Hungerbhüler, 1997-100-196

Chapter 3 88 Stratigraphy and facies
Turi Formation is coeval with the Nabon Group (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995).
5. The Uchucay Fm. has a probable Late Miocene age and is not Quaternary as as¬
sumed by Kenneriey et al. (1973). This age calibration is used to date the regional Late
Miocene deformation event int the Giron-Santa Isabel basin (see Chapter 5).
6. The Tarqui Formation has a more restricted regional extend than previously as¬
sumed. The age is clearly latest Miocene and the rocks represent the youngest widespread
volcanic formation in the Central-Southern Sierra.
8. The volcanic Sacapalca Formation has a Maastrichtian to Paleocene (?) age. The
upper boundary is not well constrained, but there exists a long hiatus spanning the Early/
Middle Eocene. Only the Rio Playas Formation represents a relic which falls within this
period. In the region NW of Saraguro intermediate volcanics which show interfingering with
the lower part of the Saraguro Formation occur, which are not regarded as belonging to the
Sacapalca Fm.
9. Kenneriey (1980) suggested that the Rio Playas Formation is coeval to the other
Miocene basins fill series in the Sierra. However, this formation is clearly older, Early and/or
Middle Eocene in age.
10. The Loma Blanca Formation in southernmost Ecuador is Late Eocene to Late
Oligocene in age and therefore only partly contemporaneous with the Saraguro Formation to
the north. Some pyroclastics with an assumed Quaternary age (Kenneriey, 1980), exposed in
the area of Santa Rita and Nambacola, have a Late Oligocene age. Because of lithologic
similarities they must be grouped with the Loma Blanca Formation.
11. The Gonzanama Formation forms the fill of the Gonzanama-Catamayo basin. It is
Middle Miocene in age and not Paleocene as suggested by Kenneriey (1980). The volcanics
which apparently overhe the Gonzanama Formation belong to the Loma Blanca and Sacapalca
Formation and are clearly older. The contacts are thrust faults and not normal stratigraphic
boundaries as suggested earlier (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975, Marocco et al., 1995).
12. Part of the volcanics to the SE of the town of Vilcabamba were interpreted as part of
the Loma Blanca Formation (Kenneriey, 1980), however, they yielded an earliest Middle
Miocene age. These pyroclastics are included in the Quinara Formation which represents the
lowermost part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill succession.
13. The Middle to Late Miocene basin fill series of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba
were redefined and some new formation names were introduced (La Banda, San Jose and
Santo Domingo Formations).
14. The youngest pyroclastics in the the southern Sierra of Ecuador were named
Salapa Formation and have a Pliocene age. These volcanics were previously mapped as
part of the Loma Blanca Formation (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975b).

Chapter 4 89 Depositional environments
4. Evolution of the Miocene depositional environments
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The Upper Tertiary sedimentary series of the Ecuadorian Andes have been usually
interpreted as fills of intermontane basins, which formed during the uplift of the mountain
chain. Earlier workers (Bristow & Parodiz, 1982) suggested a continental fresh-water
environment of deposition for them. Accordingly, an intermontane setting for all Miocene
basin series in Ecuador was inferred by Noblet et al. (1988) and Marocco et al. (1995).
However, the occurrence of estuarine ostracods and marine foraminifera in several
Miocene series in southern Ecuador (Chapter 3) must lead to a different environmental
interpretation. Other authors have already suggested an estuarine environment based on
the occurrence of brackish water molluscs and tropical plants (Olsson in Liddle and Palmer
1941, O'Rourke, 1978), or a marine environment from fossil shrimps and crab claws
(Feldmann et al., 1993). However, these fossils which come mostly from the Cuenca basin
received little attention. Most of the previous studies have shown a flawed or incomplete
interpretation of the sedimentological and paleontological data. My data show that some
regional correlations based on lithological and sedimentological criteria alone were pre¬
mature, and I document that the earlier interpretation of a Middle Miocene coastal
depositional environment were correct (Olsson in Liddle and Palmer, 1941, O'Rourke,
1978).
Depositional environments transitional between marine and continental systems
document the location of the former shoreline. The recognition of coastal facies is crucial
for our interpretation of the paleogeography of the Neogene basins. The migration of
shorelines may be related to tectonic movements, eustasy, the magnitude of marine en¬
ergy, the rate of sediment influx and the location of the source area (Galloway & Hobday,
1996, p. 154), and consequendy coastal systems are very unstable and may shift rapidly in
time and space.
The dynamics of the shoreline of the Miocene sediment series in southern Ecuador
is difficult to unravel, because of the fragmentary preservation due to the strong Late
Miocene compressive deformation. However, the combination of sedimentological obser¬
vations and paleontological data with chronostratigraphic calibration by zircon fission-
track ages result in a model for the temporal and spatial facies evolution.
4.2. ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OSTRACODS AND
FORAMINIFERA
A total of 31 samples from die Middle Miocene part of the sedimentary basin fill
series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gozanama and Cuenca were studied
and yielded paleoecological diverse ostracod faunas and foraminifera. The ostracod as¬
semblages are typical of estuarine and nonmarine environments and the foraminfera indi¬
cate a marine environment (Table 4.1, Peterson et al., in prep.). In this palaeontological
context, the term "estuarine" defines a salinity range of 0.1 to 35 %c (Pritchard, 1967),
which means from the nonmarine to marine conditions, but does not identify a sedimen¬
tary facies.
The assemblages from southern Ecuador are comparable to ostracod faunas from
marginal marine-estuarine-continental environments described by Forester and Browers
(1985, pers. comm. G. Forester, 1996). The estuarine forms found in southern Ecuador
suggest salinity conditions of up to 35%o. In any case, the presence of Cyprideis species
and the freshwater forms suggest deposition in marginal marine environments and not an
open ocean habitat (Fig. 4.1). The presence of three benthic foraminifera species and the
ostacod faunas in the Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins point to an open estuarine
environment with periodic variation in the salinity and freshwater input by rivers (Table
4.1).
low abundance, high diversity
Cypris^^ stenohaline Cytheracea
Fig. 4.1. Ecological distribution of ostracods and specific salinity ranges of different environments
(from Brasier, 1980). The ostracod associations found in the Middle Miocene of southern Ecuador
are interpreted to have occupied similar habitats in estuarine and lagoonal environments.
0 o J
X present, adults and juveniles
A present, adults only
J present, juveniles only
O presence suspected
00,0 §
I 9
o
oo
nS
? I
si
II
Pn 9
g 8
a. c
a
B
B |
p. §•
-•
o
o
~
The foraminifera Ammonia parkinsonianavar. tepida, Quinqueloculina sp. aff. seminulum
and Discorpbis sp. are cosmopolitan and longranging forms which still exist today and are
dating back to the Oligocene of Puerto Rico and possibly further (pers. comm. L. Collins,
1997). Two ostracod species from the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin also occur in the Mid¬
dle Miocene of the Caribbean domain (Table 4.1,4.2). These are (1) Cyprideis stephensoni
Sandberg (1964), described from the Potamides matsoni zone of Louisiana (USA, Late
Middle Miocene, Stenzel et al., 1944) and in the Middle Miocene of Panama and Guate¬
mala (Van den Bold, 1976), and (2) Cyprideis sp. aff. C.ovata (Mincher), which was also
found in Early to Middle Miocene series in Venezuela and in the Middle Miocene of
Guatemala and Panama (Van den Bold, 1976). The two species are euryhaline forms which
mainly occur in estuaries but can also occupy lagoonal and continental hypersaline envi¬
ronments (Fig. 4.1). The zircon fission-track data of the San Jose Formation, where the
two Cyprideis species are present, yielded a late Middle Miocene age (Table 4.2). This age
is in very good agreement with the biostratigrapically constrained age range reported by
van den Bold (1976).
Gulf Coast Central America Caribbean Ecuador
Upper
11 2
ID
Cyprideis stephensoni C aff ovata Cypn deis aff ovata
iCypndeis Stephenson
5 Middle
0}
u
I Cyprideis aff.ovata
o
-
164 C aff ovata C steph
Cyprideis aff.ovata
Lower
23 8
Table 4.2. Stratigraphic age ranges of some Cyprideis species in the Caribbean (Van den Bold,
1976) and interpreted age ranges of two Cyprideis species found in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
senes in southern Ecuador.
In the Catamayo-Gonzanama basin the faunal diversity is restricted, compared with the
faunas in the other basins. The species document estuarine and lacustrine high sahnity
environments, whereas the Potamocypris species in the Gonzanama Formation are known
to occur also in hot springs (pers. comm. G. Forester, 1996). The high volcanic activity
during Middle Miocene supports this proposition. The samples from the Cuenca basin
yielded a very impoverished ostracod fauna which is dominated by Vetustocytheridea

bristowi. This is an estuarine form which was already detected in the Loyola Formation by
Van den Bold (1976), and in the Mangan Formation by Bristow & Parodiz (1982). Van
den Bold (1976) noted that other species of this genus occur in the Lower Miocene of the
Caribbean domain. The faunal evidence points to an environment where mingling of fresh-
water and estuarine species occurred (Fig. 4.1).

In the sediments of the four Middle Miocene basins, co-occurrence of nonmarine
and estuarine ostracods is the rule, rather than the exception. Mingling of marine, estua¬
rine and freshwater ostracods in marginal marine environments is not common, because
the occurrence of ostracods is dominantly controlled by the solute composition (Forester

& Browers, 1985). According to these authors, marine species live only in Na+ and CI"
dominated water, whereas nonmarine ostracods survive in Ca2+ and HC03"-rich water.
The solute composition in cold and wet climates excludes the co-occurrence of marine
and nonmarine ostracods (Forester & Browers, 1985). However, these authors reported
that mingling of marine and nonmarine species is known in regions where the continental
climate is warm and/or dry, which leads to a solute compatibility of marine and nonmarine
waters. The ostracod associations found in the Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-
Gonazanama basins suggest a warm and/or dry climate. Lithological evidence such as the
occurrence of primary gypsum horizons and abundant secondary gypsum in the ostracod
bearing and associated units, argue also for a climate where evaporation exceeded precipi¬
tation at least during certain periods. Also, the presence of coal seams and a fossil tropical
flora in the basins (Berry, 1929, 1934, 1945) is indicative for a warm and/or humid cli¬
mate.
The palaeontological and lithological data point to both dry and tropical/humid con¬
ditions for the Middle to Late Miocene in southern Ecuador. The possible temporal and
spatial changes suggest the presence of different microclimates. Such variable conditions
are still observed today in the coastal and Andean regions of Ecuador and northern Peru.
Today the interaction of the cold Humboldt current and the warm South Equatorial current
controls the climate in this region. The interplay of these marine currents, if they were also
active in the past, could yield an explanation for this changing climatic pattern during the
Miocene. Wilkinson (1982) and Whittaker (1988) proposed the presence of the same oce¬
anic circulation patterns in the Miocene along the Ecuadorian coast as seen today. A mod¬
ern analogue for the dry climatic conditions during the Miocene in southern Ecuador may
be recognized in the marine evaporate system of the estuary Bocana de Virrila (Morris and
Dickey, 1957, Brantley et al., 1984). The Bocana de Virrila lies at the southern edge of the
Sechura desert, south of the town of Piura in northwestern Peru. It is classified as barred
lagoonal system (Brantley et al., 1984) and reveals similar lithological features (gypsum
formation, high sulphur content) and facies trends as observed in the basin of Malacatos-
Vilcabamba.
The Miocene climate in the northern Cuenca basin seems to have differed from the
conditions observed in the southern basins. The Middle Miocene deposits in Cuenca basin
represent a deltaic system with a thickness of up to 4000 m where periodic marine incur¬
sions occuned (Steinmann, 1997). The delta was fed by a large river system which infers
most likely wet climatic conditions in the Cuenca region and particularly in its hinterland.
The two regions were separated by a topographic high (Santa Rosa-Saraguro High).
A similar setting was proposed for the forearc basins of southern Ecuador, which
were situated to the west of the studied area. Based on a study of molluscs, Marks (1951)
infened that the Progreso and Manabi basin were separated by the Chongon-Colonche
High during the Miocene (see Chapter 6). The Miocene foraminiferal association in the
northern Manabi basin is highly diverse and suggests the presence of warm equatorial
currents (Whittaker, 1988). In contrast, the Miocene fauna in the southern Progreso basin
is very impoverished under the influence of the cold Humboldt current (Whittaker, 1988,
Robinson and Haslett, 1995). Chemical analysis of samples from Tertiary units in coastal
Ecuador revealed higher P2O5 values for Miocene material in the Progreso basin than in
the Manabi basin to the north (Wilkinson, 1982). This evidence suggests that upwelling of
cold water associated with the Humboldt current was active in the Miocene and phosphate
was preferentially formed in the Progreso basin (Wilkinson, 1982).
My results suggest that the Miocene climate in southern Ecuador was not regionally
uniform and spatial and temporal variations existed. The climate was controlled by the
presence of topographic barriers and oceanic currents. Topographic barriers in the Costa
and the Andean domain were most likely linked and had an important influence on the
locally prevailing continental climate. The cold Humboldt current may have caused an
arid climate in the south, whereas its absence may be reflected by more humid conditions
in the north.
4.3. SYNTHESIS OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
The facies and faunal data, the chronostratigraphic correlations and considerations
on the basin evolution allow an integration of the evolution of the individual basins into
the regional southern Ecuadorian tectono-sedimentary history (Fig. 4.2). This reconstruc¬
tion takes into account the following arguments:

(1) Deposition in the southern Ecuadorian basins occurred in two distinct stages: a)
a Pacific coastal stage during the Middle to early Late Miocene (15-10 Ma), and b) an
intermontane stage during the Late Miocene (9-6 Ma). The intermontane stage is coeval
with the regional compressive deformation event and surface uplift of the Andean domain
(see Chapter 6).
(2) The definition of the facies boundaries between coastal and continental
depositional systems in the basins provides the approximate position of the Pacific coast¬
line.
(3) Ostracod associations support the sedimentological interpretation of the facies
boundaries.
(4) The regional facies distribution of continental and coastal facies implies drain¬
age towards the Pacific Ocean during the Pacific coastal stage.
(5) The preserved basin fill series represent remnants of larger basinal domains.
However, the variable input directions and clast supply infer the presence of emergent
terranes between some of the basin areas. Therefore, the different basin fill series were
deposited in different larger embayments (gulfs) opening to the Pacific.
(6) The coastal environments of several basins during the Pacific coastal stage infer
a continuation westward, into shallow marine and shelfal domains. Coeval series in the
Manabi, Progreso and Jambelf-Tumbez basin of the coastal area to the west represent
appropriate equivalents (see Chapter 6).

(7) During the intermontane stage, disregarding the Late Miocene strong E-W short¬
ening, the basin margins coincide more or less with the boundaries of the presently ob¬
served depressions.
These arguments will be combined and discussed in more detail in the sections be¬
low.
43.1. The Loja Embayment in the Middle Miocene (Fig. 4.2A)

The sedimentary facies of the Gonzanama, San Jose and Santo Domingo Forma¬
tions together widi the ostracod fauna indicate a prevailing coastal environment with flu¬
vial input and influence of marine processes for the southern basin group (Fig. 4.2A). The
lagoonal/deltaic and fluvial environment was unstable and shifted back and forth. The
depositional system was dominated by lagoon and marsh facies associations and is here
termed the Loja Embayment. The palaeocurrent directions indicate clastic input from the
southeast (Vilcabamba) and the east (Loja) and from the southwest (Gonzanama).
Fig. Synthesis of the depositional environments in southern Ecuador during the Middle to
4.2.
Late Miocene in a non-palinspastic reconstruction: A) The Loja and Cuenca Embayments, Middle
Miocene (15-12 Ma); B) the Vilcabamba Inlet, Middle/Late Miocene (11 Ma); C) progradation of
fluvial systems, early Late Miocene (10 Ma); D) intermontane stage, latest Miocene (post 9 Ma).
Data are derived from the following studies: regions of Gircn-Santa Isabel, Loja, Catamayo-
Gonzanama, Malacatos-Vilcabamba (this work); region of Cuenca-Alausi (Steinmann, 1997); re¬
gion of Nabon (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995). The following abbreviations are used: CE (Cuenca
Embayment), DGM (Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear), LE (Loja Embayment), SS (Santa Rosa-
Saraguro High), Vi (Vilcabamba Inlet).
early Late MioceneV

(10 Ma)
environments:
j§!|] intermontane stage direction of marine

ingressions/regressions
| •; . j continental facies
sediment input from
Pacific 4—
coastal jjjjj lagoonal, coastal, deltaic facies alluvial flow indicators
stage lovv topographic high

| | open to marginal marine facies
tjijj" (mountain region)
| | no Miocene deposits preserved
Fig. 4.2 (captions p. 95)

The eastern and southeastern highlands provided abundant metamorphic clasts. The
fluvial systems carrying the metamorphic material occupied a distal position suggesting
that the metamorphic source area was situated further to the east beyond Loja and
Vilcabamba.
The area of Loja was dominated by two fluvial systems which were fed from differ¬
ent source areas, one from the east (metamorphic clasts) and one from the northwest (vol¬
canic clasts). Coal formation occurred in a meandering fluvial system (Loja basin) and in
a tidal flat environment (Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin). The fossil flora indicates a tropi¬
cal environment (Berry 1929, 1935, 1945). Gypsum and coal formation in the tidal flat
system suggest varying climatic conditions which were most likely linked to oceanic cur¬
rent patterns and topographic barriers (see above).

The Cordillera Real did not form a high mountain range as today and the relief
towards the east was much less pronounced and smoother as seen by the distal character of
the fluvial sediments which are present within the basins and which were derived from the
east. The fluvial systems carried a relatively small amount of material, by-pass transport
towards the west predominated and due to the shallow character of the basins no large
deltas were formed. However, deltas were formed further in the west, towards the present
coastal zone of Ecuador (see Chapter 6). Marine processes had a dominant influence on
this coastal depositional system, which can be described as peritidal environment with
some barrier complexes and small deltas (senso Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Despite the
discontinuous outcrops, the distribution of the source areas and the facies relations sug¬
gest that the coastline was rather irregular. The ostracod fauna indicates salinity values
near to the level of normal seawater. The observed facies relations and the ostracod fauna
suggests partly an estuarine environment for the lower part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
series. The Loja Embayment formed a relatively flat coastal area where marine transgres¬
sions from the Pacific ocean occurred. The incursions were most likely derived from the
area of the Gulf of Guayaquil, from the northwest and reached large regions of the present
Sierra of southern Ecuador and possibly also the Oriente.
4.3.2. The Santa Rosa-Saraguro High and the Cuenca Embayment in the Middle
Miocene (Fig. 4.2A)
The basin of Giron-Santa Isabel to the north was filled during the Middle Miocene
by alluvial fan and fluvial deposits (Fig. 4.2A). These deposits occupied a larger basinal
area than observed today. Flow directions and facies trends document a southern, pre¬
dominantly volcanic source area, in the Saraguro Formation. The alluvial fan and fluvial
systems drained towards the north with a flow direction parallel to the N-S trending basin
axis. The absence of marine/estuarine fauna argues for deposition above sealevel. The
fluvial system in the Giron-Santa Isabel area should have joined the Cuenca basin. In this
northernmost basin, a deltaic and coastal plain environment prevailed during the Middle
Miocene (Steinmann, 1997). Marine ingressions occurred from the west and continental
input was derived from several eastern source areas in the PTOto-Cordillera Real (Stein¬
mann, 1997).
The northward drainage in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin coeval with the southward
directed terrestrial input in the Loja basin during the Middle Miocene implies an E-W
trending basin divide between the towns of Santa Rosa and Saraguro. This topographic
high separated the southern Loja Embayment from the continental Giron-Santa Isabel
basin and the adjacent Cuenca Embayment in the north. The presence of such a barrier
explains the different depositional evolution of the basins in the north and the south.
4.3.3 The Vilcabamba Inlet in the Middle/Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2B)

The limestones of the La Banda Formation in the Loja basin were deposited in a
lagoonal setting at around 11 Ma (Fig. 4.2B). The presence of marine and estuarine ostracods
and foraminfera implies that marine transgression occurred from the Pacific in the west.
The lagoonal facies in the area of Loja suggests a relatively stable tectonic situation with
smooth relief during that time. The lack of terrestrial and freshwater input during deposi¬
tion of the La Banda Formation suggest that the relief towards the east in the area of Loja
must have been very flat until 11 Ma. The so called Proto-Cordillera Real formed only
mountains with a low elevation along the N-S segment between Loja and Vilcabamba.
The Proto-Cordillera Real did possibly not form a continuous topographic barrier in this
region and the marine ingressions via the Vilcabamba Inlet may have reached the Oriente
of Ecuador. Today, the coastal formations of Loja lie at around 1500 to 2500 m above
sealevel at the western flank of the Cordillera Real. Only about 10 km east of Loja, the
highest summits of the Cordillera Real reach altitudes of more than 4000 m.
In the Giron-Santa Isabel basin the north directed fluvial by-pass transport prevailed
until the early Late Miocene. In the Cuenca basin the deltaic system prograded towards
the west (Steinmann, 1997).
43.4. Progradation of fluvial systems in the early Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2C)
The coastal Santo Domingo Formation in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba series is
unconformably overlain by fluvial deposits (Cerro Mandango Formation) which are de¬
rived from the east and southeast (Fig. 4.2C). These sediments show only at the base some
marine influence and they document the transition to a purely continental environment in
the early Late Miocene (around 10 Ma). In the Loja area a similar trend is observed, where
the lagoonal La Banda Formation is overlain by fluvial deposits (Belen Formation). There
are no Late Miocene sediments exposed in the area of Catamayo and Gonzanama, most
likely due to later erosion. All fluvial sediments show a coarsening upward trend docu¬
menting steepening and a shift of the source areas towards the basin. This is also paral¬
leled by increasing input of metamorphic clasts due to exhumation of metamorphic rocks
in the source areas to the east.
In the northern region, the Giron-Santa Isabel basin system continued to drain to¬
wards the north into the Cuenca Embayment, where delta progradation continued (Stein¬
mann, 1997). The present time slice may be considered as transitional from the coastal
stage to the intermontane stage.
43.5. Intermontane stage in the Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2D)

In southern Ecuador the onset of very coarse clastic sedimentation started at around
9 Ma and documents the begin of the intermontane stage. Several relatively small
intermontane basins were formed (Fig. 4.2D, Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Giron, Santa
Isabel, Nabon). The borders of these basins coincide more or less with the current
outcropping basin margins. In the south such deposits are represented by the Conglomer¬
ate Member of the Cerro Mandango Formation and the Quillollaco Formation. Both units
overly the older deposits with an angular unconformity, which was formed between 9 to 8
Ma. They consist of alluvial fan systems which were predominantly supplied from the
rising Cordillera Real in the east. The coarsening and thickening upward trends indicate
migration of the source area towards the basins due to compressive tectonic shortening.
In the area of Giron alluvial fan deposits of a Late Miocene age (9-7 Ma, Turi For¬
mation) overlie unconformably the older sediments. These syntectonic proximal deposits
were derived from a western source area and indicate a major uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental, as also evidenced in the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997). South of Santa
Isabel, lacustrine deposits with a Late Miocene age (9 Ma, Uchucay Formation) rest with
a prominent angular unconformity on strongly deformed older deposits. Heavy mineral
suites from the Uchucay Formation indicate a metamorphic source area, in contrast to the
older underlying sediments (Helg, 1997). These data infer exhumation of metamorphic
rocks in the Cordillera Real, east of the Santa Isabel area, at around 9 Ma. During the same
period, the compressive intermontane basin of Nabon was formed (Hungerbuhler et al.,
1995).
The intermontane stage was coeval with regional compressive deformation in southern
Ecuador and surface uplift of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Real.
Chapter 5 100 Basin formation and deformation
5. Miocene extensional basin formation and basin inversion
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Ecuador is a region where subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental lithosphere

has taken place since at least the Cretaceous (Baldock, 1982). The subduction and the
coeval westward movement of the South American plate has had a dominant influence on
the continental margin history and is still strongly affected by these processes. Convergent
plate margins are classically described as regions where subhorizontal compressive stress
predominates. In the overriding plate, shortening parallel to the convergence direction
occurs. However, extension is also recognised in subduction settings, in particular in the
back-arc and fore-arc regions. The degree of coupling between the converging plates and
the relative plate motions are the most important factors (Dewey, 1980, Jarrard, 1986).
Changes of these parameters can result either in compression or extension; moreover, the
two stress regimes may occur simultaneously in different regions.

Various models have been proposed for the Andes which try to explain wether
compression and/or extension occurred at the convergent plate margin since the Creta¬
ceous, and which was the dominant driving force for basin formation and deformation.
Two end members of opinion exist. Steinmann (1929) recognised different deformation
phases in Peru. In later studies (e.g. Megard et al., 1984, Sebrier et al., 1988, Noble et al.,
1990), the occurrence of short-lived compressive pulses was proposed in the Central An¬
des which were separated by periods of extension or relative tectonic quiescence. In con¬
trast, the hypothesis of a long lasting compressional regime was proposed by Noblet et al.
(1988) and Sempere et al. (1990). Noblet et al. (1996) favoured continuous tectonic com¬
pression for the northern Andes since the Late Cretaceous. However, such a continuum
model cannot explain the well documented periods of extension in the Andes (e.g. Aguirre,
1987, Petford and Atherton, 1994).
The present work does not attempt to propose a new model. However, both exten¬
sion and compression are recognised in the studied area in the Tertiary, which does sug¬
gest the presence of repeated deformation phases. The concept of a tectonic continuum
which was also proposed for the Ecuadorian Andes (Noblet et al., 1996) cannot be ap¬
plied, because compression was simply not continuous. Extension played a major role as
documented by the formation of basins in the Ecuadorian Costa and in the Andean do¬
main. As shown above, in the central and southern Sierra of Ecuador several basins were
formed in a predominantly extensional setting at sealevel at the beginning of the Middle

Miocene. The evolution of these Andean intra-arc basins was genetically linked with the
coeval formation of the fore-arc basins in the Costa area. At 9-8 Ma, a regional compressive
deformation event resulted in basin inversion and overprinting of the older structures by
thrusting and inverse faulting. This compressional event affected mostly the basins in the
Andean domain but is also recorded, although less pronounced, in the fore-arc region.
Large scale reflection seismic data and kinematic studies in the Central Andes (e.g. Baby
et al., 1992, Schmitz, 1994, Okaya et al., 1997) show that the major Neogene regional
shortening was accommodated for a great part in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt.
However, some shortening was also recognised in the Andean domain (Altiplano and
Eastern Cordillera).
5.2. TECTONIC SETTING OF SOUTHERN ECUADOR
The pronounced geomorphic E-W division of Ecuador into Costa, Cordillera
Occidental, Inter-Andean Valley, Cordillera Real, Sub-Andean zone and Oriente is the
product of a complex geologic and the tectonic evolution. Several events of terrane accre¬
tion and arc formation have been postulated (e.g. Goossen and Rose, 1973, Lebrat et al.,
1985, Feininger, 1987, Aspden and Litheriand, 1992, Jaillard et al., 1995) to have driven
the dominant E-W division. However, in southern Ecuador, south of 2°S the E-W segmen¬
tation is less pronounced, and no Inter-Andean Valley exists. Here, the Andes consist of a
highly dissected mountain chain with prominent E-W trending tectonic structures. Be¬
cause of this, this part of the Andes between 3° and 8° S has been distinguished as
Huancabamba Andes (Mourier et al., 1988) from the northern part. In this region, the
normally N-S trending coast of northern South America is dissected by the Gulf of
Guayaquil.
Also on a larger scale, the Andes show a pronounced N-S segmentation. The main
structural change between the central and the northern Andes occurs in southern Ecuador
and northern Peru (Fig. 5.1). This region where the change from NW striking Cordilleras
in Peru to a NNE trend in Ecuador takes place, has been known for a long time as the
Huancabamba deflection (Gansser, 1973). However, there is evidence for a N-S segmen¬
tation on a smaller scale which is caused by E-W trending fault structures. The E-W fault
zones are partly old pre-Andean structures which developed during the pre-Tertiary his¬
tory of northern South America for instance during the accretion of the Amotape-Tahuin
terrane (Mourier et al., 1988, Litheriand et al., 1993). These transverse structures and the
N-S trending structures were reactivated during the Tertiary (Litheriand et al., 1994), es¬
pecially by the Miocene Andean deformation.

81° 80° 79° 78° 77°
Fig. 5.1. Tectonic map of southern Ecuador with the most important
regional structures. The frame
shows the location of Fig. 5.2. Note that the two
sutures are not of the same
age: (1) Lebrat et al.'s
(1987) suture originated from the Eocene or Oligocene accretion of the Macuchi/Pinon
and (2) Mourier et al. 's
complex
(1988) suture is related to the Early Cretaceous accretion of the
Tahuin terrane. Sources: Sierra of Ecuador Amotape-
(this work, Steinmann, 1997), Costa of Ecuador (Benitez,
1986a, Daly, 1989), Cordillera Real (Litheriand et al.,
1994), Oriente of Ecuador (Litheriand et al.,
1993), northern Peru (Megard 1984, 1989), northwestern Peru
(Shepherd and Moberly, 1981).
Key to abbreviations: DGM (Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear), GB
(Guayaquil basin, Pliocene to
present), JF (Jubones fault), J-TB (Jambeli-Tumbez basin, Late Miocene to
present), MB (Manabi
basin, Early to Middle Late Miocene), MTFB (Maranon uirust and fold
belt), PB (Progreso basin,
Early to Middle Miocene), STFB (Sub-Andean thrust and fold belt),TB (Talara basin, Eocene).
Southern Ecuador (south of 2°S)

including the coastal area, is a region where the
intersection between the N-S and E-W
trending tectonic structures of different scales can
be observed (Fig. 5.1). Goossens
(1972,1973) recognised a structural control on minerali¬
sation in Ecuador by the intersection of
Andean-trending and E-W trending transverse
faults between 1° and 4° S. On a larger scale, Shepherd and Moberly (1981) postulated the
presence of two major E-W trending transcontinental megashear zones which border the
transition zone between the central and northern Andes, which may control the forearc
basin formation in Ecuador and Peru. The two megashears represent the limits of the
Precambrian Guayana and Brazil Shields. However, these old structures do not affect the
Late Tertiary structures of southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Smaller scale E-W trending
structures may have been responsible for the opening of the Loja Embayment and the
Vilcabamba Inlet (see Chapter 4.3. and 6.2.) which formed a connection between the
Pacific Ocean and the Oriente of Ecuador during the Middle Miocene. Campbell (1974)
had already suggested the former presence of such a depression across the Andes, the
Marafion Portal, which formed during the Tertiary, where marine incursions reached the
Sub-Andean zone of Ecuador and Peru.
The Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear (DGM, Fig. 5.1) is a major structure in Ecua¬
dor. It represents a dextral shear zone, which separates in the north the Inter-Andean zone
from the Cordillera Occidental. Towards the south (at 2°S) it cuts across the Cordillera
Occidental and splits into several normal faults underlying the Gulf of Guayaquil. Possi¬
bly, the normal faults bend towards the South American trench to accommodate the dex¬
tral motion between the subducting oceanic plate and the South American continental
margin. This setting defines the Progreso and the younger Jambeli-Tumbez forearc-basins
as pull-apart basins (Shepherd and Moberly, 1981, Benitez, 1986b) developing where the
translative movements passed from a marginal position to a intra-arc position. The DGM
separates Upper Cretaceous oceanic crust in the Costa area from continental crust in the
Sierra to the east (Goossens and Rose, 1973, Lebrat et al., 1987). Lebrat et al. (1985)
proposed that the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is a zone of west-
vergent reverse faults which correspond to a former suture. According to these authors,
the DGM was superimposed on the suture zone and is therefore younger. The suture origi¬
nated previously from the collision of the Macuchi arc with continental South America in
the Eocene or Oligocene (Feininger and Bristow, 1980, Egiiez, 1986, Lebrat et al., 1987,
Bourgois et al., 1990). The DGM must have been active at least since the Early Miocene
because it controls the opening of the Early to Middle Miocene Progreso and the Middle/
Late Miocene to Recent Jambeli-Tumbez basins (Benitez, 1986b, Whittaker, 1988). Shep¬
herd and Moberly (1981) tentatively suggested a dextral displacement along the DGM of
about 80 to 100 km. In this context, it is important to note that the Middle Miocene basins
in the southern Sierra of Ecuador were formed at sea level and their evolution was linked
with the fore-arc history (see above).

Mourier et al. (1988) suggested the presence of another suture zone in northwestern
Peru and southwestern Ecuador (Fig. 5.1), which was formed by the accretion of the
Amotape-Tahuin terrane to the northeastern Peruvian margin in Early Cretaceous times.

The trace of this suture zone may be linked with regional faults (e.g. Jubones fault) in
southwestern Ecuador, which form the boundary between the metamorphic El Oro com¬
and the Andean domain. This structure represent major tectonic boundary, which is
plex a
documented by N-S striking east directed thrust faults, which are linked with the E-W
trending Jubones fault (Fig. 5.1). The Late Miocene deformation observed in the Middle
Miocene sedimentary series and older units exposed east of this tectonic boundary was
most likely caused by a northeast and eastward directed indentation of the El Oro block
into the Andean domain. Such an indentation could have been accommodated during the
compressive deformation event at around 8 Ma in the southern Sierra of Ecuador.
Litheriand et al. (1994) suggested the presence of east-vergent NNE-SSW striking

reverse faults at the eastern flank of the Cordillera Real in southern Ecuador (Fig. 5.1). To
the South, Megard (1984) described the Maranon thrust and fold belt (MTFB, Fig. 5.1) in
central and northern Peru which lies in the Peruvian Andean domain between the Western
and Eastern Cordillera. The MTFB extends, according to Megard (1984), from 7° to 12°30'
S and has an eastern vergence and developed in the Eocene during the Incaic phase. It was
reactivated by younger tectonic phases, namely the Quechua 1 (15-17 Ma, according to
Sebrier et al., 1988) by E-W shortening, the Quechua 2 (10 Ma) by dextral strike-slip
movement and the Quechua 3 (7 Ma) by sinistral strike-slip motion. The MTFB forms an
Inter-Andean structure which is parallel to the fold and thrust belt in the Sub-Andean
zone. The observed thrusts and related deformation in the Sierra of southern Ecuador
occur in a very similar setting and lie west of the Sub-Andean fold and thrust zone. There¬
fore, it seems very likely that the thrust zone in the Andean domain of southern Ecuador
forms the northern prolongation of the MTFB.
5.3. MIDDLE MIOCENE EXTENSION AND BASIN FORMATION
53.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin
The predominant deformation of the Miocene sediments in southern Ecuador is re¬
lated to compression. However, various features in several basins such as onlap geometry,
block rotation along listric normal faults and asymmetric basin fill geometry show that
extensional structures controlled the basin formation and predated the compressional de¬
formation. In the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin, the basin forming exten¬
sion and subsequent deformation can be observed. In the Quebrada Burrohuayacu, which
lies south of the town Santa Isabel (Figs. 5.2, 5.3) along the northwestern basin margin,
the Middle Miocene basin fill overlies the Lower Oligocene volcanics with a distinct
onlap. The Middle Miocene sediments show wedging towards the southeastern basin mar-
gin and therefore the basin fill has a dominant asymmetric geometry (Fig. 5.3). Listric
normal faults and tilted blocks in the Oligocene volcanics and the subsequent fill of these
half-grabens with Middle Miocene sediments document an extensional setting during this
time. Small scale normal growth faults within the basin series (pers. comm. Urs Helg,
1997) are additional evidence that extension prevailed during the Middle Miocene. Based
on these observations the Giron-Santa Isabel basin is interpreted as a half graben, which
formed at the beginning of the Middle Miocene (at around 15 Ma); the extensional regime
was active until the early Late Miocene (10 Ma). The normal faults have a consistent NE-
SW trend, which is parallel to the basin axis. No strike-slip component on the normal
faults was observed. In the southernmost part of the basin an onlap geometry of the Mid¬
dle Miocene sediments on the Upper Oligocene -
Lower Miocene Saraguro Formation is
observed (Fig. 5.6A). The asymmetric basin geometry implies a master normal fault at the
southeastern margin. This fault is not exposed because of the younger compressional de¬
formation which resulted in a considerable shortening perpendicular to the basin axis. The
basin was much larger than the present geographic area suggests, and the present limits
are controlled by younger tectonic structures. This is evidenced by the presence of relic
sediments outside of the main depression.
5 10 15 20
-nm— i
Kilometers
Fig. 5.2. Geological map of the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin. The location of the
geological sections in Fig. 5.3, 5.5 is shown on the map. The legend to the geological map is
shown in Fig. 3.3A.
Fig. along the Quebrada Burrohuaycu, showing

5.3. Cross section of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
normal faulting during basin formation and fill in the Middle Miocene
which is related to extension
(A). The section is drawn from the photo below (B). The Santa Isabel basin was formed as a half
graben with a master NNE trending normal growth fault along the easten margin. The location of
the section is shown in Fig. 5.2.
5.3.2. Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins
The thickening of the Middle and lowermost Upper Miocene fill in the Loja basin
towards the eastern margin and the onlap geometry along the western margin suggests an
asymmetric basin form in a half graben (Fig. 5.4.). The evolution of the Loja basin during
the Middle Miocene can be summarised in the following way (Fig. 5.4.):
A. Formation of a half graben type basin in a most likely E-W extensional setting in
the Middle Miocene (13.8+1.2 Ma). Deposition of the Lower Sandstone Member of the
San Cayetano Formation in a meandering mixed-load fluvial system. The presence of coal
and the fossil flora (see Chapter 3) indicate a humid tropical environment at low altitude,
most likely only little above sealevel (Berry, 1929, 1945).
B. Ongoing extension and deposition of the Lower Sandstone Member, which con¬
sists only of reworked metamorphic material (see Chapter 3). Further to the west, the
Trigal Formation accumulated in a mixed-load fluvial system with dominant sheet floods
and with reworked volcanic material. The sediments of the two fluvial systems were de¬
rived from two different source areas and were most likely deposited in two individual
half grabens separated by the emergent edge of a rotated fault.
C. At the end of the Middle Miocene (11.1±1.2 Ma) subsidence or a sea-level rise
caused marine transgression as evidenced by the presence of foraminifera, estuarine
ostracods which suggest a lagoonal environment (Peterson et al., in prep.). Deposition of
the limestones of the La Banda Formation in the eastern sub-basin is not documented,
however, differential block movements may have been responsible for their erosion in the
eastern part.
D. The separation into a western and eastern half graben by a horst of metamorphic
rocks was re-established. In the west a fluvial system (Belen Formation) transported domi-
nandy volcanic and lesser metamorphic material. The synsedimentary normal fault at the
eastern basin margin continued to controlled half-graben evolution and sedimentation in a

lacustrine environment (Siltstone Member of the San Cayetano Formation) prevailed until
10 Ma. Several debris flow deposits from landslides are intercalated with the fine grained
lacustrine sediments and are associated with slump structures (Fig. 5.10A), suggesting an
increased relief and tectonic activity along this margin.

E. The lake was filled by the prograding Upper Sandstone Member of the San
Cayetano Formation, a mixed load fluvial system with predominant metamorphic peb¬
bles. The upper part of the Belen Formation also contains metamorphic clasts and there¬
fore a link between the eastern and western depositional systems may be assumed.
Fig. 5.4. Structural evolution of the Loja basin during the Miocene to Pliocene. The different
G explained in the text. Note that dunng the Middle Miocene, extension and
stages from A to are
subsidence prevailed and sedimentation occurred at sealevel. In the Latest Miocene, inversion
occurred, the basinal area was considerably shortened and sedimentation took place in a smaller
intermontane basm.
In the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin the Middle Miocene sediments were also strongly
affected by the Late Miocene compressional deformation and therefore, older extensional
structures are overprinted. However, the many sedimentary dikes within the fill series as
well as andesitic dikes point to a consistent N-S extension.
The present data infer that extension prevailed during the Middle Miocene up to the
earliest Late Miocene (15-10 Ma) in the entire Andean domain of central and southern
Ecuador and caused basin formation. In the northern Giron-Santa Isabel and Cuenca basin
extension was NW-SE directed (see also Steinmann, 1997). The scarcity of evidence in
the southern basins does not allow a clear definition of the direction of maximum exten¬
sion. The geometry of the Loja basin would implie an E-W extension.
5.4. LATE MIOCENE COMPRESSION - A REGIONAL EVENT
Neogene thrust tectonics were until now not recognised in the Andes of Ecuador.
Only Late Tertiary thrusting was inferred in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt. How¬
ever, in the study area large scale thrusting was noted. It occurred during the 9-8 Ma event
(see Chapter 2), when compressional features such as reverse faults, folds and thrusts
from metric to regional scale developed in the Middle and lower Upper Miocene sediments
and the underlying volcanic rocks. This compressional event caused the inversion of the
Middle to early Late Miocene basins in the Andean domain and also in the fore-arc region.
Therefore, the extensional structures which were formed during the Middle Miocene were
overprinted and are difficult to reconstruct.
5.4.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin
In the southernmost part of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, subhorizontal lacustrine sedi¬
ments of the Uchucay Formation with an age of 9.4±1.6 Ma rest with marked angular
unconformity on the deformed Middle to lower Upper Miocene basin series (Burrohuaycu
Formation 14.7-10.5 Ma). Both, the Burrohuaycu and the underlying Saraguro Forma¬
tions are folded and thrust faults of metric to kilometric scale occur. The Uchucay Forma¬
tion seals this compressive deformation which was very short-lived and which occurred at
around 9 to 8 Ma. In the northern Cuenca basin dating of angular unconformities and
cross-cut relations of intrusive rocks define also a Late Miocene deformation event at
around 9 to 8 Ma (Steinmann, 1997). Compressive structures are discussed in more detail
from north to south.
The southern margin of the Santa Isabel sub-basin is a prominent thrust fault (Figs.
horizontal and vertical scale
Fig. 5.5. Characteristic deformation features in the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin
which are related to the 9 Ma compressional event (basin inversion). A) Large scale thrusting
of
the Saraguro the Middle Miocene basin fill series (see section in Fig. 5.6A); B)
Formation on
thrust imbrication in the Burrohuaycu Formation, west of the village of Jubones; C) intensively
folded and faulted sediments of the Burrohuaycu Formation along the southeastern basin margin,
east of the village of Jubones; D) Characteristic chevron type folding in the Saraguro Formation,
in the region adjacent to the southeastern basin margin (see section in Fig. 5.6B). The symmetric
folds synclines.
open box folds form anticlines and tight chevron
Fig. 5.6. Two cross sections in the southern part of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin which intersect
each other. Section A shows large scale thrust faulting along the southern basin margin which
occurred at around 9 Ma during basin inversion. The volcanic Saraguro Formation (Upper
Oligocene-Lower Miocene) was thrust onto the Middle Miocene basin fill (Burrohuaycu Forma¬
tion). Section B shows the Middle Miocene extensional structures in the western part and the
intense folding in the Saraguro Formation east of the present basin margin, which is related to the
9 Ma inversion. The chevron folding suggests an overall shortening of about 30% in the deformed
belt. The location of the sections is shown in Fig. 5.2.
5.2, 5.5A, 5.6A) along which the Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene volcanic rocks of
the Saraguro Formation are thrust over the Middle Miocene basin fill (Burrohuaycu For¬
mation). In the footwall of the NE-directed thrust fault, the sediments were overturned and
form a footwall syncline (Fig. 5.7B). Baudino et al. (1996) misinterpreted this situation.
They suggested that the acidic volcanic rocks (their Chinchillo Formation, which is in fact
part of the Saraguro Formation) rest unconformably on the basin fill series and therefore
they assumed an Early Miocene age for the basin sediments. However, the field relation¬
ships and the zircon fission-track ages show that the Saraguro Formation is thrust onto the
Middle Miocene Burrohuaycu Formation. A minimal estimate for the vertical and hori¬
zontal displacement along the thrust fault is 2 km and 4 km, respectively (Fig. 5.6A).
Abundant small-scale thrust faults in the Middle Miocene sediments are observed (Fig.
5.7C). Along the southern basin margin the thrust faults are in general north-directed and
they caused strong shortening in the fine grained sediments (Fig. 5.7D). Towards the north,
south of the town of Santa Isabel, the small scale thrust faults in the sediments are NNW-
directed because of the influence of a master thrust zone along the eastern basin margin
with a NW vergence (Fig. 5.2). Mapping in the strongly dissected region outside of the
Santa Isabel sub-basin (Litheriand et al., 1993) allows the contact relationship between
the metamorphic rocks and the overlying acidic volcanics of the Saraguro Formation to be
delineated (Fig. 5.6A). This shows that the thrust faults involved the basement on a large
scale. Detailed mapping in the frame of the Cordillera Occidental project of the British
Geological Survey (Pratt et al., 1997) revealed the presence of another large scale thrust
fault south of the Santa Isabel basin in the area of Manu (BGS and CODIGEM, in press).
This thrust zone is NE-directed, has an E-W trend and bends near the southernmost edge
of the Santa Isabel basin towards the south, where it joins a regional N-S trending E-
vergent thrust fault (Fig. 5.2, Pratt et al., 1997).
The Burrohuaycu Formation along the southeastern basin margin and the underly¬
ing Saraguro Formation outside of the basin were strongly folded (Fig. 5.2). By correla¬
tion of reference horizons it becomes obvious that the Middle Miocene sediments suf¬
fered, in a 1 km wide NNE-SSW striking belt, complex compressive deformation with
isoclinal folds and reverse faults (Fig.5.5C). The faults and fold axis have a NE-SW trend.
The strong deformation is most likely caused by large scale NW verging thrusting (Fig.
5.2) of the Saraguro Formation over the sediments.
The Saraguro Formation consists predominantly of ignimbrites which form indi¬
vidual layers with thicknesses up to 100 meters. They are separated by ash fall deposits
and minor volcaniclastic sediments. These lithologic repetitions allow mapping of the
deformation in this rather monotonous formation. East of the Santa Isabel sub-basin, the
Fig. 5.7. Structures in the Giron-Santa Isabel basin.

A) Onlap of the Middle Miocene Burrohuaycu
Formation onto the Saraguro Formation (Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene) along the southwest¬
ern basin margin. B) Footwall syncline in the Burrohuaycu Formation, see Fig. 5.5A, 5.6A. C)
Small-scale thrust faults in the Burrohuaycu Formation and associated sheared shales (D). E)
Strongly folded Saraguro Formation, exposed west of the southeastern basin margin (marked with
line). Some folds are indicated, also in the basin fill series. View towards the north. F) Small scale
thrust (forelimb thrust) in folded sediments of the Burrohuaycu Formation, exposed at the south¬
ern basin margin, where north-directed large scale thrusting is observed.
Saraguro Formation was strongly folded and the geometry displays the characteristics of
chevron folds on a kilometric scale (Fig. 5.7E). This deformation style is only present in a
belt (Figs. 5.2,5.6B) with a N-S trend and a width of 5 km. Its western limit is formed by
west-directed thrust faults within the Burrohuaycu Formation and the eastern limit by
internal thrust faults within the Saraguro Formation. West of the village of Jubones, the
eastern limit of the deformed belt is less well defined. Along several sections symmetric
open box folds, which form anticlines and tight chevron folds representing synclines can
be observed (Fig. 5.5D). In some areas also kink folds occur. The chevron folds account
for a considerable increase in the thickness of the Saraguro Formation and the fold geom¬
etry suggests an overall shortening of about 30% (Fig. 5.6B, Twiss and Moore, 1992). The
folds are cut by a few thrust faults which accommodated further shortening. Such phe¬
nomena was also observed in the Middle Miocene sediments, where anticlines were fur¬
ther deformed by forelimb and backlimb thrusts (Fig. 5.7F). The chevron folding in the
Saraguro Formation is typical for deformation of layered rocks with a strong planar me¬
chanical anisotropy (Twiss and Moores, 1992). Kink and chevron folds are most com¬
monly formed by deformation at relatively low temperature and low burial, respectively
(Suppe, 1985). Typically, the deformed Saraguro Formation does not show any sign of
metamorphism which would suggest a higher temperature overprint. No zircon fission-
track ages in the Saraguro Formation were reset, but reveal consistent depositional ages,
which are younging up-section. Therefore, the temperature did not exceed 260+25 °C, me
closure temperature of zircon fission-track system (Foster et al., 1996).

The Saraguro Formation exposed to the east of the belt with predominant chevron
folding, is only weakly deformed and its bedding is mainly subhorizontal. Northwest of
the town of Ofia an open syncline with a NE-SW trending axis is present (Fig. 5.2). Hence,
shortening was concentrated in a narrow belt at the eastern margin of the Santa Isabel sub-
basin, which is bounded by thrust faults.
5.4.2. Loja basin

The Loja basin fill has a primary asymmetric form. The Middle to lower Upper
Miocene sediments (15-10 Ma) form a wedge and show onlap geometry along the western
basin margin. The beds are steeply inclined to overturned at the eastern margin, which is a
west-vergent reverse fault. The basin is cut by another major west-directed thrust fault
which is parallel to the actual N-S strike of the depression (Fig. 3.5). This fault divides the
basin into two sub-basins. The sediments in the footwall plunge uniformly towards the
east, whereas the sediments in the hangingwall were strongly folded (Fig. 3.5). The fold
axes trend parallel to the thrust fault and the folds have a very tight to isoclinal shape. In
the northernmost part of the basin the folds are overturned and the axial plane plunges to
the east. Such geometric relations show that thrusting and folding occurred at the same
time. The compressive deformation occurred after the end of sedimentation of the San
Cayetano Formation, after 10 Ma and most likely at around 9-8 Ma like in the other ba¬
sins. The overlying coarse clastic Quillollaco Formation rests with marked angular uncon¬
formity on the older basin fill. The Quillollaco Formation was only deformed in open
synclines with a roughly N-S trend, parallel to the basin axis. The different deformation
intensity above and below the angular unconformity indicates that the main deformation
occurred before sedimentation of the Quillollaco Formation. However, the compressional
regime persisted during the presumably short-lived sedimentation Quillollaco Formation.

The reverse fault along the eastern basin margin caused the superposition of Mesozoic
metamorphic rocks onto the Miocene sediments. This fault is also of Late Miocene age
and caused additional shortening as shown by the open folds in the Quillollaco Formation.
The Late Miocene evolution of the Loja basin can be summarised in the following
way (Fig. 5.4):
F. At around 9-8 Ma the half graben type structure was inverted and the Middle
Miocene sediments were strongly deformed by E-W compression as documented by folds,
reverse faults and thrusts. An intermontane basin was established and filled with the
syntectonic coarse elastics of the Quillollaco Formation. This unit is an alluvial fan de¬
posit with the source area in metamorphic rocks, near to the basin. Associated with inver¬
sion surface uplift is assumed to have occurred as shown by the absence of marine/esrua-
rine facies. This deformation and uplift evidenced in the Loja area is correlated with the
regional 9-8 Ma event which is observed in the Sierra of Ecuador between Cuenca and
Vilcabamba.
G. Further shortening and deformation occurred in the Pliocene and Quaternary.

The entire Miocene series, including also the Quillollaco Formation, was folded. Shorten¬
ing was predominately accommodated by large scale thrust faults and sinistral strike-slip
faults. Activity along the reverse faults caused imbrication of the eastern block over the
western basin part the basin. Erosion has been the dominant process since the Latest Miocene
and therefore the sediments are only remnants of those originally deposited. The pyroclastic
Salapa Formation documents a relatively local volcanic activity at around 2.3 Ma.
5.4.3. Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin
The eastern basin margin is formed by a west vergent reverse fault which placed
metamorphic rocks onto the Miocene sediments (Fig. 5.8). In addition, there are two ma¬
jor reverse faults with a similar vergence within the basin. The first marks the western
limit of the La Granja block which lies northeast of the town Malacatos (Fig. 5.8). This
block consists of Middle to Upper Miocene sediments with a NE dip in the range of 30 to
50°. Towards the reverse fault at the basin margin a syncline with a non-cylindrical mor¬
phology and a fold axis oblique to the reverse fault was observed. The second thrust fault
runs parallel to the present basin axis and is also west-directed (Fig. 5.8). The fault is
marked by the occurrence of lower Middle Miocene acidic volcanic rocks (Quinara For¬
mation) in the hangingwall. In the footwall a NNW-SSE trending open syncline in the
Upper Miocene sediments is exposed.
670
9550
9540
9530
4° 15'
9520
Kilometers
Fig. 5.8. Geological map of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin and the southern part of the Cata¬
mayo-Gonzanama basm. The location of the geological sections in Fig. 5.9 is shown on the map.
The legend to the geological map is shown in Fig. 3.3A.
In the northernmost part of the basin, near the village La Merced, the Middle Miocene
basin fill series is intensively deformed, partly because of presence of incompetent gyp¬
sum layers (Fig. 5.10B). In this area, deformation is related to the reverse fault at the basin
margin and the sediments were deformed to isoclinal folds; continued shortening was
accommodated by small scale reverse faults. The folds have conical shapes and the fold
axis plunges obliquely towards the marginal reverse fault in the south.
The age of the compressional deformation is given by zircon fission-track age
determinations of ash-layers, intercalated in synsedimentary deformed sediments. South
of the town of Vilcabamba the Upper Miocene sediments show wedging on metric to
kilometric scale towards the basin centre and continuous flattening towards the top of the
basin fill (Figs. 5.9B, 5.IOC and D). Along the eastern basin margin, which is a west-
directed reverse fault, the sediments are steeply inclined or overturned and pinch out to¬
wards the east. The geometry of the sediment bodies ischaracteristic for cumulative wedges
(progressive unconformities, Riba, 1976, Anaddn et al., 1986) in a compressional setting.

The sediments which are involved in this deformation have an age of 8 Ma and consist of
the coarse elastics of the top of the basin fill (Conglomerate Member of the Cerro Mandango
Formation). Coeval Late Miocene compressional synsedimentary deformation is also docu¬
mented in the Nabon basin (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) which occurred between 8.5 to 7.9
Ma. The compressional deformation at around 8 Ma strongly affected the Middle Miocene
basin fill series in Malacatos-Vilcabamba, but the syntectonic coarse elastics to a much
lesser degree. The Middle and Upper Miocene sediments are partly steeply inclined and
form imbricated blocks with a prominent eastern plunge (Fig. 5.9A). This geometry may
have been increased by post-Miocene reactivation of the reverse faults.
The conical folds which are adjacent to the reverse fault at the NE basin margin
were most likely linked to a strike-slip motion along the reverse fault (conical drag faults,
Becker, 1995). The obliquity of the folds axis and shear sense criteria suggest a sinistral
strike-slip component along the reverse fault.
5.4.4. Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
Most of the contacts of the Middle Miocene series with other formations are of
tectonic nature, mainly thrust faults (Figs. 3.3,3.5,5.8,5.9A.C). The interpretation of the
contacts by Kenneriey and Almeida (1975a), Marocco et al. (1995) and Jaillard et al.
(1996) as normal stratigraphic transitions are wrong. The thrusts place Oligocene and
older volcanic rocks (Loma Blanca and Sacapalca Formations) onto the Middle Miocene
Fig. 5.9. Cross sections in Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama basins. Section A

shows large scale thrust faulting which occurred at around 9 Ma and an inferred older Middle
Miocene normal fault. The basin fill series of Malacatos-Vilcabamba in the region of La Merced
are steeply inclined, due to the Late Miocene inversion. Section B is derived from the south¬
ernmost part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin, where progressive unconformities in the top of
the fill series document the syn-sedimentary deformation at around 8 Ma. Section C shows large
scale thrust faulting in the region of Nambacola, where the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene?
Sacapalca Formation was thrust onto the Middle Miocene Gonzanama Formation. The location
of the sections is shown in Fig. 5.8.
Catamayo-Gonzanama-Malacatos-Vilcabamba region
-
Santa Rita La Merced section
active at around 9-8 Ma
WSW Cerro Collona section ENE WNW Nambacola section ESE
Catamayo-Gonzanama road
Nambacola
active at around 9-8 Ma

vertical and horizontal scale
14.9±1.6 Ma zircon fission-track ages (error±2cr); [ \ Late Middle Miocene sediments (Cerro Mandango Fm.)
this work
| | Middle Miocene sediments (Gonzanama, San Jose, Santo Domingo Fms.)
~~^~-/ unconformity acidic volcanics
1111 (Quinara Fm., Middle Miocene)
[.'''.] granodioritic intrusion (Paleogene) tJT"sj intermediate to acidic volcanics (Loma Blanca Fm., Up. Eocene-Oligocene)
I //\ Paleozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic rocks | j basic to intermediate volcanics (Sacapaica Fm., Upper Cretac.-Paleoc.)
Fig. 5.10. Structures in the Loja (L), Malacatos-Vilcabamba (M-V) and Catamayo-Gonzanama
(C-G) basins. A) Large slump in the San Cayetano Formation, exposed south of Loja. B) Strongly
folded sediments of Santo Domingo Formation, exposed in the gypsum mine near the village La
Merced (M-V). The gypsum forms the core of an anticline. C) Progressive unconformity in the
Cerro Mandango Formation (M-V), south of Vilcabamba. The beds show a continuous flattening
towards the right. Two volcanic intercalation in this site, which are involved in the syn-sedimen-
tary deformation are dated at 8.0+1.0 (DH 293) and 7.7+D.8 Ma (DH 294). D) Large-scale pro¬
gressive unconformity in the southern part of the M-V basin in the upper fill. View towards the
north. The progressive flattening towards the east is indicated. E) Strongly sheared sediments of
the Gonzanama Formation (Middle Miocene, C-G), exposed west of Nambacola in the footwall of
a large-scale thrust fault. F) Kink folds in the sediments of Gonzanama Formation, exposed along
the road Catamayo-Gonzanama, south of Surunuma. The folding is related to the thrusting of the
older Sacapalca and Loma Blanca Formations over the Middle Miocene sediments.
sediments. There are several well exposed outcrops along the main road from Catamayo
to Gonzanama, where these tectonic relationships can be studied.
About 5 km west of the village Nambacola in the area where the basin fill series
forms anarrow E-W striking belt (679582/9542845, Fig. 5.8), the volcanics of the Sacapalca
Formation (uppermost Cretaceous to Eocene?) and Loma Blanca Formation (Oligocene)
were thrust over the sediments of the Gonzanama Formation (Middle Miocene, Fig. 5.9 A).
Slickenslide measurements on the fault plane show N/NW directed thrusting which is
compatible with the mapped field relations in this region. The sediments in the footwall
are strongly sheared, folded and the bedding is disturbed (Fig. 5.10E). Matrix-supported
breccias are also exposed within the sediments which consist predominantly of angular
andesitic components with diameters up to 2 m. The breccias formed by tectonic rework¬
ing of andesitic blocks from the hangingwall along the thrust plane.
Further to the south, in the region of the village Surunuma (along a 100 m long NW-
SE striking roadcut, 674378/9539250, Figs. 5.8,5.9C), prominent kink folds and smaller
thrusts are present within the Gonzanama Formation (Fig. 5.10F). The orientation of the
thrust planes indicate a NW-directed movement. The sediments are tectonically overlain
by the Sacapalca Formation, but the contact is mostly covered by Quaternary deposits.
The youngest rocks in the Catamayo-Gonzanama basin which suffered deformation
by thrusting, have an age of 14 Ma. Therefore, this tectonic event must be younger and
based on regional correlation, a Late Miocene (9-8 Ma) age is inferred.
5.5. DISCUSSION OF STRIKE-SLIP DEFORMATION
The youngest tectonic structures in the region are strike-slip faults with different
trends and shear directions. In the area of Santa Isabel, Nabon and Saraguro, the NW-SE
striking faults are sinistral; a second group of NNW-SSE-trending faults have possibly a
dextral displacement (Fig. 5.2). This strike-slip faults cut the earlier Late Miocene com¬
pressional structures and are therefore post 8 Ma. Such faults have not been seen in the
Tarqui Formation which has an age of 6.3 Ma (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995).

In the southern basins of Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Catamayo-Gonzanama, a set
of dextral strike-slip faults with a NW-SE-and ENE-WSW-trend deformed partly the Late
Miocene compressional structures (Fig. 5.8). Part of the strike-slip deformation must be
younger, as observed in the region of Saraguro. Another set of sinistral NE-SW striking
faults is exposed in the area of Purunuma and La Merced and east of the village El Cisne
(Fig. 5.8). Strike-slip activity in the central and southern Sierra of Ecuador appears to be
younger than 8 Ma as field observations have not yielded evidence for older strike-slip
deformation or a transcurrent component on the Middle Miocene extensional faults.
Noblet et al. (1988) suggested for the formation and closure of the basins of Cuenca,
Giron-Santa Isabel, Nabon, Loja and Vilcabamba-Malacatos a regional dextral strike-slip

system acting along N-S to NNE-SSW trending faults. The authors assumed a clockwise
rotation of the maximal shortening from NNE-SSW in the Early Miocene to E-W in the
Late Miocene and Pliocene. However, their model was based on the assumption of
synsedimentary deformation in the Cuenca basin which in turn was based on poor
stratigraphic data. Similarly, a strike-slip origin was proposed for the other basins. Basin-
to-basin correlation was based on lithology only (Lavenu and Noblet, 1989) without refer¬
ence to any absolute ages. However, the strike-slip model lacks any evidence in the Cuenca
basin (Steinmann, 1997) because in this basin no synsedimentary compressional deforma¬
tion was observed.
Lavenu et al. (1995a) reported the results of a stress inversion analysis to support
their strike-slip model and their idea of a clockwise rotation of the compressive stresses
from the Early to the Late Miocene in all basins. Detailed chronostratigraphy (this work,
Hungerbuhler et al., 1995, Steinmann, 1997) shows clearly that most of the basins were
formed in the early Middle Miocene in a dominantly extensional regime. Their sediments
cover a range from 15 to 8 Ma, except for the short-lived Nabon basin which was active
from 8.5 to 7.9 Ma. Therefore, no Lower Miocene sediments are present in the basins
which could have recorded the stress regime during this epoch as suggested by Noblet et
al. (1988), Baudino et al. (1994) and Lavenu et al. (1995).

Generally, the temporal grouping of stress fields by Lavenu et al. (1995) based on a
separation of different populations was highly hypothetical and lacks any stratigraphic
control. Moreover, the regional fault pattern in southern Ecuador is very complex. Cashman
and Ellis (1994) suggested that in such areas multiple slip vectors can be generated by the
same event and may reflect local stress states. The stress inversion method assumes that
regional stress fields are homogeneous. Pollard et al. (1993) showed that regional stress
fields may be strongly perturbated by local factors which must be considered. However,
the zircon fission-track data (this work, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995, Steinmann, 1997) from
units interpreted to be of identical age (Lavenu et al., 1995a) and from which these authors
reported microtectonic measurements revealed to be of variable age. In particular, we
observe that Lavenu et al. (1995a) attempted to compensate the lack of proper stratigraphic
correlation by hazardous grouping of structure oriented data, assuming their coeval gen¬
eration. However, close inspection of their structural data reveals that the applied group¬
ing crosses different age ranges and is therefore insignificant.

The structural data and the different timing of the extensional and compressional
deformation is not compatible with either the strike-slip or the tectonic compressive con¬
tinuum model as proposed by Noblet et al. (1988). Strike-slip movement may have oc¬
curred to some extend after 8 Ma along newly formed faults and possibly also along older
reactivated structures. The slickenslide measurements presented by Lavenu et al. (1995a)

might correlate with wrench fault activity which, however, must be younger than the basin
fill series.
5.6. SUMMARY OF BASIN FORMATION AND DEFORMATION DURING THE
LATE TERTIARY
During the Neogene, two different stages of basin evolution were separated by a
regional compressive event at around 9-8 Ma. In the Middle Miocene, several basins de¬
veloped by extension in southern Ecuador, normal to the active margin. The sedimentary
facies and paleontological data suggest a coastal plain environment with periodic marine
transgressions from the west into the Cuenca and Loja Embayments, which existed from
15 to 11 Ma. During and after the Late Miocene, sedimentation continued in smaller
intermontane basins and during compressional deformation. The resulting syntectonic
coarse elastics rest with angular unconformity on the coastal, deltaic and fluvial deposits.
The maximum shortening direction was roughly E-W. Most of the basin margins were
affected by thrusting and reverse faulting. The new intermontane basins covered about the
same areas as the present morphological depressions. The short-lived Nabon basin (8.5 to
7.9 Ma, Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) formed during this time. During the short regional
compressional event, surface uplift occurred as evidenced by the change from a coastal to
an intermontane sedimentary setting at around 9 Ma. From 8 Ma onward, the Cordillera
Real developed a continuous topographic barrier. A first strong input of sediments from
the west in the area of Giron-Santa Isabel at around 9 Ma marks coeval uplift of the
Cordillera Occidental. The prominent uplift of the Cordillera Occidental at around 8 Ma
was also well documented in the sediments of the Cuenca basin by Steinmann (1997) by
provenance trends and an apatite fission-track smdy. The uplift of the two Cordilleras with
respect to the adjacent areas was mainly accommodated by reverse faulting.
The regional extensive accumulation of thick deltaic and estuarine facies (1000 to
4800 m) requires strong subsidence rates for sediment accommodation. This is in line
with the extensional tectonic regime which affected the entire coastal area of southern
Ecuador including the Manabi and Progreso basins. In a few basins (Giron-Santa Isabel,
Loja) the synsedimentary activity of normal faults can be proven by wedging geometry of
the basin fills. However, the normal faults themselves were only preserved in the Giron-
Santa Isabel basin, and in the other basins, the normal faults are not exposed because of
inversion during later compression. The resulting reverse and thrust faults dominate the
today's tectonic pattern. This thrust activity resulted in the formation of smaller basins
during the compression.

Chapter 6 123 Late Tertiary paleogeography
6. Late Tertiary paleogeographic and tectonic evolution in

southern Ecuador
The identification of a coastal environment in the basins of southern Ecuador infers
a different paleogeographic setting than earlier assumed. This chapter attempts in a first
step to compare the basinal facies in the southern Ecuadorian Sierra with that of coeval
basin series in the adjacent regions: to the west with the forearc basins in the Costa area
(Manabi, Progreso, Jambelf-Tumbez) and to the east with the Ecuadorian Oriente. In a
second step the ostracod data and other paleontological information from the Miocene
basins series in southern Ecuador are compared with data from contemporaneous sediments
in the upper Amazon region of northeastern Peru and southeastern Colombia. This corre¬
lation allows to integrate the data from Ecuador into existing paleogeographic reconstruc¬
tions for the Miocene in northwestern South America. The presence of a marine connec¬
tion between the Pacific Ocean and the Oriente of Ecuador in the region of Loja (Vilcabamba
Inlet) is discussed. The occurrence of ostracods and molluscs known from the Caribbean
and the upper Amazon region allow to make some speculation on faunal migration.
Because of dextral strike-slip movement along the Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear
(DGM) the coastal domain was displaced since the Middle Miocene with respect to the
Andean domain. A palinspastic reconstruction of the paleogeographic situation allows to
constrain the timing of dextral strike-slip activity along the DGM. Finally, an overview of
the Late Tertiary uplift history of southern Ecuador is presented and compared with pub¬
lished Andean uplift data in Colombia and northern Peru.
6.1. CORRELATIONS WITH THE COSTA AND ORIENTE OF ECUADOR
The depositional environments and the stratigraphic nomenclature of Miocene to
Pliocene units in the Costa and Oriente of Ecuador are summarised in Table 6.1. and
compared with the evolution stages of the Miocene basins in the southern Sierra.
6.1.1. Ecuadorian Costa
During the Miocene four shallow marine forearc basins formed in the Costa domain
which were separated by submarine and subaerial ridges (Fig. 6.1 A, Marks, 1951, Baldock,
1982). In these basins very thick sequences were deposited and from north to south the
following basins can be distinguished: Esmeraldas (fill of 4 km), Manabi (4 km), Progreso
(5 km) and Jambeli-Tumbez (12 km). The Progreso and the Manabi basins were separated
by a NW-SE trending ridge along the present day Chongon-Colonche hills (Fig. 6.1 A,
Marks, 1951). South of the Progreso basin, in the area of the Jambeli Channel and the Gulf
of Guayaquil lies the Jambeli-Tumbez basin.
The Manabi, Progreso and Jambeli-Tumbez basins are discussed in more detail and
it is shown that their facies evolution can be linked with the depositional environment in
the Cuenca Embayment or in the Loja Embayment. The stratigraphic subdivision and age
ranges of Whittaker (1988) and Benitez et al. (1986) for forearc basins are used for the
correlation.
Costa southern
Jambeli-Tumbez Oriente
Manabi basin Sierra
Progreso basin basin w W
o
Canoa Fm (40m)
u
c
o—
Jagoonal Puna Fm Mesa Fm (1000m)- -
o Jama Fm (50m) i
o ,
litoral-sublitoral litoral-estuanne (alluvial fan system
denved from the W)
~~
Bahia Fm (300m)
(>1000m)
-}:
jntertidal
Guayacan
inner shelf
Fm (eoom) O
<°
T
alluvial fan Chambira Fm
Choconcha Fm (300m c and fluvial
fan, fluvial
alluvial
inner shelf-brackish § systems (denved from W)
Progreso Fm
volcanic arc
i £ (1500m)
Portoviejo Fm (800m) deltaic-estuanne
upper bathyal (12000m)
<d—
hiatus
4: 9="
Arajuno Fm
<D Progreso Fm (2700m) «E lagoonal fluvial
shallow manne-brackish deltaic
<ScB ;iooom)^Curaray Fm
°
5 Subibaja Mb it fluvial lagoonal, estuarine
shelf (750m)
.8S> <.
Tosagua Fm < DosBocas Fm

volcanic arc
Villmgota Mb (esom) Chalcana Fm
upper bathyal-nertttc
with minor
(1000m) shallow manne-shore fluvial'
fluvial
San Augustin Fm Dos Bocas Mb.(2400m) (1000m)
shorezone nentic
reworking
Quinara,
Zapotal Mb.(300m) Santa Isabel,
shelf-nearshore Saraguro Fms
Table 6.1. Correlation chart of depositional facies in the southern Ecuadorian basins (this work
and Steinmann, 1997) with formations and facies in paleogeographically adjacent basins along the
Pacific coast (Marks, 1951, Baldock, 1982, Bem'tez, 1986a, b, Whittaker, 1988) and in the Amazo¬
nian foreland basin (Oriente, Tschopp, 1953, Baldock, 1982). The basins in the coastal area repre¬
sented the continuation of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments. During die Late Miocene, deposi¬
tion occurred in separate systems and intermontane settings were established in the Sierra. The
numbers in brackets indicate the thickness of the individual formations. Note that die Sierra basins
were for most of the time separated from the Oriente basin by the Cordillera Real. A short-lived
connection only occurred via the narrow Vilcabamba Inlet.
During the Middle Miocene open marine conditions (Tosagua Fm., Table 6.1) pre¬
vailed in the Manabi basin (Whittaker, 1988) and its eastern shallow marine continuation
can be seen first in the San Augustin Formation and then in the domain of the Cuenca
Embayment (Table 6.1, Steinmann, 1997). The unconformably overlying Upper Miocene
formations of the Manabi basin reveal a shallowing upward trend (Whittaker, 1988), which
correlates with the increasingly fluvial deposition in the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997).
The shallowing of the Manabi basin during the Late Miocene and its subsequent fill in the
Pliocene (Whittaker, 1988) are most likely caused by the uplift of the Cordillera Occidental
in the west. The highly volcaniclastic composition of the Upper Miocene Portoviejo For¬
mation (800 m thick, Whittaker, 1988) correlates well with the strong volcanic activity in
the Andean domain during this period. The eruption centres were situated north of Nabon
towards Ambato and this region was the source area for the Portoviejo Formation in the
Manabi basin.
The Villingota Member of a latest Early Miocene age and some parts of the Progreso
Formation (Middle Miocene) contain volcanic material (Baldock, 1982). These sediments
were most likely derived from the volcanic zone in the southernmost Sierra which is docu¬
mented by the lower Middle Miocene pyroclastic Quinara Formation and the numerous
volcanic intercalations in the overlying basin fill series of Middle Miocene age. Above, in
the Progreso basin, an erosional unconformity and hiatus are observed in the top of the
uppermost Lower Miocene series, which are followed by a Middle Miocene transgression
(Progreso Fm., Table 6.1, Kenneriey, 1980). Likewise, in the region of the Loja Embayment
a Middle Miocene transgression occurred after a long Late OUgocene to latest Early Miocene
hiatus. Then, the Progreso Formation shows a trend from shallow marine to estuarine-
supratidal conditions (Table 6.1, Whittaker, 1988) with a very poor foraminifera fauna in
the top, suggesting a sernimarine to brackish-water habitat (Thalmann, 1946). The coeval
ostracod faunas in the Loja Embayment indicate also a restricted environment, and ac¬
cording to the sedimentary facies, lagoonal-deltaic conditions prevailed.

The entire Progreso and parts of the Manabi basin were filled in the Late Miocene and
became emergent in the Early Pliocene (Benitez, 1986a, Whittaker, 1988). The closure
and reduction of these two basins coincides with the rise of the Andean domain to the east,
in particular the Cordillera Occidenta. It supplied mainly volcaniclastic material to the
forearc basins. After the Late Miocene uplift event (9-8 Ma), the coastal and Andean do¬
mains formed separated depositional environments. In the Andes, intermontane condi¬
tions prevailed and in the Costa area deposition occurred at least since the Early Phocene
(Baldock, 1982) close to the western flank of the uplifted Cordillera Occidental. In the
southern Costa, the Guayas basin (west of the city of Guayaquil, Fig. 5.1) was formed and
filled with lagoonal and predominantly fluvial and alluvial fan material (Baldock, 1982)
derived from the Cordillera Occidental to the east. The 3000 m thick fill (Baldock, 1982)
indicates most likely a second uplift event of the Cordillera Occidental, which is evi¬
denced by apatite fission-track data in the Cuenca region and started at around 4 Ma
(Steinmann, 1997).
The depositional evolution of the Jambeli-Tumbez forearc basin (Fig. 6. IB) is less
well known, because it is situated offshore in the actual Gulf of Guayaquil, and the exist¬
ing oil exploration data are not available. The basin consists of several E-W and NE-SW
trending graben structures which are controlled by the DGM (Shepherd and Moberly,
1981). Benitez (1986b) suggested an opening of the basin at the transition from the Mid¬
dle to the Late Miocene and deposition continues up the Recent (Progreso and Puna Fms,
Table 6.1). The Jambeli-Tumbez basin formation is younger than the other forearc basins
to the north, which subsided during the Early Miocene. Exposures on Isla Puna in the Gulf
of Guayaquil belong partly to uplifted Jambelf graben fill. There, current indicators infer a
southern provenance (Garcia and Vilema, 1986) of the uppermost Middle and Late Miocene
deposits. Benitez (1986b) suggested that from the latest Middle Miocene on, the sediment
provenance pattern in the basin was the same as observed today, with input from the N and
NE. The source for the up to 12 km thick basin fill series was most likely the rising Cordillera
Occidental in the northeast. This interpretation infers that the Jambeli-Tumbez basin was
situated during its opening at around the same latitude as today.

The western continuation of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments are represented, as
discussed earlier, by the Manabi, respectively the Progreso basins. However, these two
basins in the west were dextrally displaced with respect to their eastern counterparts. This
dextral displacement occurred in the Late Miocene along the DGM, which separates the
coastal from the Andean domain. A palinspastic reconstruction in Chapter 6.3. shows a
conected paleogeographic configuration for the Middle Miocene and allows to constrain
the timing of the displacement of the coastal block towards the north along the DGM.
Fig. 6.1. Proposed palinspastic reconstruction for southern Ecuador.

A) shows the reconstruction
for the Middle Miocene when the Cuenca and Loja Embayments were connected with the Manabi
and Progreso basins, respectively. B) At the beginning of the Late Miocene (at around 9 Ma) the
Jambeli-Tumbez basin was formed as younger pull-apart structure by continued northward move¬
ment of about 100 km along the Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear. It is assumed that the onset of
uplift of the Cordillera Occidental (at 9 Ma) and the compressional deformation in southern Ecua¬
dor (basin inversion, at 9-8 Ma) coincided with the start of the formation of the Jambelf-Tumbez
basin. Abbreviations: ChC (Chongdn-Colonche High), CE (Cuenca Embayment), DGM (Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear), JF (Jubones fault), JTB (Jambelf-Tumbez basin), LE (Loja Embayment),
MB (Manabf basin), PI (Playas High), PB (Progreso basin), SE (Santa Elena High), SS (Santa
Rosa-Saraguro High), Vi (Vilcabamba Inlet).

Middle Miocene Mama j

(15-11 Ma) /"""^
-
Pacific Ocean
.,
Vilcabamba
.fcTalara
5°--
81° 80° 79°
'
Late Miocene
(post 9 Ma)
environments:
1111 intermontane basins
\. /\ continental facies
coastal Pacific
Hill lagoonal,
deltaic facies coastal
marginal stage
j | open to
marine facies
| | no Miocene deposits
preserved
direction of marine
i
1
^
ingressions
— sediment input from
alluvial flow indicators
j_1°Xj_ topographic high

h'9h
(mountain regions)
-j«_ normal fault
-A_ reverse or thrust fault
81° 80°

6.1.2. Ecuadorian Oriente
The Oriente represents the easternmost region of Ecuador which is part of the Ama¬
zonian catchment. Its western limit is formed by the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt
where east-directed overthrusting of the Cordillera Real occuned. The lithology and age
ranges of the Tertiary units in the Oriente are not well known, because oil exploration
focuses mostly on Cretaceous series. Tschopp's (1953) excellent description is still the
completest summary of the Ecuadorian Oriente which treats also with the Tertiary sediments.
At least since the Maastrichtian, the Oriente is part of the Amazonian foreland basin which
formed by downbending of the lithosphere induced by overthrusting of the Cordillera
Real onto the Guayana shield (Baldock, 1982). The variable input of terrigenous sediments
from the west and deposition of marine-brackish sediments are controlled by uplift and
erosional events in the Cordillera Real and eustatic sea-level changes during the Tertiary.
Marine transgressions from the Pacific Ocean occurred along narrow inlets (e.g. Vilcabamba
Inlet) across the evolving Cordillera Real, until the end of the Middle Miocene. This sub¬
ject is discussed in more detail in the following.

The Curaray Formation consists of well bedded coaly black clays, locally with gyp¬
sum, fine-grained sandstones, tuffaceous intercalations and lignitic horizons (Tschopp,

1953). The lithology and the sedimentary facies show a close similarity with the San Jose,
Santo Domingo and San Cayetano Formations of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba and Loja
basins series. Tschopp (1953) mentioned in the Curaray Formation (Table 6.1) the pres¬
ence of ostracods, foraminifera, molluscs, fish remains, turtles, crocodile teeth and bones,
charophytes and vertebrates. The fauna infers brackish-water conditions (Tschopp, 1953)
and possibly indicates a lagoonal to estuarine environment (see also, Baldock, 1982). The
age of the Curaray Formation is not exactly known but a Miocene (Table 6.1, Tschopp,
1953) or even Late Miocene age (Baldock, 1982) was assumed. A few samples from the
type locality of the Curaray Formation in the central eastern part of the Orient were exam¬
ined by Dawn Peterson (pers. comm., 1997) and yielded rich associations of marine, es¬
tuarine and non-marine ostracods. Prehminary identifications of the marine and estuarine
species (Dawn Peterson, pers. comm., 1997) show some affinities with Middle Miocene
forms, known from the Gulf of Mexico. Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977) reported the oc¬
currence of an ostracod from the Curaray Formation, which is very similar to
Vetustocytheridea bristowi van den Bold, 1976. This species is found in the Loyola For¬
mation (Middle Miocene, Steinmann, 1997) in the Cuenca Basin (Bristow and Parodiz,
1982, Peterson et al., in prep.). According to this datum a Middle Miocene age for the
Curaray Formation may be assumed and this unit is therefore most likely contemporane¬
ous with the Middle Miocene series exposed in the basins in southern Ecuador.
The Curaray Formation is confined to the eastern Oriente and interfingers to the
west with the proximal freshwater Arajuno Formation (Table 6.1, Tschopp, 1953, Baldock,
1982). A Miocene (Tschopp, 1953) and more specifically, a Late Miocene age (Baldock,
1982) was suggested for the Arajuno Formation. However, based on the above mentioned
data a Middle Miocene age may be possible. The Curaray and Arajuno Formations con¬
tain tuffs and bentonites (Tschopp, 1953) indicating contemporaneous explosive volcanic
activity. The volcanic centres were most likely situated in the Andean domain to the west,
in the region between Loja and Cuenca, as documented by Middle Miocene pyroclastic
rocks in this area (Quinara, Santa Isabel Formations) and numerous volcanic intercala¬
tions in the basin fill series. The Middle Miocene marine deposits of the Loja Embayment
lie today only about 50 km west of coeval brackish facies units in the Oriente. This prox¬
imity of the Miocene Pacific coast line suggests that the marine-brackish fauna in the
Curaray Formation may have been introduced by marine ingressions from the west. The
presence of a connection (Vilcabamba Inlet) between the Loja Embayment and the Oriente
basin, prior to the Late Miocene uplift of the Cordillera Real (9-8 Ma) is thus very likely,
allowing for faunal migration from the Loja Embayment to the Oriente during the Middle
Miocene. Facies and thickness trends in the Arajuno Formation (Tschopp, 1953) suggest
that the main sediment source was situated in the Proto-Cordillera Real between the lati¬
tudes of Quito and Cuenca. The lack of clastic input to the Oriente, south of Cuenca,
argues for a low relief in this part of the Andean domain and the non-existence of a topo¬
graphic barrier south of Gualaquiza (Fig. 6.1 A) during the Middle Miocene.
Fig. 6.2. Paleogeographic maps of northwestern South America for the Middle and Late Miocene.
A) During the Middle Miocene the entire upper Amazon region was flooded by episodic marine
incursions entering from the Caribbean Sea at the area of the present Lake of Maracaibo (Hoorn et
al., 1995). A second seaway at the latitude of Guayaquil (Guayaquil Seaway) is proposed in the
present study, which connected the Pacific Ocean with the Ecuadorian Oriente. B) Andean uplift
events in the Late Miocene closed the seaways and a continental environment was established in
the upper Amazon region. Sources: Ecuador (this work, Steinmann, 1997), Colombia, Venezuela,
Brazil (Nuttall, 1990, Hoorn et al., 1995), Central America (Duque-Caro, 1990, Collins et al.,
1996). Abbreviations: CC (Cordillera Central), ChC (Chong6n-Colonche hills), CM (Cordillera
Merida), CO (CordiUera Occidental, Western C), Con (Cordillera Condor), CPV (Cauca-Patia
Valley), CR (Cordillera Real, Eastern C), Cu (Cordillera Cutucu), EC (Eastern Cordillera), GG
(Gulf of Guayaquil), GS (Guayaquil Seaway), HA (Huancabamba Andes), IV (Inter-Andean Val¬
ley), LM (Lake Maracaibo), MV (Magdalena Valley), Na (Napo uplift), PCO (Proto-Cordillera
Occidental), SM (Santander massif), SN (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta), SP (Sierra de Perija),
WC (Western Cordillera).
Middle Miocene Caribbean
,
Caracas
Brazilian
/shield *
AX a
200 400 600 kilometers
IX I Precambrian shields
depositional environments mountainous regions

I | continental
,
direction of marine
gill estuarine, brackish, transgressions

continental sediment transport direction
basement archs
I I marginal to open marine
submarine barriers

The Arajuno and Curaray Formations are possibly unconformably overlain by the
Chambira Formation (Tschopp, 1953, Table 6.1). The Chambira Formation consists of
alluvial fan deposits which were derived from the Cordillera Real to the west and has a
Late Miocene to Pliocene age (Tschopp, 1953). The Chambira Formation represents a
coarsening upward alluvial fan sequence (Tschopp, 1953) and is contemporaneous with
the alluvial fan evolution during the Late Miocene intermontane stage in the Loja and
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basins (Cerro Mandango and Quillollaco Formations). The pres¬
ence of syntectonic alluvial fan facies on both sides of the Cordillera Real (Table 6.1)
indicates the rise of this mountain chain. The timing of the regional compressive deforma¬
tion, the marine regression and the alluvial fan deposits in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba
basin suggest an onset of uplift at around 9 Ma. The tuffaceous sandstones and bentonitic
clays in the Chambira Formation (Tschopp, 1953) indicate some reworking of volcanic
material which must have been derived from the Miocene volcanic zone in the Sierra of
Ecuador.
The ages of the Upper Tertiary formations in the Oriente basins are mainly based on
regional correlations, indeed. However, it may be reasonably concluded that during the
Middle Miocene marine-brackish-continental conditions prevailed in the Oriente (Curaray

and Arajuno Formation) contemporaneous with similar depositional environments in the
Loja and Cuenca Embayments to the west. The transition to a pure continental environ¬
ment in the Oriente (Chambira Formation) occurred contemporaneously with the main
Andean uplift in the Late Miocene (9-8 Ma) and the onset of intermontane deposition in
the basins of the southern Ecuadorian Sierra.
6.1.3. Northern and central Sierra of Ecuador
The Chota basin north of Quito (Fig. 6.2), in the northernmost Sierra of Ecuador, is
the only exposure of sediments which possibly can be correlated with the Miocene basin
fills series in southern Ecuador. However, age and depositional environment of the 2400
m thick series are not at all clear. Several volcanic rocks in the area have been dated at
6.31±0.1, 6.3010.06 and 3.65±0.07 Ma (K-Ar, Barberi et al., 1988). According to Egiiez
and Beate (1992) and Barragan et al. (1996) they overlie the Chota basin series. However,
Barberi et al. (1988) considered the volcanic rocks with ages around 6 Ma as to belong to
the basement of the Chota basin. Bristow and Parodiz (1982) reported the presence of a
gastropod species from the basal fill in the Chota basin. Nuttall (1990) revised their iden¬
tification and proposed the occurrence of Liris sp., which is a Neogene taxon indicating
either brackish or freshwater conditions. Barragan et al. (1996) introduced a new
stratigraphic subdivision of the Chota basin series and suggested a continental intermontane
setting. Hence, the knowledge on the age and depositional environment of the Chota basin
is rather preliminary.
Elsewhere in the Inter-Andean valley, between Quito and Alausi the sediments are
mainly volcaniclastic and of a latest Miocene to Pliocene age resting unconformably on
Oligocene and older volcanic rocks (Macuchi, Huigra, Moraspamba Formations, Lavenu
et al., 1995b, 1996). Lavenu et al. (1995b) suggested the existence of one large compres¬
sional interarc basin between Quito and Alausi forming the present Inter-Andean valley,
which they characterised as push-down basin, bounded by reverse faults. In contrast, oth¬
ers workers interpreted the Inter-Andean depression as a graben which is bounded by

normal faults (e.g. Hall and Wood, 1985, Tibaldi and Ferrari, 1992). Radiometric age
determinations of volcaniclastic rocks which fill the Inter-Andean valley suggested that
subsidence started at around 10 Ma (Lavenu et al., 1996) which would more or less cor¬
respond to the 9 to 8 Ma regional compressional event documented in the southern Ecua¬
dorian Sierra (Steinmann, 1997, this work).

Well dated Middle Miocene deposits are exposed in the region of Alausi (Steinmann,
1997). Further to the north, between Alausi and Quito, there are no Middle Miocene
sediments known (Lavenu et al., 1996). Their lack suggests that during the Middle Miocene
the central part of the Siena was a topographic high, where erosion predominated. Depo¬
sition of mainly volcaniclastics started in the northern and central Sierra in the Late Miocene,
coeval with the uplift of the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Real.
6.2. REGIONAL CORRELATION OF FAUNAL AND ECOLOGICAL DATA IN
NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
Several ostracod, mollusc and crab species found in the Miocene basins of southern
Ecuador are also known from the upper Amazon region and the Caribbean domain. There
are two possibilities to explain the presence of marine and brackish faunas in regions
which are situated today in a continental domain far away from the sea: (1) Faunal migra¬
tion by marine ingressions via estuaries, inlets and transcontinental seaways, as discussed
in Chapter 6.2.1., or (2) introduction of marine-brackish species in the egg stage by avian
transport, which is discussed in Chapter 6.2.2.
6.2.1. Evidence for seaways
During the last decades of paleontologic research in northern South America evi¬
dence was accumulated for marin/brackish incursions covering considerable areas of the
continent in the Miocene. It appeared that the upper Amazon region was partly covered by
estuarine systems. Different ecologic interpretations of the faunal association and propos¬
als for the location of marine connections were offered. In particular, there are different
opinions regarding the location of marine seaways connecting the Amazon basin to the
Caribbean Sea, the Pacific or Atlantic ocean.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) described ostracod faunas in the upper Amazon region
from the localities Pebas (NE Peru) and La Tagua (SE Colombia, Fig. 6.2A) and sug¬
gested a brackish/lagoonal environment of deposition. However, these authors assumed a
Pliocene age of the faunas, as did also Purper (1977) when investigating ostracods in drill
cores in NW Brazil at Leticia and Sao Paulo de Olivenca west of the Pebas outcrop site
(Fig. 6.2A). This author also reported the presence of brackish and freshwater faunal asso¬
ciations. The recorded ostracod associations are dominated by Cyprideis and Cyteridea
species. Hoorn (1993) could correlate these faunas with the Middle Miocene. In a prelimi¬
nary smdy of the faunas in the Middle Miocene Curaray Formation of the Amazonian
foreland basin series in Ecuador, Dawn Peterson (pers. comm., 1997) found a very similar
faunal association as at Pebas, La Tagua, Leticia and Sao Paulo de Olivenca. The Curaray
Fm. is known to contain foraminifera (Ammobaculites, Sigmoilina, Polystomella, Rotalia,
Tschopp, 1953). Hoorn (1994b) reported also the presence of microforaminifera
(Protoelphidium, Trochammina, Ammodiscus, Haplophragmoides) from several Middle
Miocene deposits in NE Peru. Nuttall (1990) provided an excellent summary of the Late
Tertiary mollusc faunas in northwestern South America. He also deduced a brackish environ¬
ment for the Amazon area in NE Peru, western Brazil and SE Colombia for all Late Terti¬
ary faunas. Interestingly, he noted that some molluscan species and several molluscan
genera from the Cuenca basin also occur in the faunal associations of Pebas, La Tagua and
Puerto Narino in the Amazon region, as well as in the localities La Mugrosa and La Cira in
the Magdalena Valley of Colombia (Fig. 6.2A). Nuttall (1990) revised also the fauna which
was described by Bristow and Parodiz (1982) from the Miocene basins in the southern
Sierra of Ecuador. He recognised the brackish-water mollusc genera Pachydon and Litis
and the marine genera Neritina in the Cuenca basin which are also found in the upper
Amazon region, the Magdalena Valley sequence in Colombia and in northern Venezuela
(Nuttall, 1990, Fig. 6.2A). Despite of the observed faunal resemblance he did not consider
a marine connection between the Cuenca basin with the upper Amazon region and Carib¬
bean Sea, respectively. However, such a connection is also suggested by other faunal evi¬
dence. The crab Necronectes proavitus Rathbun (1919) which occurs in the Loyola For¬
mation of the Cuenca basin (Bristow and Parodiz, 1982) is also known from the Middle
Miocene of the Caribbean region (Collins and Morris, 1976). The ostracod species Cyprideis
stephensoni Sandberg (1964) and Cyprideis sp. aff. C. ovata (Mincher) van den Bold 1973
recognised in the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin are present in Middle Miocene strata of the
Caribbean domain and Lousiana coast (van den Bold, 1976). Moreover, the gastropod
Dyris tricarinata (Boettger) present in the Loja basin (Nuttall, 1990) is well known in the
upper Amazon region of Peru and Colombia (La Tagua and Pebas, Fig. 6.2 A). These faunal
correlations document not only biogeographic links but suggest also contemporaneity of
the Middle Miocene strata in southern Ecuador and the Amazon basin (Hoorn, 1993,1994a,
b, Hoorn et al., 1995). This is in line with our zircon fission-track data in the basins of
southern Ecuador.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) explained the presence of these marginal marine faunal
associations in the upper Amazon region by periodic transgressions from the Atlantic Ocean.
In the view of Hoorn et al. (1995) this was not possible, because during the Miocene,
several basement arches acting as drainage divides in the Amazon area should have shel¬
tered the area from the Atlantic (Fig. 6.2A). Instead, they proposed that the upper Amazon
region was flooded by a seaway entering from the Caribbean Sea at the area of the present
day Lake of Maracaibo. A second seaway along the Magdalena Valley in the early Andean
chain was suggested by Campbell (1970) and Nuttall (1990, Fig. 6.2A). According to
Campbell (1970) the connection along the Magdalena Valley entered the Ecuadorian and
Colombian Oriente in the area of Mocoa (Fig. 6.2B) and was closed during the Late
Miocene.
Very early, Katzer (1903) had already postulated the presence of a marine seaway
between the Pacific Ocean and the Amazon basin. He called it the Marafion Portal which
he thought to have crossed the early Andean chain in northwestern Peru. With this hypoth¬
esis he postulated that the Amazon River first drained into the Pacific Ocean and later was
deviated to the Atlantic Ocean. This interesting opinion found support by other investiga¬
tions as reviewed by Nuttall (1990, p. 350-355), who introduced the name Guayaquil
Portal. Our faunal and sedimentological results from southern Ecuador appear to confirm
the earlier hypothesis in documenting a shallow marine environment in the Loja Embayment
and along the Vilcabamba Inlet which could have connected the Pacific Ocean with the
Amazon region during the Middle Miocene (15-11 Ma, Fig. 6.2A). Possibly there existed
other shallow marine seaways further to the north in the area of the Cuenca Embayment,
and to the south in northern Peru, which together with the Loja Embayment, may be grouped
under the general term Guayaquil Seaway. Later tectonic deformation and uplift in the
Andes dated with 9-8 Ma in the southern Ecuadorian Sierra may have interrupted this
Pacific connection. Contemporaneously, the connections with the Caribbean Sea in Co¬
lombia and Venezuela were closed by uplift of the Andean Cordilleras (Hoorn et al., 1995)
and a continental environment developed in the upper Amazon region (Fig. 6.2B).
6.2.2. Discussion of marine seaways versus avian transport of faunas

The concept of avian transport infers that marine and brackish species can be em-
placed in continental environments as in high salinity lakes without any connection with
the sea. Several studies in Quaternary lakes of northern Africa (Gasse et al., 1987, Plaziat,
1991) revealed the presence of marine to estuarine species (molluscs, ostracods and
foraminifera) in continental high salinity lakes. According to these authors, the marine-
brackish fauna was transported by birds to the lake systems, which are located as much as
500 km from the Sea. Spencer and Patchett (1997) proposed for Late Miocene to Pliocene
marine-brackish faunas in the lower Colorado River system (western edge of the Colo¬
rado Plateau) a similar process. Strontium isotope measurements did not indicate mixing
of fresh and sea water and therefore, the marine-brackish fauna association may have been
transported by birds over a distance of 15 to 60 km from the Gulf of California. These
species successfully colonised the lakes, because appropriate salinity condition may have
prevailed.
These examples show that regional dispersal of marine-brackish species may occur
by other processes than by migration along seaways. However, in the southern Ecuadorian
basins and in the upper Amazon region the avian dispersal as major migration mechanism
may be ruled out from the following arguments:
(1) The marine to brackish Middle Miocene faunal associations in the Colombian,
Peruvian and Brazilian lowland sites are found in deposits which contain typical
sedimentological features of marine influence such as flaser structures and hummocky
bedding (Hoorn, 1994b). In addition, the sediments yielded marine palynomorphs,
foraminifera and mangrove pollen (Hoorn, 1994b) suggesting episodic marine influence.
Sheppard and Bate (1980) reported the presence of a deeper water marine ostracod
(Paracypris) in Miocene deposits in Pebas and excluded therefore avian transport.
(2) Sedimentological evidence for deposition of the southern Ecuadorian sediment
series along the Pacific coast were presented above. In addition, the observations that the
Western Cordillera was not yet (fully) developed in the Middle Miocene is compatible
with a marine migration of the faunas from the west and if avian transport was important
at all, it should have worked also later, during the intermontane stage. There is no evi¬
dence for this.
It can be reasonably concluded that the Middle Miocene brackish-marine fauna observed
in the southern Ecuadorian basins, in the Amazon region and Magdalena Valley were
introduced along seaways and inlets. The flooding may have been partly driven by pre¬
vailing high global sealevel during the Middle Miocene (Haq et al., 1988). However, tec¬
tonic forcing of different kind most likely has favoured the presence of marine incursions.
The discussion of tectonic processes in the Amazon basin is out of the scope of the present
work. With regard to the southern Ecuadorian basins it appears evident, that the formation
of marine embayments and inlets coincides with a period of general extension along the
Pacific margin.
The discussion about the origin of the marine-brackish fauna in the Amazon region
from the Caribbean or Pacific domain is somewhat semantic, because the Panama Isthmus
did not yet form a divide between these domains. The Isthmus was closed between 3.7 to
3.1 Ma (Duque-Caro, 1990). Therefore, one can agree with Nuttall (1990) who stated that
the marine taxa could have entered the upper Amazon basin either or both from the Pacific
and Caribbean Sea.
6.3. PALINSPASTIC RECONSTRUCTION FOR THE MIDDLE MIOCENE IN
SOUTHERN ECUADOR
Earlier paleogeographic reconstructions of the Miocene basins in southern Ecuador
were based on the assumption that the basinal areas remained more or less stable through¬
out their evolution. However, it must be accounted for that the forearc basins of Manabi,
and Progreso (which match with the southern Ecuadorian basins, Chapter 6.1.1.) were
displaced along the DGM towards the NNE. These basins were formed in a large pull-
apart structure connecting the subduction zone of Peru with the transpressi ve intracontinental
DGM (Fig. 6.1). Shepherd and Moberly (1981) estimated a dextral displacement of the
coastal block of about 80 to 100 km with respect to the mainland. I estimated a similar
distance of displacement between the correlated basins of at least 100 km. The southern
margin of the Manabi basin is today simated about 100 km north of Cuenca and the Loja
and Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin areas lie today about 130 km south of the southern mar¬
gin of the Progreso basin. The palinspastic reconstruction for the Middle Miocene tries to
account for the predominant N-S displacement between the Coastal and Andean domains
(Fig. 6.1), and several assumptions are necessary: (1) The orientation of the controlling
faults is fixed, (2) no E-W shortening is included, (3) the N-S displacement along the
DGM is based on the width of the Progreso, respectively the Jambeli-Tumbez basins, (4)
no major rotation of blocks along vertical axis occurred, and (5) the location of Andean
domain remained fixed.
The palinspastic restoration of the Middle Miocene period (Fig. 6.1 A) juxtaposes
the Manabi basin with the Cuenca Embayment and the Progreso basin with the Loja
Embayment during the Middle Miocene Pacific coastal stage. The stratigraphic and sedi¬
mentary data from these basins are compatible with such a situation (see Chapter 6.1.1.).
The Chongon-Colonche High, which separated the Manabi basin from the Progreso basin,
conelates with the Santa Rosa-Saraguro High which existed between the Cuenca and Loja
Embayments. The predominandy deltaic series of the Cuenca basin during the Middle
Miocene, which is up to 4800m thick (Steinmann, 1997), accommodated the main part of
the terrigenous input. Coeval open marine deposits in the adjacent Manabi basin attain a
thickness of 1000 m and formed the seaward facies continuation of the Cuenca Embayment.
The up to 6000 m thick Progreso basin fill was partly derived from the west (Fig. 6.1 A,
Playas High, Marks, 1951, Benitez et al., 1986). The present paleogeographic reconstruc¬
tion (Fig. 6.1) shows that the region south (Huancabamba Andes) of the Progreso basin
was emerged during the Middle Miocene and most likely formed an additional source
area. The relatively thin Middle Miocene units in the Loja Embayment suggest that sedi¬
ment by-pass predominated there and that, large volumes of terrigenous material from the
east (Loja Embayment), the south (Huancabamba Andes), the west (Playas High) and the
north (Chongon-Colonche High) were deposited in the fast subsiding Progreso pull-apart
basin.
The Jambelf-Tumbez basin opened during the transition from the Middle to the Late
Miocene (Benitez, 1986b, Fig. 6.1B) when the Progreso and Manabi basins were moved
with the coastal block along the DGM. A northward displacement of the coastal block of
about 100 km (Fig. 6.IB) is estimated. The basin opening represents a major tectonic
event at the beginning of the Late Miocene which should also be recorded in the adjacent
Andean domain. According to the present data this conelates with the regional compressive
event in the Andean domain at around 9-8 Ma and the coeval surface uplift (see also
Steinmann, 1997). The scarce compositional data of the clastic sediments in the Progreso
and Jambeli-Tumbez basins support that: (1) The Lower Miocene units of the Progreso
basin consist of reworked material from underlying rocks (mainly Azucar Formation,
Benitez et al., 1986) which are exposed to the west of the basin and (2) the conglomerates
of the Upper Miocene to Pliocene Puna Formation in the Jambeli-Tumbez basin (Table
6.1) contain magmatic rocks (acidic to ultrabasic, Benitez, 1986b). This magmatic mate¬
rial implies that the rising Cordillera Occidental was the main source area (Fig. 6. IB).
Depositional geometries reconstructed from seismic lines (Benitez, 1986b) in the Jambelf-
Tumbez basin suggested also a sediment transport from NE to SW. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the start of the fill of this basin coincides with the uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental.
The dextral movement along the DGM may have induced the observed compres¬
sional deformation in the basins in the Andean domain (Fig. 6.1B). The indentation of the
northern part of the Amotape-Tahuin terrain into the Andean domain (Fig. 6. IB) along the
Jubones fault and west-vergent thrusting between Jubones and El Cisne (Fig. 6.2) oc-
cuned at the same time as indicated by the deformation of the Giron-Santa Isabel basin fill
(see Chapter 5).

On a much larger scale Dewey and Pindell (1985) constructed block vector dia¬
grams for the triangle of northwestern South America and deduced relative slip rates. This
triangle zone includes the coastal and andean regions of Ecuador and Colombia, the An¬
des of Merida in Venezuela and is delimited by the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt to the
craton in the east. Their model suggests that the Cordilleran tenanes of Ecuador, Colom¬
bia and western Venezuela migrated about 100 km to the northeast with respect to a fixed
South America craton during the last 9 Ma. This different line of evidence shows that
since the Late Miocene considerable lateral movement have involved the northern An¬
dean domain, indeed.
6.4. LATE TERTIARY UPLIFT HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN ECUADORIAN
ANDES AND CORRELATION WITH PERU AND COLOMBIA
6.4.1. Late Tertiary uplift in the southern Ecuadorian Andes
The uplift history of the southern Ecuadorian Andes can be reconstructed from the
Middle to Upper Miocene basin fill series in the Sierra and the larger regional evolution
(Costa, Sub-Andean zone, Oriente and upper Amazon basins). A first important observa¬
tion is that the Middle Miocene deltaic, lagoonal and coastal formations of the different
basin series are today simated in the highlands of Ecuador (the Sierra) at an altimde of
1000 to 3000 m above sealevel. This gives direct evidence for considerable surface uplift
since the end of coastal sedimentation stage in the Sierra at 9 Ma, in the early Late Miocene.
Such a major uplift event was supposed to have occuned from the Late Miocene to the
Early Pliocene (the Andean event) by Kenneriey (1980). The temporal conelation of this
event was derived from observations of the deformation in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust
belt (Tschopp, 1953, Campbell, 1970), because Miocene to Pliocene foreland basin series
are involved in the deformation. In the Sierra of southern Ecuador this event can be con¬
strained more precisely, as it coincides with the transition from the coastal Pacific to the
intermontane sedimentary stage at 9 Ma. Deformation and uplift are documented by the
formation of angular unconformities and progressive unconformities in the basins of
Catamayo-Gonzanama, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Loja, Giron-Santa Isabel (present work)

and Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997). The small Nabon basin (Hungerbiihler et al., 1995) formed
during the intermontane stage.
The data from the area of Loja-Malacatos-Vilcabamba suggest that until 11 Ma the
Cordillera Real formed a discontinuous low-relief mountain range which was crossed by
at least one nanow seaway connecting the Oriente and upper Amazon region with the
Pacific domain via the Vilcabamba Inlet. The area south of this seaway and west of
Gonzanama towards Alamor and Zapotillo (Fig. 6.1, Huancabamba Andes) possibly formed
during the Middle Miocene a topographic high, which is documented by sediment input
from the west in the area of Gonzanama and into the Jambeli-Tumbez basin from the
south. The Pacific connection with the Oriente and the upper Amazon region was closed at
around 9-8 Ma when the uplift of the Sierra, especially of the Cordillera Real started. This
uplift is evidenced by the regional compressive deformation event in the studied basins
and in the Sub-Andean zone, as well as by the onset of syntectonic coarse clastic supply
derived from the rising Cordillera Real and deposited on both sides (Fig. 6. IB). The thick¬
ness and the grain size of the Chambira Formation in the Oriente increase south of Macas
(Fig. 6.2,2° 20'S, Tschopp, 1953). These trends may have been induced by the upthrusting
of the Cumcu range in the Sub-Andean zone, which started to rise in the Late Miocene
(Campbell, 1970). Notably, this tectonic structure lies to the east of the Cuenca-Vilcabamba
region in the Siena. The formation of the Cumcu uphft could be coeval with the uplift of
the Cordillera Real and may have occuned at around 9-8 Ma.
During the Middle Miocene, the Cordillera Occidental in the Cuenca region did not
form a continuous positive relief, but allowing for marine incursions in the Cuenca
Embayment (Fig. 6.1 A, see Steinmann, 1997). A major uplift of the Cordillera Occidental
occurred in the Late Miocene at around 9 to 8 Ma, which is evidenced by several independant
observations: (1) The first sediment supply from the west in the Giron-Santa Isabel (this
work) and in the Cuenca basins (Steinmann, 1997) started at around 9 Ma, (2) at the same
time, a continental environment was established in the region of Cuenca (Steinmann, 1997),
(3) a regional compressive deformation event at around 9-8 Ma is evidenced by the timing
of angular unconformities in the Santa Isabel subbasin (this work) and similar data from
the Cuenca basin (Steinmann, 1997), and (4) thermal modeling of apatite fission-track
data documents a cooling event in the Cuenca basin series and adjacent Andean regions,
which started at around 8 Ma (Steinmann, 1997). The Cordillera Real east of Cuenca
formed throughout the entire Miocene a positive feature which is evidenced by the domi¬
nantly eastern provenance of the sediments (Steinmann, 1997). Thermal modeling of apa¬
tite fission-track parameters by Steinmann (1997) indicates that further uplift in Ecuador
started at 4 Ma.
6.4.2. Correlation with the Andean uplift history in Colombia and Peru
The Ecuadorian Cordillera Real is the continuation of the Colombian Cordillera
Central and the uplifts in the Sub-Andean zone of Ecuador form the southern prolongation
of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (Fig. 6.2A). The CordiUera Merida in western
Venezuela forms the northwestern continuation of the Colombian Eastern CordUlera.
In the Colombian Andes, the initiation of Late Tertiary uplift of the CordiUera Ori¬
ental occurred at around 12 Ma (Hoorn et al., 1995). Several regional studies conaborate
this finding: (1) facies and provenance studies combined with radiometric dating and
magnetostratigraphy in Neogene deposits in the Magdalena Valley (Fig. 6.2, e.g. Van der
Wiel, 1991, Flynn et al., 1993) document the appearance of the Eastern CordiUera as a
continuous range at about 12 Ma and further uplift of the Cordillera Central and Eastern
Cordillera at 10 Ma, (2) provenance and biostratigraphic data from the region of the
Cordillera Merida (Fig. 6.2A) suggest a Late Miocene uplift of this mountain chain (Hoorn
et al., 1995). This uplift closed most likely the Caribbean connection with the upper Ama¬
zon region. The transcontinental seaway from the Caribbean to the upper Amazon region,
with a southern connection to the Pacific via the Guayaquil Seaway predates the Late
Miocene Andean uplift. For the Ecuadorian Oriente, Campbell (1970) already postulated
that the Curaray Formation (lagoonal, brackish sediments) predated the Andean uplift.
Further uplift of the Colombian Andes is evidenced by a palynological smdy and zircon
fission-track dating of sediments in the Bogota area (Helmens and van den Hammen,
1994). These authors suggested 2000 m uplift of the Eastern Cordillera in Colombia be¬
tween 5 to 3 Ma, and they noted that this uplift took place in various pulses of tectonic
activity. The first regional fission-track smdy from the northern Andes was carried out in
the Cordillera de Merida, the Santander Massif and the Siena de Perija (Fig. 6.2., Kohn et
al., 1984, Shagham et al., 1984) and infened a complex temporal and spatial uplift history
of individual domains (massifs). These data sets suggested general Late Miocene uphft
(ca. 7 Ma) and further Phocene uplift (5-2 Ma) for the different massifs during short pulses.
In conclusion, the available age data show that major uplift events in the northern
Andes occuned between 12 to 10 Ma in Colombia (Hoorn et al., 1995), at around 7 Ma in
Venezuela (Shagham et al., 1984), at around 9 Ma in Ecuador (this work, Steinmann,
1997). Further uplift took place from 5 or 4 Ma on in the entire northern Andes. These
results point to regional differences in the timing of uplift events in the northern Andes.
Therefore, it may be suggested that large scale tectonic conelations present an oversimpli¬
fied view and miss the details. It appears that the northern Andes developed rather in
individual segments than as a rigid entity. On the other hand, the data from the Colombian
and Venezuelan Andes point to short-lived uplift events. This is in good agreement with
the present results in Ecuador, where the short-lived nature of deformation events infers
periodic uplift pulses at high rates.
In the central Andes several studies infened the presence of six short-lived com¬
pressional tectonic event, which were classified by Sebrier et al. (1988, Table 8.1) as
foUows: an Eocene Incaic event (Fl, ca. 42 Ma), a Late Oligocene Ayamara event (F2, ca.
26 Ma), an Early Miocene Quechua 1 event (F3, ca. 17 Ma), a Middle Miocene Quechua
2 event (F4, ca. 10 Ma), a Late Miocene Quechua 3 event (F5, ca. 7 Ma) and a latest
PUocene event (F6, ca. 2 Ma). The short compressional pulses during the Miocene cone-
late with uplift events in the Peruvian Andes (S6brier et al., 1988). The pulses are sepa¬
rated by periods of extension or tectonic quiescence (Sebrier et al., 1988). The results of
two studies of Tertiary basins simated between the CordiUera Occidental and Oriental in
northern and central Peru are briefly presented:

(1) In the northern Bagua region (Fig. 6.1) alluvial fan deposits with an age of 8.6±1.1
Ma (zircon fission-track, Naeser et al., 1991) rest unconformably on fluvial sediments
with an upper age limit of 12.4±1.6 Ma (Naeser et al., 1991). The unconformity and the
subsequent deposition of aUuvial fan material was related by this authors to the Quechua
2 pulse (10 Ma, Sebrier et al., 1988) and indicates Andean uplift. The alluvial fan deposits
were conelated by Naeser et al. (1991) with the Chambira Formation in the Ecuadorian
Oriente and the Capas Rojas 5 Formation in the Peruvian Oriente. Hence, these ages de¬
fine a general compressional period between 12 and 8 Ma. However, it also can be in¬
fened that the discordant alluvial fan deposits (8 Ma) document most likely the main
deformation and uplift event in the region.

(2) In the Ayacucho basin in central Peru a compressional deformation occuned
between 9.5 and 8.5 Ma (Megard et al., 1984). The compressional event is foUowed by
coarse clastic deposits in the basin, derived from the CordUlera Oriental, indicating uplift
of this mountain chain.
The two examples suggest that the Peruvian Andean uphft and deformation started
at around 10 Ma which coincides with short-hved compressive deformation dated in south-

em Ecuador with 9-8 Ma (this work, Steinmann, 1997). This example confirms the idea of
short-lived compressional events as observed in the Central Andes by Sebrier et al. (1988).
The 9-8 Ma event in Ecuador could be conelated with the Quechua 2 pulse. But, we have
to consider the variable age data and therefore we cannot simply take a mean value of 10
Ma out of a spread from 12 to 8 Ma. Rash correlations on Andean scale may lead to
erroneous conclusions. However, the present data show that a major tectonic event oc¬
curred in the Late Miocene in the southernmost part of the northern Andes in Ecuador and
the Central Andes of Peru.

Chapter 7 142 Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
7. A Late Tertiary tectonic model of southern Ecuador
This chapter discusses the shift from extension to compression in a plate tectonic
framework and presents a model for the Neogene tectonic evolution of southern Ecuador.
7.1. DISCUSSION OF EXTENSIONAL PERIODS VERSUS COMPRESSIONAL
EVENTS
The presented data for southern Ecuador prove that extension occuned during the
Middle Miocene which was foUowed by a compressional event at 9-8 Ma. In addition, the
data from the volcanic units and older sediments which underlie the Miocene basin fill
series in southern Ecuador provide information about similar alternations of extension
and compression during Paleocene to Early Miocene (Table 7.1). The compressional events
involved large areas as for instance the 9-8 Ma event which can be conelated over a N-S
distance of more than 200 km in the entire region of southern Ecuador. An important
question arises: How is the process of ocean subduction along the convergent continental
Ecuadorian margin responsible for the alternations of compression and extension in the
overriding plate?
A few models on a plate tectonic scale and controlling geodynamic parameters are
presented which aUow to explain partly the observed changes in the tectonic regime. Fur¬
thermore, the influences of variations of the geodynamic parameters for the Tertiary tec¬
tonic history, especially during the Neogene of southern Ecuador, are discussed.
7.1.1. Plate tectonic models and controlling parameters
The interaction of the following geodynamic factors controUed the Tertiary tectonic
evolution of the Ecuadorian continental margin: (1) motion of the oceanic Farallon/Nazca
plate, (2) absolute trenchward motion of the South American plate, (3) subduction rollback,
(4) dip of the subducting slab, (5) direction of convergence (obliquity) and (6) age of the
subducting slab. In addition, the effects of the collision of the oceanic Piiion tenane and
the subduction of the aseismic Carnegie ridge must be considered. The relations of the
various geodynamic parameters and the implications for the continental tectonic regimes
were discussed in the Central Andes and the main implications are presented:
(1) The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean in the Albian caused the relative west¬
ward movement of the South American plate and coincides with the initiation of
contractional deformation along the Peruvian-Ecuadorian margin (e.g. Frutos, 1981, Soler
andBonhomme, 1990).
(2) Sebrier and Soler (1991) applied the subduction rollback model (Uyeda and
Kanamori, 1979) to the Neogene evolution of the Peruvian Andes in order to explain the
unstable tectonic situation. In this model, variations in the tectonic style are due to the
relationship between the rollback of the subduction trench line and the motion of the over¬
riding plate towards or away from the trench line. During a tectonically quiet or extensional
period (Fig. 7.1 A) most of the westward movement of the South American plate is accom¬
modated by the retreat of the Nazca slab (absolute westward overriding of the continental
plate); during a short-lived compressional event (Fig. 7.IB) the westward movement of
the South American plate is accommodated by shortening at the western continental mar¬
gin and the slab retreat is weak or blocked. According to Sebrier and Soler (1991) the
blocking of the slab retreat is the driving mechanism of the short-lived compressional
events, which can even result in a slab break-off.
Fig. 7.1. Diagram showing the variation in the tectonic style along an active continental
margin by
the interaction of rollback of the subduction trench line and the motion of the overriding plate.
This generalised sketch is redrawn after Sebrier and Soler (1991) who proposed this model for the
Neogene evolution of the Peruvian Andes. A) The rollback velocity is higher than the velocity of
the overriding plate (vsoam) and most of the westward movement of the South American plate is
accommodated by the retreat of the Nazca slab. An extensional regime prevails in die continental
margin with minor thrusting in the Sub-Andean zone. B) The overriding plate (vsoam) advances
faster than the rollback and most of the westward movement of the South American plate is ac¬
commodated by shortening in the retroarc (Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt) and in the Andean
domain. This setting results in a short-lived compressional event. The blocking of the slab retreat
may even result in slab break-off. and the rebound of the remaining slab may accelerate the uplift.
(3) Jaillard and Soler (1996) suggested that the short-lived compressional or
extensional phases observed in the northern Central Andes are mainly hnked to changes
(acceleration or deceleration) in the convergence rate between the oceanic and continental
plates and possibly changes in the convergence direction. In contrast long-termed com¬
pression is controlled by the absolute trenchward motion of the overriding South Ameri¬
can plate and by the young age of the subducting oceanic crust. According to these au¬
thors, the observed accretion of island arcs in Ecuador resulted from changes in the con¬
vergence direction and induced contractional deformation in the active margin (Table 7.1,
e.g. accretion of Cayo arc in the Late Paleocene, Jaillard et al., 1995, accretion of Macuchi
arc in the Late Eocene?, Bourgois et al., 1990).
7.1.2. Application to the Tertiary tectonic evolution of southern Ecuador
It is out of scope of this chapter to discuss in detail an apphcation of these boundary

forces to the evolution of the active Ecuadorian margin during the Tertiary. However, a
few prominent features are briefly discussed for two time periods, which are separated by
the reorganisation of the oceanic plates in the Eastern Pacific between 30 to 26 Ma (Table
7.1, Wortel and Cloetingh, 1981), when the Farallon plate broke up into the Cocos and
Nazca plates.
Paleocene to Late Oligocene (Subduction of Farallon plate)

From latest Cretaceous to the Late Eocene, the convergence direction of the
subducting oceanic Farallon plate was more oblique than today (about S W-NE, Table 7.1,
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987). This oblique convergence induced a large scale dextral
strike-slip component in the active margin and possibly drove extension which is indi¬
cated by two observations: (1) the Middle Eocene Playas basin in southwestern Ecuador
was formed as a half graben, indicating N-S extension, (2) the Paleocene to Eocene Talara
fore-arc basin in northwestern Peru was formed in a N-S directed extensional setting
(Carozzi and Palomino, 1993).
Table 7.1. Geological during the Tertiary in the forearc region

evolution of southern Ecuador
(Costa), die Andean domain (interarc) and the region (Oriente). The geodynamic frame¬
retroarc
work is indicated which allows to explain partly the observed stress regimes in the overriding
continental plate. In addition, the different compressive tectonic pulses which occurred in the
Central Andes during me Tertiary (Sebrier et al., 1988) are shown. The present results imply that
no direct correlation of the observed compressive events in Ecuador with the pulses in the Central
Andes can be made. However, in bom regions short-lived compressional events occuned which
coincided with uplift and which are often separated by extensional periods. Abbreviations: C (Cuenca
basin), C-G (Catamayo-Gonzanama basin), G-SI (Giron-Santa Isabel basin), L (Loja basin), M-V
(Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin), N (Nabdn basin), T (Turi Formation).
Andean domain central and southern compressive
(interarc region, Sierra) retroarc region geodynamic tectonic
forearc region
(Oriente) framework pulses
(Costa) regional tectonic basin formation volcanic Plutonic activity
activity {Sebner et al
m,
, regime and environment0
N N | o N | S N l S 1988)
alluvial fans 3°30' S 'L
of
Quat. alluvial fans T buoyancy young F6
from C.Occid oceanic crust
Salapa fed from I
E uplift
emergence I Cordillera Real subduction of
Plioc. of Costa of Cordilleras
5-
[uplift Carnegie ridge
n_ basin inversion
L deformation -c- (/J
pull-apart F5
controlled hn Sub-Andean -5- -2
fold & E § blocking of the
byDGM "
compr [ thrust belt 2" slab retreat, ^
"
_^
iasin inversion ra slab break off
<1> 10" 'M 8 F4
o 0) ">
-
.
extension o increase of
4^ E
> "XI c
<
4^ "D ca
roll back and
.
15- Bt slab retreat

- .
2 I is c I F3
4 c Quinara
'
>m
ca -
pull-apart
. on .
>.
controlled
m
r-
byDGM compression blocking of
CO proto-S!
20- slab retreat
LJJ
?n
a.ca
E-W
subduction
CD 25-
Q) Farallon plate
c
w 0breaks up into I F2
CI) 1 y> deformation in Sub-Andean
o
Cocos and (Aymara phase)
() fold & thrust belt Nazca plates
en
30- uplift of Cordillera Real
O rly low convergence
m extension
LU emergence of Costa (<10 cm/yr)
35-
accretion of Solanda deformation in Sub-Andean
0) Macuchi arc tf
c o fold & thrust belt
01 °£ V
_l
GO uplift of Cordillera Real
40- deformation
(accretion
0) of coastal Ecuador)
If
c (Incaic phase)
(1)
o
LJJ 45- trans-

ddl tension ? ;;;;;jS£-^
5
Protocordillera
Real, sediments
50- from W
>%
emergence of Costa and
m
marine
LU ~ ''is,'*
deformation \ ingressions
55- (accretion of Cayo arc) from W
0)
cen Lat <§ / trans- "
O 60- tension
en
a> y/
CO
a.
Early 65- 1
facies I I shallow marine facies || | | reef facies ||[|||||| coastal and brackish facies | | continental basic-intermediate volcanics | | acidic volcanics
l/Jturbiditic |||||
Dated angular unconformities and field relationships between deformed and
undeformed rocks suggest die presence of a Late Eocene compressional deformation event
in southern Ecuador, which succeeded the extension (Table 7.1): (1) the Playas basin fill
series is unconformably overlain by the Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene volcanic Loma
Blanca Formation (40-26 Ma), (2) the Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene Quingeo Forma¬
tion (42-36 Ma, east of Cuenca, Steinmann, 1997) rests with angular unconformity on the
deformed volcanic Chinchfn Formation (43 Ma, Steinmann, 1997). This compressive de¬
formation was most likely caused by the change in the convergence direction in the Late
Eocene from SW-NE directed to E-W oriented subduction (Table 7.1). Jaillard et al. (1995)
reported a similar evolution in the Ecuadorian fore-arc, where in the Early to Middle
Eocene extensional basins were formed and filled with shallow marine deposits, which
are unconformably overlain by continental coarse-grained deposits of Late Eocene age.
Based on diese data, Jaillard et al. (1995), suggested a Late Eocene inversion event which
most likely coincided with the collision of die coastal Pifion terrane and the Macuchi arc
witii the South American margin resulting in emersion of die coastal area (Table 7.1). The
Late Eocene accretion is recorded in die Cordillera Occidental by me presence of coarse
grained continental deposits (Apagua Formation) of Middle/Late Eocene age which over¬
lie unconformably die Macuchi Formation (Egiiez, 1986, Bourgois et al., 1990).
Two voluminous ignimbritic units were deposited in soutiiem Ecuador (Table 7.1):
(1) die Upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene Loma Blanca Formation (40-26 Ma, up to 2000
m diick) in me region of Catamayo-Malacatos-Catacocha, south of 4°S, (2) me Upper
Oligocene to lowermost Miocene Saraguro Formation (28-20 Ma, up to 2000 m) in die
region from Alausi to Saraguro, covering an area of 14.000 km2 between 2° 15' S and 3°
45' S. These tiiick and voluminous ignimbritic deposits reflect most probably an extensional
setting, by which large volumes of magma are vertically mobilised along faults and erupted
in fissures and caldera-type eruptions. Similar conclusions were drawn in die Central An¬
des (Perford and Adieron, 1992, Petford and Atiierton, 1994). Additional evidence for
extension during a part of die Loma Blanca time is available by the formation of die Late
Eocene to Early Oligocene Quingeo basin, which was most likely formed in a E-W di¬
rected extensional setting (Steinmann, 1997). The continental Quingeo sediments (Stein¬
mann, 1997) are partly coeval with die upper part of die Eocene Apagua Formation
(Bourgois et al., 1990) exposed in die Cordillera Occidental. Apart of die extension can be
explained by the very low convergence rate between 36 to 26 Ma (Pardo-Casas and Molnar,
1987) and the plate reorganisation between 30 to 26 Ma (breakup of the Farallon plate,
Wortel and Cloeting, 1981).

Latest Oligocene to Present (Subduction of Nazca plate)

After die plate reorganisation, die convergence direction remained more or less
orthogonal to the trench until today, widi a convergence rate of about 10 cm/yr (Table 7.1,
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987). There is however, no correlation observed between
changes in convergence rate and die tectonic evolution in Ecuador, as suggested by Daly
(1989). Moreover, die timing of changes in die convergence rate is poorly constrained,
and tiiere are in fact no significant changes during die Neogene (Table 7.1, Pardo-Casas
and Molnar, 1987). Because of diis ratiier stable setting, other factors must have caused
the alternation of extension and compression in soutiiern Ecuador. Variations in the veloc¬
ity of die slab rollback represent a possible model (Fig. 7.1), which was already proposed
by Sebrier and Soler (1991) for the Peruvian Andes. These authors assumed a continuous
westward motion of die Brazilian shield of 2 cm/yr in an absolute mantle reference frame
and Daly (1989) suggested a typical rate of rollback of 1-2 cm/yr for Ecuador. The two
rate estimates are very similar and tiierefore, according to die model, small changes would
lead to variations in die tectonic regime of die overriding plate.
Consequendy, me following development may be proposed. The Saraguro Forma¬
tion is overlain witii angular unconformity (dated witii 19 Ma) by Lower Miocene sediments
(Jacapa Formation) and volcanics (Santa Isabel Formation). The deformation in die Saraguro
Formation and older units documents most likely a compressional event. Blocking of die
slab-retreat may have caused this deformation in die overriding Soutii American plate
(Table 7.1).
From the Early Miocene on pull-apart basins were formed in the forearc area (Manabi,
Progreso) and subsidence continued throughout die Middle Miocene (Fig. 7.2A). During
die Middle Miocene (15-10 Ma) extensional basins were formed in soutiiern Ecuador
parallel to the trench. Additionally, during die Middle Miocene die Guayaquil Seaway
(Vilcabamba Inlet) connected die Loja Embayment witii the Oriente basin. The wide¬
spread extension could primarily be explained by an increase of die rollback velocity and
the slab-retreat (Table 7.1).

However, in die particular case of soutiiern Ecuador a relationship of basin subsid¬
ence witii the beginning of the NNE-directed dextral displacement along the DGM may be
inferred (Fig. 7.2A). Basin formation occurs in the area of die triple point, where die
intersection of die DGM with die Peruvian and Ecuadorian trench occurs (Shepherd and
Moberly, 1981). We may assume that die suture between die South American continental
margin (consisting of various older terranes) and die oceanic Pifion-Macuchi terrane served
as a weak zone along which die NNE-directed displacement of die Pifion-Macuchi terrane
could occur. In the rear of die displaced terrane stretching and subsidence of die Manabi
Chapter 7 146$ Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
and Progreso pull-apart basins is indicated from the Early Miocene onwards. Continued
crustal stretching in die coastal pull-apart domain removed mechanical support in die east
(extensional collapse) and drove secondary WNW-ESE oriented extension giving rise to
subsidence in the Cuenca and Loja Embayments from the Middle Miocene on (Fig. 7.2A).
In die soutii, extension propagated further towards the east in opening the Guayaquil Sea¬
way to the Oriente basin. It is an open question which processes have initiated the displace¬
ment of the coastal terrane. A long term relation with the break up of the Farallon plate
between 30 to 26 Ma and me changing convergence direction may be taken in considera¬
tion.
Fig. me Miocene tectonic evolution in southern Ecuador. A) During me

7.2. Reconstruction of
Middle Miocene extension prevailed in entire soutiiern Ecuadorian Sierra and enhanced the open¬
ing of the Guayaquil Seaway. The Manabi and Progreso basin formed die western continuation of
die Cuenca and Loja Embayments (see text for discussion). B) The situation at and after the 9-8
Ma regional compressional event which resulted in basin inversion in me Andean and coastal
domains. This short-lived event coincided witii uplift of die Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera
Real, me onset of die intermontane stage in me Andean domain, block rotation in me coastal area
and die opening of me Jambeli-Tumbez basin as pull-apart structure by continued dextral dis¬
placement of about 100 km along me DGM. Abbreviations: BF (Babahoyo fault), CB (Cuenca
basin), CGB (Catamayo-Gonzanama basin), ChC (Chongon-Colonche High), DGM (Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear), GSB (Gir6n-Santa Isabel basin), JF (Jubones fault), JTB (Jambelf-Tumbez
basin), LB (Loja basin), MB (Manabi basin), MVB (Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin), NB (Nabon
basin), PB (Progreso basin).
During the period from 9 to 8 Ma various modifications of the earlier basins setting
occurred, implying a major change of the tectonic development. The earlier basins in the
Andean domain were deformed by compression and new, smaller intermontane basins
developed (Fig. 7.2B). At the same time, the Cordillera Occidental was uplifted. Along die
DGM the Manabi and the Progreso basins were displaced and inverted while the new
Jambeli-Tumbez pull-apart basin opened and subsided (Fig. 7.2B). Daly (1989) suggested
that the normal faults of the earlier pull-apart basins were inverted and clock-wise block
rotation occurred. Roperch et al. (1987) suggested by paleomagnetic measurements a clock¬

wise rotation of about 70° of die Pinon Formation which forms the basement of the coastal
domain. However, it is not known when this rotation occurred. According to Daly (1989),
die rotation took place in several segments bound by the dextral DGM and Babahoyo fault
and sinistral NW-SE trending faults recognised by Benitez (1986a, Fig. 7.2B). Further to
the south, in the El Oro Province, the indentation of die Amotape-Tahuin block by clock¬
wise rotative movement occurred. This indentation by reactivation of terrane boundaries
is dated by the deformation in die area of Giron, Loja and Vilcabamba, which took place at
9-8 Ma (Fig. 7.2B).

Moreover, in the Peruvian Andes during the same period (at 10 Ma) the compressive
Quechua 2 event is inferred (see above). In the Sub-Andean zone, a major thrust event is
suggested (Tschopp, 1953, Campbell, 1970). From this it appears evident that the entire
Andean margin in Ecuador and Peru experienced compressive deformation. Pilger (1981,
1984) and Daly (1989) speculated that the subduction of the aseismic Carnegie ridge (with
increased plate coupling) started already at about 8 Ma and might have driven the com¬
pression. However, compression is observed in a large area, in particularly also in Peru.
Therefore, larger scale processes should have been responsible. For a short period from
about 10 to 6 Ma Brozena (1986) reported an accelerated half-spreading rate in the Equa¬

torial Atlantic implying an increased west-directed movement of the South American plate.
Assuming a constant slab-retreat along the Peru-Ecuador trench or even blocking of the
slab retreat (Fig. 7. IB), strong compression might have resulted, which was accommo¬
dated in different parts of the margin.

After the intermontane stage in the soutiiern Ecuadorian basins, erosion predomi¬
nated in the Andean domain. A second uplift pulse at 4 Ma is indicated by apatite fission-
track analysis (Steinmann, 1997). A discussion of die state of stress during die Pliocene to
present in southern Ecuador is out off scope of this chapter. However, the occurrence of
large-scale landslides, deeply incised valleys, tilted Quaternary deposits and recent faults
suggest continuing tectonic activity in the southern Ecuadorian Andes and possibly ongo¬
ing uplift. In the coastal area continued tectonic activity is documented by the vertical
uplift of Pleistocene marine terraces along the present day coastline (Tablazo Formation)
to an altimde of up to 225 m above sealevel (Baldock, 1982).
7.2. CONCLUSIONS
1. The sedimentological and paleontological data prove that during the Middle
Miocene (15-11 Ma) the series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gonzanama

and Cuenca were deposited in coastal environments with lagoons and deltas in front of
fluvial systems. These series were deposited in me large Loja and Cuenca Embayments
during a Pacific coastal stage. At that time the basin was much larger than today.
2. The Giron-Santa Isabel basin remained during its entire evolution a continental
basin. The fluvial and alluvial fan systems drained towards die north into the coastal plain
system of the Cuenca Embayment (Steinmann, 1997). The E-W-trending Santa Rosa-
Saraguro High divided this northern drainage system from the Loja Embayment in the
south.
3. Direct evidences for basin forming mechansims are scarce, mostly because of
strong later deformation and basin inversion. However, in the area of Giron-Santa Isabel
and Loja, die existence of a half graben formed under NW-SE directed extension is evi¬
dent. Extension persisted tiirough the Middle Miocene and was oriented normal to die
active continental margin.

4. The Manabi and Progreso basins in the forearc area represented die western shal¬
low marine continuations of the Cuenca and Loja Embayments, respectively.

5. During die Middle Miocene the Cordillera Real between Loja and Vilcabamba
was a low relief mountain chain which allowed me development of seaways from the
Pacific Ocean via die Loja Embayment and the Vilcabamba Inlet to die Oriente of Ecua¬
dor and further to the upper Amazon basins. Faunal relations favour a close connection
between these two regions, prior to the Andean uphft.

6. The faunal and facies associations in the series of Loja and Malacatos-Vilcabamba
indicate variable climatic conditions during die Middle Miocene. The inferred temporal
and spatial changes from humid to dry local climate domains can be explained by the
interaction of cold and warm oceanic currents and die presence of submarine and topo¬
graphic barriers, as observed today along die Pacific coast of Peru and Ecuador.
7. In the Late Miocene (at around 10-9 Ma) a transition to continental deposition
occuned in die area of Loja, Malacatos and Vilcabamba with the deposition of fluvial and
alluvial fan sediments. The terrigenous material came from the rising mountain belts in
the southwest (Huancabamba Andes), and mainly from the Cordillera Real in die east.
Smaller basins were formed and the margins of which coincided more or less with die
recent basin margins. At this time, an intermontane setting was established, which pre¬
vailed also in die regions of Nabon (Hungerbuhler et al., 1995) and Cuenca (Steinmann,
1997).
Chapter 7 15J Late Tertiary tectonic evolution
8. Simultaneously, at 9 to 8 Ma compressive tectonic deformation occurred which
affected the entire southern Ecuadorian Sierra between Cuenca and Vilcabamba (basin
inversion). Uplift of the Cordillera Real occurred during this period which is evidenced by
coeval thick (syntectonic) alluvial fan deposits in me area of Loja, Vilcabamba and the
Oriente of Ecuador. The seaway between the Loja Embayment and the Oriente was closed
during this uplift event.
9. In the Giron-Santa Isabel basin the change of the sediment provenance at around 8
Ma to a predominant western source indicates a Late Miocene uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental. This uplift was accompanied by regional compressive deformation. Apatite

fission-track modelling in the Cuenca region (Steinmann, 1997) also indicates uplift of
the Cordillera Occidental after 9 Ma and regional compressive deformation between 9 and
8 Ma.
10. Today die Middle Miocene coastal sediments are situated at 1000 to 3000 m
above sea level and document surface uphft of the Andes since die Late Miocene. Taking
into account burial of the coastal sediments by younger fluvial and alluvial fan deposits,
rock uplift must have been considerably higher. Since the Late Miocene, surface uplift
occurred with a minimum rate of 0.2 mm/yr. However, the short-lived nature of deforma¬
tion events points to periodic uplift pulses at higher rates.

11. The northward displacement along the Dolores Guayaquil Megashear of the coastal
forearc basins witii respect to the stable Andean domain, of more than 100 km, occurred in
the Late Miocene. The onset of this displacement coincides most likely witii the Late
Miocene compressional event at around 9-8 Ma. During this dextral movement me Jambeli-
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around 9 Ma, which could have led to a slab break-off and the rebound of the remaining
slab, causing uplift and deformation. The extensional period is most likely linked with an
increase of the rollback velocity and slab retreat. Similar alternation of extension and
compression occurred also in the earlier Tertiary history of the southern Ecuadorian active
margin.
13. The short-lived compressional pulses, the extensional periods and the uplift events
noted in the southern Ecuadorian Andes cannot be simply conelated with similar observa¬
tion in the Colombian and Peruvian Andes, because the timing is partly different.
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Publication I Sample I Stratlgr. unit | Grid references I Lithology | Methodl Age In Ma I Comments
a >
Tertiary plutonic rocks in U \e Sierra ofEcuc idor (46 ages) e v
a) Plutonic bodie s in Cordi lera Occidental,, from N to S 5-v
Van Thournout NWA-R Maldonado 101500/822200 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Cayo de la Sierra Fm., Macuchi Fm. and Unacota o rt
377 bt 8.9±0.4 Fm. nicS3

etal., 1990 pluton a
plag 8.8±0.4
98500/784100 Granodiorite K-Ar in Macuchi Fm. u> R"
Van Thournout NWA-R Rio Babosa Emplaced
s h-t
et al., 1990 394 pluton hbl 40.0±3.0 • •
a
bt 42.3±1.7
< a
Van Thournout NWA-R Apuela pluton 30100/776600 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Cayo de la Sierra Fm., Macuchi Fm. and Unacota © i-i
Fm. n
etal., 1990 374 hbl 18.5±0.9
<
bt 15.8±0.6 S
La Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 39 Emplaced in Piflon de la Sierra Fm. and Cayo de la Sierra Fm.
Egiiez, 1986 Esperie
pluton
nic OUS
Chaupicruz Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 12 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. and Apagua Fm.
Egiiez, 1986
pluton
Eguez, 1986 Agagua pluton Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 21 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. rocks aged
et al., AE55 78° 58' 25" W Andesitic K-Ar Emplaced in Apagua Fm. n
Bourgois ...
1990 0° 59' 03" S porphyry wr 24.7±1.2
Bourgois et al., AE314 78° 55' 19" W Microdacite K-Ar Emplaced in Apagua Fm.
1990 0° 57' 58" S wr 21.3±1.1
Misi6nJaponesa, Industria pluton Cord. Occidental Granodiorite K-Ar 25 Emplaced in Macuchi Fm.
1988-92 as* p
1980 77.1189, Balzapamba 79° 06' W Quartzdiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. and Apagua Fm. Pluton was also *i
Kennerley, O
77.1188 pluton 1° 48' S hbl 19.2±3 called Telinbela pluton. W-flank of Cordillera Occidental.
65
(36) (Las Guardias) bt 30.8±1
Pichler & Aly, m-3 Bilevan pluton 79° 03' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Macuchi Fm. Authors correlated Bilevan with
1983 1° 48'S, 2740 m bt 78.0±3.0 Gomez and Pascuales plutons in the Costa and their
w
geochemical data inferred similar composition of the three o
plutons. c
65
MUller-Kahle & MKlll Chaucha 79° 25' 30" W Biotite- K-Ar Emplaced in La Victora unit, Piflon de la Sierra Fm., Cayo de a
Damen, 1970 (10) batholith 2° 55' 30" S granodiorite wr? 9.77+0.29 la Sierra Fm, Macuchi Fm., Apagua Fm. and Saraguro Fm. o
W- flank Cordillera Occidental ii 3
Putzer, 1976 Chaucha 79° 35' W Quartzmonzo- K-Ar This age dates the porphyry copper ore in the country rocks,
batholith 2° 58' S nite porphyry wr 9.9 -12.0 which is related to the Chaucha batholith.
Kennerley, 1980 69.211 Chaucha 79° 25' 20" W Granodiorit K-Ar
(1) batholith 2° 54' 00" S bt 12.8±0.6
Hall & Calle, Chaucha 20kmSE Granodiorite K-Ar
1982 batholith Naranjal wr? 10.0+.0.5
Steinmann, 1997 SE12 Porotillos 653857 / 963249 Granite f-t Emplaced in La Victoria unit and Saraguro Fm. Jubones
pluton zircon 20.2±2.0 valley.
Steinmann, 1997 SE13 San Antonio 662162/963447 Granite f-t Emplaced in Saraguro Fm. Jubones valley.
pluton zircon 20.0+.1.6
b) Plutonic bodie s in Cordii lent Real from f JtoS

Pichler & Aly, 11-28 Pimampiro IT 56' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Monte Olivo unit. Cord. Real / Inter-Andean
1983 pluton 1° 40'N, 1960 m bt 34.6±1.3 valley. Also called Chuga pluton.
Evernden, 1961 Pimampiro Cordillera Real Granodiorite K-Ar Pichler & Aly (1983) suggested that this age is too old.
pluton wr 72 However, Aspden et al. (1992) reported similar ages.
Aspden et al., CCR Pimampiro 174400 /0042000 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 87/1 pluton 178500/0043800 hbl 94±4,91±3
hbl 81±3,79±6
bt 84±3,73±2
bt 73±4
Herbert & No. 1 Baeza dome 77°51'W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Tena Fm.
Pichler, 1983 0° 29' S bt 0.54±0.06
Pichler & Aly, 11-33 Pungala pluton 78° 34' W Granodiorit K-Ar Emplaced in Guamote unit. Cordillera Real / Inter-Andean
1983 1° 47' S, 2780 m bt 41.3±1.6 valley.
Aspden et al., CCR Pungala pluton 768000/9796500 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 87/12 hbl 42±2
bt 42±1
Kennerley, 1980 76.47 Magtayan 78° 33' 00" W Hornblendite K-Ar Emplaced in Aloa-Paute unit. E-flank Cordillera Real
(33) pluton 2° 14' 30" S hbl 85±3
Kennerley, 1980 76.48, Magtayan 2°12'00" S Diorite K-Ar

76.50 pluton 78°31'30" W hbl 75±3
(34) K-fsp 54±2
Aspden et al., CCR Magtayan 767800/9758000 Diorite and K-Ar

1992 87/13 pluton 762100/9752000 gabbro hbl 74±3, 79±3
hbl 86±5, 89±4
bt 68±5
Herbert & No. 2 Amaluza pluton 78° 22' W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in El Pan unit and Aloa-Paute unit. Cordillera Real
Pichler 1983 2° 36' S bt 34.0±1.0 / Inter-Andean valley.
Kennerley, 1980 73.202, Amaluza pluton 78° 34' 05" W Granodiorit K-Ar Kennerley (1980) prefered the hornblende age of 49±2 Ma.
73.204- 2° 35'45"S bt 36.4±0.5
207(17) hbl 49+2, 39±1

plag 38.3±1
K-fsp 46±0.7
Aspden et al., CRSH Tampanchi 762500/9708000 Gabbro, K-Ar Emplaced in Aloa-Paute unit.
1992 89/17 mafic igneous horblendite hbl 66±3,61±4
complexe and basalt wr 61±10
Aspden et al., FV83 Ishpingo pluton 765000/9666300 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit.
1992 bt 39±4
Aspden et al., CRSH Pichinal pluton 704500/9599900 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Tres Lagunas metagranite.
1992 89/15 bt 54±4
c) Plutonic bodie s in southe rn Ecuador

Steinmann, 1997 SE7 El Prado pluton 658870 /9578475 Granite f-t Emplaced in El Tigre unit
1320 m zircon 24.0+.1.2
Steinmann, 1997 SE9 Calera pluton 650061/959148 Granite f-t Emplaced in Celica Fm.
910 m zircon 26.5±0.9
Herbert & No. 3 San Lucas 79° 15' W Biotite granite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit, Agoyan unit, El Pan unit and
Pichler 1983 pluton 3° 43' S bt 52.1±2.0 Sacapaica Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 73.171, San Lucas 79° 10' 45" W Granodiorite K-Ar
73.166 pluton 3° 51' 30" S bt 63±1
= 023/734 62±1
(14) plag
Kennerley, 1980 73.173, San Lucas 79° 15' 00" W Biotite- K-Ar
73.172 pluton 3° 46' 20" S granodiorite plag 70±2
= 943/828 bt 67±2
(15)
Aspden et al., FV San Lucas 692800/9585700 Granodiorite K-Ar
1992 11,15,34 pluton 694800/9578500 hbl 61±4, 66±4
698500/9574000 bt 51±2,52±2
bt 57±2, 58±2
bt 59±2
Aspden et al., CCR San Lucas 693300/9584900 Granodiorite Rb-Sr

1992 87/28 pluton wr,
3 point 53±2 >
TJ
Steinmann, 1997 SE1 San Lucas 690030/9578660 Granite f-t Cooling age which is similar to the zircon f-t data of the TJ
CD
pluton 2640 m zircon 39.1±3.0 Rodanejo pluton (N Nambacola) with 38.7±5.6 Ma (this 3
Q.
work).
Aspden et al., CCR Catamayo W flank Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit.
1992 87/29 pluton Cordillera Real bt 57±2, 58±2
Kennerley, 1980 73.163, El Tingo 79° 23' 30" W Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Sacapaica Fm. A zircon f-t age of 21.2±2.6 was
73.162 pluton 3° 59' 30" S hbl 47±2 obtained for this pluton (cooling age, this work).
- 784/587 bt 50±3
(12)
Jaillard et al., Palo Blanco 9541800/669200 Granodiorite K-Ar Emplaced in Celica Fm. and according to authors in Sacapaica
1996 pluton wr 21.2±0.6 Fm.
Plag 26.6±1.6
Kennerley, 1980 73.242, Portachuela 79° 25' 30" W Granite K-Ar Emplaced in Chiguinda unit, Tres Lagunas granite and
73.211, batholith 4° 34' 54" S bt 29±5 Sabanilla granite. W flank Cordillera Real.
212(26) plag 24.5±0.8
K-fsp 24.2±0.8
Aspden et al., CCR Portachuela 677300 /9472300 Granodiorite, K-Ar
1992 87/27 batholith 675500/9474400 diorites and hbl 20±7, 24+5
674500 /9476500 felsic bt 12±1, 12±1
porphyry bt 17±1, 18±1
bt 19±1
d) Plutonic bodies in the Costa
Pichler & Aly, IV-77 Gomez pluton 80° 34' W Tonalite K-Ar
1983 1° 38' S hbl 76.916.9
Pichler & Aly, IV-79 Pascuales 79° 55' W Tonalite K-Ar Emplaced in Piflon Fm.
1983 pluton 2° 03' S hbl 73.014.8
Tertiary volcanic rocks in ti \e Sierra ofEcui idor (59 ages)

Cotecchia & Macuchi Fm. 78° 32' 30" W Andesite K-Ar Sample from the eastern edge of the Inter-Andean valley. NE
Zezza, 1969 1° 12' 40" S wr 51.5+2.5 Ambato in the Inter-Andean valley
Kennerley, 1980 74.106 Pachacmama 79° 26' 40" W Rhyolite K-Ar The sample is derived from a rhyolitic intrusion which
(19) pluton 3° 19' 20" S wr 26.810.7 crosscuts the Saraguro Fm. However, similar zircon fission-
track ages were obtained for the base of the Saraguro Fm. (this
work). This sample is clearly not derived from the top of the
Saraguro Fm. as suggested by Lavenu et al. (1992).
Kennerley, 1980 74.111 Santa Isabel 3° 14' 15" S Rhyolitic K-Ar A zircon fission-track data of the same lithology yielded
an agt
(18) Fm. 79° 12' 05" W lavaflow wr 21.410.8 of 15.911.6 Ma (this work). Based on
this age the lavaflow is
attributed to the Santa Isabel Fm. and not assumed as Saraguro
Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.108 Santa Isabel 3° 19' 25" S andesitic dike K-Ar This dike is related to the volcanic activity, documented by the
(20) Fm. 79° 26' 25" W wr 19.510.4 andesitic Santa Isabel Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.107 Santa Isabel 3°13' 40" S Andesite- K-Ar These andesitic rocks are included in the Santa Isabel Fm.,
21) Fm. 79°13'00"W porphyry wr 14.210.5 which replaces the Chinchillo Fm. (this work)
Kennerley, 1980 74.104 El Descanso 2° 50' 10" S Andesite K-Ar Egiiez & Noblet (1988) assumed the El Desc. as a stock,
(24) Andesite 78° 52" 40" W wr 19.710.5 which has no contact with the Biblian Fm. Bristow (1973)
interpreted the El Desc. as an extrusive body which is

intercalated in the top of the Biblian Fm. and overlain by the
Loyola Fm.
Kennerley, 1980 74.105 El Descanso 2° 50' 00" S Andesite K-Ar The El Descanso Andesite is thrust over the Cuenca basin fill
(25) Andesite 78° 52' 13" W wr 21.010.6 series (Steinmann, 1997, therefore, it is a tectonic contact).
The andesite consists of intrusive or
subvolcanic rocks. A part
of it is older and was dated with 33 Ma (by Swisher, pers.
comm. A. Egiiez, 1995).
Henderson in Santa Isabel W of Saraguro andesitic dike K-Ar This dike is related to the volcanic activity, documented by the
Hall & Calle, Fm. wr 18.910.4 andesitic Santa Isabel Fm. (this work)
1982
Barberi et al., CH 1791 Saraguro Fm. ? Andesite K-Ar 28.911.4
-
1988
Barberi et al., CH 1787 Pisayambo Fm. 25 km WSW Ignimbrite K-Ar 15.410.7 Lavenu et al. (1992) assumed these pyroclastsics as products
1988 Cuenca, Soldados of a Miocene volcanic
activity and not as Tarqui Fm. This
volcanic activity is also evidenced in the Miocene basin fills.
Barberi et al., CH590 Fm. ? Andesite K-Ar 12.210.4 as above

Pisayambo
1988
Barberi et al., CH589 Pisayambo Fm. 28kmSE Dacitic K-Ar 11.210.4 as above
1988 Cuenca, Sigsig ignimbrite
Barberi et al., CH 1781 Pisayambo Fm. ? Andesitic K-Ar 8.1210.1 Barberi et al. (1988) correlated this sample with CH 1784.
1988 lavaflow
Barberi et al, CH 1776 Pisayambo Fm. ? Andesitic K-Ar 7.110.3 Barberi et al. (1988) correlated this sample with CH 1784.
1988 lavaflow
Barberi et al., CH 1784 Mangan Fm. 38kmNNE Dacitic K-Ar 8.010.08 This lavaflow may be intercalated in the Mangan Fm. Lavenu
1988 (top) Cuenca, S Canar lavaflow et al. (1992) place the sample tentatively in the Turi Mb.
(which forms the top of Mangan Fm.).

Barberi et al., CH582 Cojitambo 20kmNW Dacite K-Ar 5.210.2
1988 Andesite Cuenca
OLADE 1980 EC 46 Cojitambo 20kmNW Dacite K-Ar 6.33+0.2
Andesite Cuenca
Barberi et al., CH682 Pisayambo Fm. ? Dacite K-Ar 6.110.6 Basement of the Quilotoa volcano. Lavenu et al. (1992)
1988 (top) include sample tentatively in the upper part of Pisayambo Fm.
Barberi et al., CH535 ? W margin Chota Andesite K-Ar 6.3010.06 Barberi et al. (1988) assumed these rocks as basement of the
1988 basin Chota basin fill. However, Egiiez and Beate (1992) and
Barragan et al. (19%) described that these volcanics overly
unconformably the uppermost part of the Chota basin fill.
Barberi et al., CH537 ? W margin Chota Andesite K-Ar 6.3110.1 Same field relations as above (CH 535). These volcanics
1988 basin suggest an upper age limit for the Chota basin fill of latest
Miocene.
Van Thournout NWA-R Macuchi Fm. 91500/791000 Gabbro K-Ar Authors favoured older Eocene age. They correlated the rocks
etal., 1990 389 Cord. Occid. px,hbl 4519 with the Macuchi Fm. Age correlates well with data of Egiiez
plag 12.410.4 (1986) and it is in good agreement with other observations.
Van Thournout NWA-R unit 83600/806400 Microdiorite K-Ar Author included rocks in Tandapi unit which was introduced
Tandapi
et al., 1990 388 Cord. Occid. hbl 32.611.3 by Egiiez (1986).
Wallrabe-Adams Silante Fm. Cord. Occidental, Quartzandesite K-Ar Age places Silante Fm. clearly in Eocene. Sample is derived
1990 W Nono, 2330 m wr 52.712.9 from road Nono-Tandayapa, 11.6 km W of Nono.
Wallrabe-Adams Cayo Fm. Costa, E of Puer¬ Placidacite K-Ar Date assignes a Eocene age to the Cayo Fm. Sample is derived
1990 to Cayo, 150 m wr 52.912.4 from the road Puerto Cayo to Joaz, 6.5 km E of P. Cayo. It is
an important age because the Cayo volcanics are coeval with
the volcanic activity evidenced in the Cordillera Occidental
(Macuchi Fm.)
Madden 1990 Cerro Cojitambo, Andesitic Ar-Ar Madden (1990) assumed Cojitambo as intrusive rock, which
Cojitambo
Andesite 2 km from Q. lavaflow bt 6.7 can not be correlated with the El Descanso andesite.
Agua Sucia plag 5.2-12.0
Madden, 1990 87-G Nabon Group S Loma la Cruz Acidic tuff Ar-Ar Sample from the Dumapara Mb. (Iguincha Fm.). Ages are
hbl 10.8510.5 derived from multi component samples. The Nabon has an age
plag 11.9-13.9 of 8.5-7.9 (Hungerbuehler et al., 1995).
Madden, 1990 87-D.87- Nab6n Group S Loma la Cruz Acidic tuff Ar-Ar Sample from the Patadel Mb. (Picota Fm.). Age derived from
E, 87-F plag 10.3 samples of three different tuff layers and is therefore a
multicomponent age.
Lavenu et al., N87C5 Fm. 78° 54' W Andesite K-Ar The grid reference place this sample in the area of the El
Saraguro
1992 2° 50' S plag 35.310.9 Descanso Andesite. However, authors wrote that sample is
derived 5 km S Saraguro. This two possible sample locations
lie about 100 km seperated from each other. Age can not be
considered.
Lavenu et al., FD87068 Huigra-Tandapi 2° 17' S Andesite K-Ar Pyroclastic rocks mapped as Macuchi Fm. Sample could
1992 Fm. ? 78° 59' W wr 35.910.9 belong to the Huigra-Tandapi Fm. (Egiiez et al., 1988, cont.
20 km SW of plag 35.511.3 volcanic arc, which overlies Macuchi arc). Lavenu et al.
Alausf (1992) included rocks tentatively in Alausf Fm. (Saraguro
Gp.)
Lavenu et al., FD87040 Huigra-Tandapi 2° 08' S,78° 57'W Andesite K-Ar The sample was included in the Saraguro Fm. (Lavenu et al.,
1992 Fm. 12.5 km NW of Plag 27.210.9 1992). See above.
Alausf wr 21.011.0
Lavenu et N86C12 7 2° 42' S tuff K-Ar to Lavenu et al. (1992) the sample is derived from
al., Rhyolitic According
1992 78° 53' W plag 22.010.8 the Biblian Fm. However, taking into account a Middle
1 km E Biblian wr 24.710.6 Miocene age of this formation (Steinmann, 1997) this sample
must have been derived from volcanics of the Saraguro Fm.
Lavenu et al., N86C13 ? 2° 44' S Rhyolitic tuff K-Ar Lavenu et al.(1992) included sample to the lower part of the
1992 78° 54' W plag 16.310.7 Mangan Fm. The
Mangan Fm. has an well defined age range
of 10-9.5 Ma (Steinmann, 1997) and therefore the K-Ar age is
too old.
Lavenu et al., N86C10 Cojitambo 2° 45' S Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) assume the Coj. andesite as stock, which
1992 Andesite 78° 53' W plag 7.110.3 cuts the Biblian and Loyola Fms. Bristow (1973) interpreted
the Coj. andesite as extrusive rocks, which are intercalated
inbetween the Biblian and Loyola Fms. The first interpretation
is correct and the Coj. andestite cuts the deformed Middle
Miocene sediments (Steinmann, 1997).
Lavenu et al., N87C6 Tarqui Fm. 3° 39' S Andesite K-Ar Grid reference place this sample 5 km SW of Saraguro and not
1992 79° 15'W plag 8.210.4 5 km NE of Saraguro as published by the authors. The
volcanics belong to the Tarqui Fm. and not to the Pisayambo
Fm. as assumed by Lavenu et al. (1992).
Lavenu et al., FD87045 Pisayambo Fm. 2°10'S,78°51'W Andesite K-Ar Mapped as Alausf Fm. (Litherland et al., 1993). Lavenu et al.
1992 2.5 km WSW of plag 8.810.4 (1992) included this volcanics in the Pisayambo Fm.
Alausf plag 12.510.9
wr 7.910.4
Lavenu et al., FD87100 Pisayambo Fm. 0° 58' S,78° 52'W Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) assumed rocks as base of the Pisayambo
1992 (base) llkmSSEof wr 10.011.3 Fm. The sample is derived from an altitude of 3600 m.
Laguna Quilotoa plag 9.110.5
Lavenu et al., FD Scialpa Fm. 1°44'S,78°41'W acidic tuff K-Ar

1992 87106A 7 km SSW of wr 3.5910.28
Riobamba plag 5.1411.11
plag 3.1210.39
Lavenu et al., FD87 Scialpa Fm. 1° 44' S,78° 41'W acidic tuff K-Ar
1992 106 B 7 km SSW of wr 2.65 10.21
Riobamba plag 4.7610.57
Lavenu et al., FD85066 Altar Group 1° 47' S,78° 36'W Andesite K-Ar Lavenu et al. (1992) correlated this pyroclastics with the
1992 13 km SSE of wr 3.5310.94 Scialpa Fm. The sample is derived from a site, which lies near
Riobamba to the base of the Altar volcano.

Lavenu et al., FD86104 Latacunga Fm. 1°11'S,78°34'W Andesite K-Ar Mapped as Pisayambo Fm. But Lavenu et al. (1992) assigned
1992 7 km NE Ambato plag 1.7310.35 volcanics as Latacunga Fm.
Lavenu et al., FD87081 Latacunga Fm. 0° 55' S,78° 35'W basaltic K-Ar see above
1992 2kmNE andesite wr 1.85 10.19
Latacunga
Lavenu et al., FD87110 Latacunga Fm. 1° 09' S,78° 38'W Andesite K-Ar See above. The sample is derived from a the east side of the
1992 10 km NNW of wr 1.4010.29 Sagoata volcano.
Ambato
Rivera et al., Saraguro Fm. 977/752 Ignimbrite K-Ar Pyroclastics belong to the basal part of the Saraguro Fm.
1992 Soldados area bt 26.010.8
Rivera et al., Saraguro Fm. 963/762 Ignimbrite K-Ar Pyroclastics belong to the basal part of the Saraguro Fm.
1992 Soldados area bt 27.010.7
Baudino et ? 7 7 K-Ar
al., According to Baudino et al. (1994) all 3 samples are derived
1994 plag 20.812.1 from the Ayancay Group. However, these authors did not
consider the complex interfingering between the Santa Isabel
Fm. and the Burrohuaycu Fm. (this work). The samples may
belong to the volcanic rocks of the Santa Isabel Fm.
Baudino et al., 7 7 7 K-Ar as above

1994 plag 18.210.8
Baudino et al., 7 7 7 K-Ar as above
1994 Plag 15.211.7
Jaillard et al., Catamayo Fm. 2 km SW of Acidic K-Ar The age is derived from a acidic volcanic clast in a
1996 Catamayo volcanic clast plag 25.110.8 conglomerate which was fluvially reworked. Therefore, this
wr 21.010.5 age cannot be interpreted as depositional age. The Catamayo
Fm. is assumed as Middle Miocene (this work).
Pratt et al., 1997 WP275 Saraguro Fm. 661900/9650900 f-t The following 11 age determinations were carried out by
(BGS) zircon 27.712.0 Michael Steinmann for the Cordillera Occidental Project of the
British Geological Survey (BGS) in Ecuador.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP298 Saraguro Fm. 690700 /9629300 Dactic tuff f-t
(BGS) =DH 485 zircon 26.712.2
Pratt et al., 1997 WP472 Saraguro Fm. 703862/9618808 Ignimbrite f-t
..
(BGS) =DH 465 zircon 25.011.8
Pratt et al., 1997 WP620 Fm. 681700/9620300 Andesite f-t These intermediate rocks are included in the Sacapaica Fm.
Sacapaica
(BGS) zircon 24.813.6 (Pratt et al., 1997). They interfinger with the lower part of the
Saraguro Fm. the region west of Saraguro and Manii. They
forms possibly the uppermost part of the Sacapaica Fm. and
may be correlated with the Tandapi unit.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP176 Saraguro Fm. 632400/9635400 f-t Based on this age, the acidic volcanics exposed in the Costa
(BGS) zircon 23.211.6 (Pasaje region) can be correlated with the Saraguro Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP481 Saraguro Fm. 702934/9614065 Ignimbrite f-t Flat lying ignimbrites with a thickness up to 400m, which
(BGS) =DH 466 zircon 22.511.8 rest with an angular unconformity on older pyroclastics. They
were formerly assumed as Tarqui Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP509 Saraguro Fm. 690200/9629700 Rhyolitic f-t
(BGS) =DH 484 dacitic tuff zircon 22.412.0
Pratt et WP765 Fm. 650200/9591600 f-t The volcanic rocks exposed in the Zaruma area can be
al., 1997 Saraguro
(BGS) zircon 21.511.6 correlated with the Saraguro Fm.
Pratt et al., 1997 WP717 Fm. 672700/9614400 f-t Only 3 zircons were dated.
Saraguro
(BGS) zircon 20.714.8
Pratt et al., 1997 WP8B 7 658700/9651500 f-t Intrusion
(BGS) zircon 13.911.0
Pratt et al., 1997 WP653 Fm. 694100/9595400 f-t Dacitic intrusion or lavaflow. Sample is derived from a
Tarqui
(BGS) zircon 9.611.0 locality which lies about 2 km south of site N87C6 (Lavenu
et al., 1992).
Appendix 173
Appendix 2: Radial plots of fission-track samples
plots allow a visual judgement of the homogeneity of a set of ages measure¬

Radial
ments in sample and the identification of possible detrital grains (Galbraith, 1990).
one
This graphical method can help to determine whether a sample is representative of one or
more age groups, in the case of multi-component samples (Galbraith, 1990). The recog¬
nised sub-populations can be further statistically tested for their significance (Galbraith
and Laslett, 1993).
The radial plot is an plot with one point plotted for each age estimate: on
x-y scatter
the x-axis thereciprocal (relative error to the age) and on the y-axis the standardised
error
error ±2 sigma is plotted. There is in addition a circular age scale at the right of die graph,
which is centred at the mean of all ages. The single crystal age can be read off the age
scale, by drawing a line from the origin (0/0) through (x, y). A 2 sigma standard error bar
is shown on the
y-axis.
The twoexamples for southern Ecuador, shown below, represent two different cases:
(1) DH 373 contains zircon which belong clearly to one population and the single
crystal ages plot within the 2 sigma error limit. The depositional age of this sample is
11.2±1.2Ma.
(2) DH 225 consists of two populations and further statistical treatment allowed to
calculate the ages of the two sub-populations at 2.3±0.8 Ma and 38.1+.4.4. The mean age
of 24.8±8.2 has in this case no geological meaning. The younger age of 2.3+0.8 Ma repre¬
sents the depositional age of this sample.

DH 373 Santo Domingo Fm.
+2r r15
V14
-12
0 -
11
• •
-
•
>.• *
-10
L9
% relative error
Central age-11.2±1.2
32 17
—
' v2v 99%
P (Xz)-
i—i—i— T
10 20
0
precision (1/sigma)
59
Vat
DH 225 Salapa Fm. • r_Zi—38.1±4.4
_47
-36
-
24
apparent central
age:16 4±7 4
P (x2)- 0%
2.310.8
20 30
precision (1/sigma)
174 Appendix
..,*
Praam an (i/aaaM)
1 0 »»>• 11
V
• • •
% ralata/a a
W 10 >
•racial en (l/<••*•)
MS 225
». • 17.
• -
35
[3.
%ralatteaarrar £. 26
Praatalan p/atama)
MS 226
13
\ 12
•
•
• I 11
• •
%
"
*• • 9
*
•
•
/ .
s
L L 7
% ralaO.a arrar
> 11
10 10
MS 227
20
•
V"
•
V15
13
•
1
/
.
10
1
»a
1>
,
10
IT
Ir
•raala)an<Vakj ""
MS 226 19
• • •
•
*
1* !• SO 41 ( 10
PraclalanlVabm)
Appendix 175
y ••
.
• .
•' w
«%latlt« • rm.
10 10 10 40
•rtclalBi p/at a ma)
19
„„,
.7-
•.*
'
%ral(tt*a arrsr
ie io m
DH 247
..
'<»
14
•
• 11
••»
.
.
*> .
10
/.
• •
*
40 10
10 20
MS 247 „
94
•
•
•
L 90
• •
•
_
47
i
• •
/«
I
4* 10
W 10 A
< 23
% ralatlva
•*raalak>n( lalfina)
176 Appendix
15
„,,
14 »,„
10 10
DH 300
4*
|-
*ralatlva arrar
0 10 10
10 10
•raetalon (1/•*>•) l>raslalon<Valgma)
DH 314
42
+a V, 30
•
a*
V 3.
• •
0
• •
«
L 29
a
/. 29
w 10 a
DH 317
4 r
13
M •
••
•
r
L 12
12
L 11
rahtlva error
I • 1* 10
• racial on(Valaai>)
Appendix 177
DH 335
+a r
Pre a 1*1 on (1/aama)
"
r • -
t
i 11
10 10 • 4 0 11 0
Praelelon (1*1 am a)
DH 330
• •
•
• •
raEla)an(ValBMM)
DH 343
a
r
**•••
« •
.
* ralatlvaarrar
free hi en p/elami)
DH 344
43
r
L 32
r 29
<
25
/
•
•• 22
19
%r«la1lw vror
DH 373
.1 |>
•
'• ...
Praeltf on <"*»••>
178 Appendix
%rakltr*«rror
i 1 H—' H
10 m ae
•
Prae! lan(lM*jaia) ncttfMitVoUMO)
DH 395
•
V- DH 415
• •
\_
75
20
*•
\
-
• 95 18
/• _
.
•
: *
L • •
•
% real** erre % ret*i*eerri
10 11
10 10 10 .0
( 45
•rol den p/tfgni)
racial en (Vatjna)
%ralatl*> arm
'
,' 0 13 10
took an 0*1 am a)
DH 450
•
•
•
•
•
-
M 1T
10 10
•reekrK)n(lMlana)
DH 451
1 9 >(«> *
23
22
20
19
% ralolvaorror
10 10 10
Praalalan(Valjna)
Appendix 179
DH 464
Onr« nt ma
**
r»
r
•.
~
21 #
•*• a
•
•
t:
11 11 10
'
23
V 21
13
14
10 al 40
atonflMliaia)
'0
-
CH 93
i r
21
19
10 10 10
Praaailai (1/aana)
32 „« .
V «
» V
23
* ralattir* error
21
10 10 10
DH 497
*
20
\
r kiwi
•
.
27
V16 -
•
•
14
.
24
12
0)
•
22
* -
10
L 20
•
11 11
/ 17
10 10 M 40 1 11 10 10
*Te«lal«. p/etfraa) l>raclalan'VelBina)
CH 61
*a
r
••• ill •
_
11
10
/.
'
0 11 10
180 Appendix
13
12
11
10
% ralallaaarrar
10 »
*Ye«»ton(l*tai>a)
UH 141
\"
•
• •:
•> ra>Jai.Va aifor
.»
A
raaielan fl Jit am*,)
^
-•
10
< .
a
%r«mi,#arror
/.
Appendix 181
Appendix 4: Location of ostracod samples
Sample Stratigraphic unit Locality Grid references,

UTM and longitude/latitude
Catamayo-Gonzanama basin
DH389 Gonzanama Fm. W of the village Santa 681271 / 9546694
DH390 Rita, along Catamyo- 79°22'01.5"W 4°05'57.8"S
Cariamanga road
DH406 Rita, along Catamyo- 79°22'02.1"W 4°06'05.1"S
Cariamanga road
DH407 Gonzanama Fm. Portete de Nambacola 677948 / 9543309
79°23'48.4"W 4°07'49.6"S
Rita 79021'34.3"W 4°06'28.6"S
DH444 Gonzanama Fm. W of the village 675091 / 9540275
DH445 Surunuma 79°25'21.6"W 4°09'27.4"S
DH449 Gonzanama Fm. Uruchambo, N of the 672978 / 9548691
village Nambacola 79°26'30.4"W 4°04'53.2"S
DH473 Gonzanama Fm. San Vicente area 674248/ 9540519
79025'49.1"W 4°09'19.4"S
Loja basin
DH244 San Cayetano Fm. nearthe village San 701018/9559379
Siltstone Mb. Cayetano Bajo, along 79°11'22.3"W 3°59'03.6"S
Loja-Zamora road
DH258 La Banda Fm. near the village La 696267 / 9559567
Banda, West of the city 79°13'56.3"W 3°58'57.8"S
of Loja
DH416 La Banda Fm. near the village Carigan, 696922 / 9561374
DH417 NW of the city of Loja 79°13'34.9"W 3°58'00.4"S
Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin
DH304 San Jose Fm. San Jose region 688652 / 9537002
DH305 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3,,S
Dh307 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3"S
DH365 San Jose Fm. West of the village El 685750/ 9551384
DH366 Tambo 79019'36.2"W 4°03'24.7"S
DH367
DH401 79°18'00.7"W 4°11'12.3"S
Cuenca basin
MS 450 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Ollebos, 1 m 740074 / 9692351
above contact with 78°50'26.7"W 2°46'53.1 "S
Yunguilla Fm.
MS 453 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Ollebos, 20 m 739836 / 9691761
MS 454 above contact with 78°50'33.1"W 2°47'12.2"S
Yunguilla Fm.
MS 503 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Purcu near 739981 / 9691681
MS 504 the village San Miguel 78°50'28.6"W 2°47'14.7"S
MS 505 Loyola Fm. Quebrada Purcu near 739760 / 9691756
MS 506 the village San Miguel 78°50'36.4"W 2°47'12.3"S
Proto-Santa Isabel basin

CH113 Jacapa Fm. 8.5 km South of the 683350 / 9622250
village Uchucay
182 Curriculum Vitae
Curriculum Vitae
Dominik Hungerbuhler
Personal
Address: Institute of Geology

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH)
Sonneggstrasse 5
CH 8092 Zurich
Switzerland
Phone: +41 1 632 36 39
Fax: +41 1 632 10 80
e-mail: [email protected]
Date of birth August 24, 1968

Nationality Swiss
Marital status married to Carmen Guerrero
Education
1994-1997 Geology ETHZ,

Ph.D. student and research assistant at the Institute of
with the thesis"Neogene basins in the Andes of southern Ecuador:
sedimentary evolution, deformation and regional tectonic implications".
Advisors: PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler, Dr. Diane Seward, Prof. Daniel
Bernoulli, Prof. Martin Burkhard.
1988-1993 Study of Geology at the University of Zurich with a Master's thesis

"Geologie des intermontanen Beckens von Nabon (oberes Miozan,
Siidecuador), mittlerer Beckenteil". Advisors: Prof. Daniel
Bernoulli, PD Dr. Wilfried Winkler, Dr. Mary Ford.
1983-1987 CoUege, Wetzikon (Canton of Zurich), Matura Type E (Economics)
1981-1983 Secondary School, Riiti (Canton of Zurich)
1975-1981 Primary School, Riiti (Canton of Zurich)
Languages
German (native language), English, Spanish, French

LOCATION OF DATED PLUTONIC ROCKS (FROM N TO S)
Geological map of southern Ecuador number
on map
name
age
(amount of aqes) method mineral reference
Append ix3 1 Chaucha 9 8±0 3 K-Ar wr? Muller-Kahle&Damen 1970
9 9-12 0 K-Ar
COLOMBIA wr Putzer 1976
12 8±0 6 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
100±05 K-Ar wr"? Hall & Calle. 1982
2 PorotiUos 20 2±2 0 fission-track zircon Steinmann 1997
3 San Antonio 20 0+1 6 fission-track zircon Steinmann, 1997
4 Pachacmama 26 810 7 K-Ar
STRATIGRAPHIC LEGEND wr
Kenneriey, 1980
5 Pichinal 54±4 K-Ar biotite Aspden etal 1992
6 Marcabeli 214±6 K-Ar biotite Feininger SSilberman 1982
Quaternary 221 ±6-193+1 3 (4) K Ar biotite Aspden et al
| undifferentiated Quaternary in the Costa
219122 Sm-Nd
1992
wr garnet Aspden et al 1992
228+1 U Pb monzonite
Pis I Salapa Formation
Tdr~ *Cuenca-'
Aspden et al 1995
Pliocene 7 Calera 26 510 9 fission-track
''map r zircon Steinmann 1997
^^B Tarqui Formation 8 El Pindo 128 9+6 8 fission-track zircon Steinmann. 1997
-4°S 9 El Prado 24 011 2 fission-track zircon Steinmann, 1997
^^H Tun Formation 10 San Lucas 52 112 0 K-Ar biotite Herberts Pichler 1983
80° W J
Upper 6712 6311 K-Ar biotite
|y. j Quillollaco, Cerro Mandango Uchucay 78° W
Kenneriey 1980
7012 6211 K-Ar plagioclase
—-—'
Formations and Nabon Group Kenneriey 1980
61+4 66+4 K-Ar hornblende Aspden et al 1992
59+2-5112(5) Rb Sr wr
Aspden et al 1992
Mq/| I Gonzanama Catamayo, San Jose Santo Domingo, Trigal, La Banda,
5312 K Ar biotite
Belen San Cayetano Burrohuaycu Giron Formations Aspden et al 1992
o Middle 49 212 5 fission-track zircon Steinmann 1997
K^9 Quinara Formation 11 Catamayo K-Ar biotite
5712. 5812 Aspden et al, 1992
12 El Tingo 4712 K-Ar
Santa Isabel Formation hornblende Kenneriey 1980
Lower 5013 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
*"
21 212 6 fission-track this work
Ok" I Saraguro Formation INTRUSIVE ROCKS zircon
13 Rodanejo 38 715 6 fission-track
Oligocene zircon this work
Latest Cretaceous 14 Palo Banco 21 210 6 K-Ar
Loma Blanca Formation -
Tertiary plutons wr Jaillard etal 1996

26 6+1 6 K-Ar plagioclase Jaillard etal. 1996
(granodiorites)
Rio 15 Sabanilla 224137
Eocene Playas Formation Rb-Sr wr
Aspden et al 1992
Tertiary plutons (gabbros diorites) 13518 12816 K-Ar hornblende et al
Aspden 1992
9713-7212(11) K-Ar
Pas| Sacapalca Formation
Cretaceous
biotite Aspden et al 1992
Paleocene plutons (granodiorites) 7713 6516 (6) K-Ar muscovite Aspden et al, 1992
HH 16 Tres Lagunas K-Ar

Macuchi Formation 17314 plagioclase Kenneriey, 1980
7811 K Ar biotite
METAMORPHIC ROCKS Kenneriey, 1980
200112 Rb-Sr wr
Ccn I Casanga and Naranjo Aspden et al 1992
K-Ar
Formations ^^H Jurassicmetasedimentary and 8614-5012 (8)
K-Ar
biotite Aspden et al 1992
10013-6813 (6) muscovite Aspden et al, 1992
^m Yunguilla Formation metavolcanic rocks (El Pan Delicia units)
61 615 0 fission-track zircon this work
Alamor Formation ^^H Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks 17 Tangula 114130 113+3 K-Ar hornblende Kenneriey 1980
(Chiguinda Ayoyan El Tigre La Victoria units) 49+2 95+1 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
11013 K Ar plagioclase Kennerlev, 1980
Ceiica Formation ^^H Triassic metagranites (Tres Lagunas 18 Portachuela 2915 K-Ar biotite Kenneriey 1980
Sabanilla Mormoro Marcabeli) 24 510 8 K-Ar plagioclase Kenneriey 1980
Pinon Formation
K-Ar
24 210 8 K-feldspar Kenneriey 1980
El Toro unit undifferentiated Paleozoic and Mesozoic 2415 2017 K-Ar hornblende al
Jurassic PMz Aspden et 1992
rocks 19-12+1 (4) K-Ar biotite Aspden et al, 1992
AGE DETERMINATIONS PALEONTOLOGICAL LOCATIONS Compilation Dominik Hungerbuhler Institute of Geology ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Database This map is based field studies carried out under the author's Ph D project
i zircon fission-track ages this work
on
(1994-97) and a
O Middle Miocene ostracods compilation of published data (Kenneriey 1973 Baldock 1982 Litheriand
etal, 1993 Hunger¬
zircon fission-track ages (this work Peterson et al in prep ) buhler et al 1995 Aspden et al 1995 Jaillard et al 1996 and Pratt et al 1997) The regions
0 (Hungerbuhler et al 1995 Steinmann 1997) Neogene mammals of San Fernando-Giron Santa Isabel-Ona and
Loja-Vilcabamba-Catamayo-Gonzanama Cata¬
f—3
(R Madden pers 1996) cocha were mapped by D Hungerbuhler (a total of 2500 km2 1 50 000
K-Ar ages
comm in scale) Some line-
^ work from regions situated outside of the studied area is derived from the project of the British
(Kenneriey, 1980 Aspden etal 1992) STRUCTURES
Geological Survey in the Cordillera Occidental (Pratt etal 1997, BGS and CODIGEM in press;
* zircon fission-track ages A, thrust fault inverse fault and is marked "BGS"
(Pratt et al, 1997) Geographic The geographic and topographic data are compiled from 1 250 000 topographic
_JBL_ normal fault maps of the
base Instituto Geografico Militar (sheets Guayaquil Machala, Macara)
_ K-Ar ages (Barberi et al, 1988, Rivera et al,
-*—
strike-slip fault lineament
1992, Lavenu et al, 1992, Jaillard et al, 1996) Funding The work of D Hungerbuhler was funded by the Swiss Science Foundation grants r^/JI'r'
anticline syncline
+4120 m altitude (m)
W No 21-39143 93 and 20^15256 95
[^ i ]J-'
(C) Dominik Hungerbuhler, 1^9>7\ ,
~?
J> »tt PTH A1314

79° 00
61,0 80° OCT 620 630 79° 45
9680
ajBalao
9670
-3° 00
Pacific Ocean
9640
9530
—4° 15
) Dominik Hungerbuhler, 1997 fbtfc Em AZ. Si 4

10 15 20
kilometers

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Chapter 3 88 Stratigraphy and facies

lowermost part of the Malacatos-Vilcabamba basin fill succession.

part of the Loma Blanca Formation (Kenneriey and Almeida, 1975b).

4. Evolution of the Miocene depositional environments

Miocene series in southern Ecuador (Chapter 3) must lead to a different environmental

interpretation. Other authors have already suggested an estuarine environment based on

Depositional environments transitional between marine and continental systems

time and space.

Miocene compressive deformation. However, the combination of sedimentological obser¬

vations and paleontological data with chronostratigraphic calibration by zircon fission-

4.2. ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OSTRACODS AND

series of Loja, Malacatos-Vilcabamba, Catamayo-Gozanama and Cuenca were studied

marginal marine-estuarine-continental environments described by Forester and Browers

The foraminifera Ammonia parkinsonianavar. tepida, Quinqueloculina sp. aff. seminulum

Gulf Coast Central America Caribbean Ecuador

164 C aff ovata C steph

yielded a very impoverished ostracod fauna which is dominated by Vetustocytheridea

water and estuarine species occurred (Fig. 4.1).

the occurrence of ostracods is dominantly controlled by the solute composition (Forester

4.3. SYNTHESIS OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

tion takes into account the following arguments:

(3) Ostracod associations support the sedimentological interpretation of the facies

deposited in different larger embayments (gulfs) opening to the Pacific.

appropriate equivalents (see Chapter 6).

43.1. The Loja Embayment in the Middle Miocene (Fig. 4.2A)

early Late MioceneV

j§!|] intermontane stage direction of marine

stage lovv topographic high

Fig. 4.2 (captions p. 95)

rent patterns and topographic barriers (see above).

4.3.3 The Vilcabamba Inlet in the Middle/Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2B)

the west (Steinmann, 1997).

in the source areas to the east.

stage to the intermontane stage.

43.5. Intermontane stage in the Late Miocene (Fig. 4.2D)

a prominent angular unconformity on strongly deformed older deposits. Heavy mineral

5. Miocene extensional basin formation and basin inversion

Ecuador is a region where subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental lithosphere

occurs. However, extension is also recognised in subduction settings, in particular in the

two stress regimes may occur simultaneously in different regions.

formed in a predominantly extensional setting at sealevel at the beginning of the Middle

5.2. TECTONIC SETTING OF SOUTHERN ECUADOR

The pronounced geomorphic E-W division of Ecuador into Costa, Cordillera

pecially by the Miocene Andean deformation.

81° 80° 79° 78° 77°

Southern Ecuador (south of 2°S)

Sub-Andean zone of Ecuador and Peru.

The Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear (DGM, Fig. 5.1) is a major structure in Ecua¬

with the fore-arc history (see above).

Amotape-Tahuin terrane to the northeastern Peruvian margin in Early Cretaceous times.

compressive deformation event at around 8 Ma in the southern Sierra of Ecuador.

Litheriand et al. (1994) suggested the presence of east-vergent NNE-SSW striking

forms the northern prolongation of the MTFB.

5.3. MIDDLE MIOCENE EXTENSION AND BASIN FORMATION

53.1. Giron-Santa Isabel basin

The predominant deformation of the Miocene sediments in southern Ecuador is re¬

dle Miocene sediments on the Upper Oligocene -

Lower Miocene Saraguro Formation is

sediments outside of the main depression.

Fig. along the Quebrada Burrohuaycu, showing