triggered by upwelling of asthenosphere which melted the base of the of upwelling of asthenosphere and fragmental removal of the base of
lithospheric mantle (discussed in the text). This is supported by the the lithospheric mantle causing the regional extension and partial melt-
lithospheric-scale fragmental modifications (e.g., slab break off and/or ing of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle and parts of the crust in
slab rollback) in the subducting Farallon slab during this time. western Mexico between 30 and 23 Ma and is related to the progressive
slowing down of the subducting plate (Ferrari et al., 2018). An earlier
7.4. Implications for Oligocene-Miocene plate tectonics slowing down event (190 to 130 mm/yr) is recorded by the first ignim-
brite flare-up from 30 to 27.5 Ma. A further decrease to 75 mm/yr is
One of the first order observations is the dominant role of mantle- manifested as the second ignimbrite flare-up during 27.5 to 20 Ma
derived sources in the Cenozoic thermotectonic evolution of the (Ferrari et al., 2018 and references therein).
Fig. 14. a) Schematic tectonic model summarizing post-Laramide slab detachment at 35–30 Ma and initiation of silicic and bimodal volcanism during the onset of regional extension.
Regional extension promoted asthenosphere upwelling and partial melting of base of lithosphere, b) subsequent slab detachments/rollback (28–23 Ma) resulting in pervasive regional
extension, silicic and bimodal volcanism.
Around 35 Ma, a piece of the Farallon slab detached from the south- Appendix A. Supplementary data
ern edge of an earlier formed “slab window” (as the ridge between
Vancouver-Farallon subducted under northernmost Mexico between Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
52 and 34 Ma) (Ferrari et al., 2018). This detached slab has been recog- org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.11.010.
nized as a fast seismic anomaly (i.e., W anomaly) in the upper part of the
lower mantle beneath California, southeastern Nevada, Arizona, New
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Timing and origin of silicic volcanism in northwestern Mexico: Insights from

Article in Lithos · January 2019

Munazzam Ali Mahar Philip Goodell

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Arturo Ramirez Jose Garcia

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Precambrian basement of north-central Mexico View project

Timing and origin of near-trench plutons in southern Alaska View project

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lithos

Timing and origin of silicic volcanism in northwestern Mexico: Insights

1. Introduction thickness of 1 km (Best et al., 2016). During the ignimbrite ﬂare-ups,

4.1. Petrography of Palmarejo and Guazapares ignimbrites

Samples Gat1–3 are mainly composed of quartz, plagioclase, biotite,

4.2. Zircon CL petrography and origin

Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging is critical to identify internal

Palmarejo mining district Guazapares mining district

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