U.S. vs. International Prescription Drug Prices

A Painful Pill to Swallow:
U.S. vs. International Prescription

Drug Prices
Prepared by Ways and Means Committee Staff

September 2019
Committee on Ways and Means
Table of Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..6
Background………………………………………………………………………………………..8
Results……………………………………………………………………………………………14
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………..29
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….32
Appendix A: Methodology ………………………………………….…………………………..33
Appendix B: US Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices…………………………..38
Appendix C: Country Profiles…………………………………………………………………...40
Appendix D: International List Price Comparison – Overview………………………………….46
Appendix E: International List Price Comparison – Disease Groups..…………………………..49
Appendix F: International List Price Comparison – Manufacturers....…………………………..59
2
Executive Summary
Americans pay on average nearly four times more for drugs than other countries –
in some cases, 67 times more for the same drug.
The United States (U.S.) spent $457 billion in 2016 on combined retail (dispensed at the
pharmacy) and non-retail (dispensed in physician offices) drugs. 1 Medicare alone spent nearly
$130 billion on prescription drugs that year, $99.5 billion of which was for Part D pharmacy
drugs and $29.1 billion of which was for Part B physician-administered drugs. 2 In the five years
between 2011 and 2016, drug spending nationwide grew by 27 percent – more than 2.5 times the
rate of growth in inflation. 3 According to a 2018 Kaiser Family Foundation poll, 79 percent of
Americans believe the costs of prescription drugs are unreasonable – and 26 percent are worried
they cannot afford the prescription drugs they need. 4
Given the rise in prescription drug costs and the associated out-of-pocket burden on
consumers, U.S. policymakers and experts are considering models that successfully lower costs.
This report examines patterns of drug pricing in the U.S. relative to other international
comparator countries through a six-part analysis examining price differentials among 79 drugs
sold in 11 countries and the U.S. in 2017 and 2018. The non-U.S. comparators in our analysis
were: the United Kingdom (UK), Japan, Ontario, Australia, Portugal, France, the Netherlands,
Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland. 5
1
Observation on Trends in Prescription Drug Spending (2019). Department of Health and Human Services.
Retrieved from https://aspe.hhs.gov/system/files/pdf/187586/Drugspending.pdf
2
10 Essential Facts About Medicare and Prescription Drug Spending (2019). Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/infographic/10-essential-facts-about-medicare-and-prescription-drug-spending/
3
Analysis of Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of the Actuary prescription drug spending data,
Table 11 and BLS data on CPI-U 2011-2016. Retrieved from https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-
Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/NationalHealthExpendData/NationalHealthAccountsHistorical.html
4
Public Opinion on Prescription Drugs and Their Prices (2019). Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved
from https://www.kff.org/slideshow/public-opinion-on-prescription-drugs-and-their-prices/
5
Although Ontario is a province and not a country, it is included in the analysis because it purchases its own drugs
independently of the rest of Canada. For the purposes of simplicity, we refer to all comparison entities as “countries”
or “nations.” In all instances throughout this report, this reference to “countries” is inclusive of Ontario.
3
Key Findings:
U.S. Drug Prices Significantly Higher than All 11 Other Countries
• The U.S. pays the most for drugs, though prices varied widely.
• U.S. drug prices were nearly four times higher than average prices compared to similar
countries.
• U.S. consumers pay significantly more for drugs than other countries, even when accounting
for rebates.
• The U.S. could save $49 billion annually on Medicare Part D alone by using average drug
prices for comparator countries.
The U.S. pays the most for drugs, though prices varied widely. Across the 79 drugs in
our sample, the average list price per dose was $152.92, ranging from $0.08 6 to $16,597. 7
Annual pharmaceutical spending per capita varied from $318 in Denmark to $1,220 in the
United States. Average annual per capita spending on pharmaceuticals was $675.25 across the 12
countries, $625.73 excluding the U.S. U.S. drug prices are on average outliers relative to all
comparator countries. Most countries had average drug prices around 24 to 30 percent of those in
the United States. The greatest disparity was with Japan, where the average drug price was only
15 percent that of the U.S., meaning that the U.S. on average spends seven times what Japan
pays for the same drugs. Denmark represented the closest average price, where average drug
prices were 39.1 percent of the average U.S. drug price.
U.S. drug prices were nearly four times higher than average prices compared to
similar countries. We found that individual drug prices in the U.S. ranged from 70 8 to 4,833
percent 9 higher than the combined mean price in the other 11 countries. On average, U.S. drug
prices were 3.7 times higher than the combined average of the other 11 countries in the study.
U.S. consumers pay significantly more for drugs than in other nations, even when
accounting for rebates. One of the major arguments from the pharmaceutical industry justifying
these international price differentials is that while list prices are much higher in the U.S., the
rebates offered are also significantly higher, so the net price is comparable. To test this claim, we
compared rebate rates in the U.S. to Germany and found German rebate rates are relatively low
compared to U.S. rebates, ranging from 0 to 35 percent and averaging 8.7 percent. U.S. rebates
would need to average 67 percent to match average German net prices, and the average U.S.
rebate rate would need to be about 73.3 percent in order for U.S. net prices to match list prices in
6
Premarin in the UK
7
Stelara in the U.S.
8
Lantus Solostar
9
Dulera
4
the other 11 countries in the study. According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) the
average rebate rate for band name drugs was 22 percent in 2015. 10
The U.S. could save $49 billion annually on Medicare Part D alone by using average
drug prices for other countries. Using our basket of comparison drugs (i.e., an index of
average drug prices across all 11 non-U.S. countries), we estimated potential Medicare Part D
savings if an average of foreign prices were applied to the U.S. We replicated this comparison
using both German prices and U.K. drug prices as a benchmark. The U.S. spent an estimated $67
billion in 2018 on the 79 drugs in our sample through Medicare Part D plans. Purchasing these
same drugs using the “basket list price” could reduce Part D spending by $48.8 billion annually.
The analysis presented in this report clearly illustrates that, across the board, the U.S.
spends more on drugs than other comparable developed countries. The extent of these pricing
differentials varies by drug, manufacturer, and disease group, but the results we present show the
existence of large differences between the U.S. drug pricing system and other countries – and the
associated negative effect those differences have on out-of-pocket costs borne by the American
consumer and associated costs borne by the taxpayer. The system in place now does not work for
the Americans who depend on it – by all measures, U.S. consumers pay too high a price for
drugs.
10
Prices for and Spending on Specialty Drugs in Medicare Part D and Medicaid (2019). Congressional Budget
Office. Retrieved from https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2019-03/54964-Specialty_Drugs.pdf
5
Introduction
When the Committee on Ways and Means in 1965 marked up proposals to create what
would eventually become Title XVIII of the Social Security Act, it dropped the Medicare Part B
prescription drug benefit from the bill due to its potentially high and unpredictable costs. 11 For
41 years, Medicare beneficiaries received most of their prescription drugs from other sources –
employer retirement programs, private Medigap coverage, and Medicaid. The Medicare
Modernization Act (MMA) of 2003 changed that by creating Medicare Part D, a voluntary
outpatient prescription drug benefit administered through private plans. 12
Since then, Part D has evolved into a plan to protect patients from exorbitant costs, and
yet patient burden continues to grow rapidly. 13 Despite its broad uptake – almost 45 million of
59 million Medicare beneficiaries were enrolled in 2019 – the benefit has struggled to provide
beneficiaries with protections from high out-of-pocket costs in the face of extremely expensive
drugs. 14 Such consumer-facing inadequacies under Part D have resulted in the Medicare
Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC), presidential budgets (under both Obama and
Trump), and other independent experts to call for changes to the structure of the Part D
program. 15 16 17
Rapid increases in drug prices have over time exacerbated cracks in the Part D program’s
benefit design. 18 Between 2011 and 2016, drug spending nationwide grew by 27 percent – more
than 2.5 times the rate of growth in inflation. 19 In particular, the rise in spending for specialty
drugs has driven the increase in spending in Medicare Part D and Medicaid. 20 A 2019
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report found that from 2010 to 2015, specialty drugs
11
Oliver, Thomas R. et. al. (2004). A Political History of Medicare and Prescription Drug Coverage. The Milbank
Quarterly. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690175/#targetText=On%20December%208%2C%202003%2C%
20President,other%20changes%20to%20the%20program.
12
Id.
13
Blum, Jonathan (2006). A History of Creating the Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit. Avalere Health LLC.
Retrieved from https://avalere.com/research/docs/Part_D_Commentary.pdf
14
Cubanski, Juliette and Neuman, Tricia (2019). 10 Things to Know About Medicare Part D Coverage and Costs in
2019. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/10-things-to-know-about-medicare-part-d-coverage-
and-costs-in-2019/
15
Improving Medicare Part D. Medicare Payment Advisory Commission, June 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.medpac.gov/docs/default-source/reports/chapter-6-improving-medicare-part-d-june-2016-report-.pdf
16
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2017). Budget in Brief: Strengthening Health and Opportunity
for All Americans. Budget in Brief: Strengthening Health and Opportunity for All Americans. Retrieved from
https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/fy2017-budget-in-brief.pdf
17
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2019). Budget in Brief: Putting America's Health First . Budget
in Brief: Putting America's Health First. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/fy-2019-budget-in-
brief.pdf
18
Id.
19
Analysis of Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of the Actuary prescription drug spending data,
Table 11 and BLS data on CPI-U 2011-2016. Retrieved from https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-
Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/NationalHealthExpendData/NationalHealthAccountsHistorical.html
20
Cubanski, Juliette and Neuman, Tricia (2019). How Much Does Medicare Spend on Insulin. Henry J Kaiser
Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/how-much-does-medicare-spend-on-
insulin/
6
accounted for 13 percent of Part D spending in 2010 and 31 percent by 2015; in Medicaid, those
rates were 25 percent in 2010 and 35 percent by 2015. 21 With six in 10 Americans reporting they
currently take at least one prescription medication (and one in four reporting they take four or
more), drug prices have far-reaching effects. 22
Countervailing trends – skyrocketing drug prices coupled with an increasingly aging

population in need of prescription drugs – have increased urgency among congressional
lawmakers and Trump Administration officials to develop policies aimed at reigning in the cost
of drugs for American consumers. 23 These approaches to protect and preserve Part D include
such payment options as allowing the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human
Services (the Secretary) to negotiate the price of drugs on behalf of the Medicare program. 24
In particular, the huge drug price differentials between the United States (U.S.) and other
developed countries has focused lawmakers’ attention on ensuring U.S. consumers get a better
deal. According to one study, the U.S. spent between three and four times the rate for certain
single-source brand name drugs than the United Kingdom (U.K.), Japan, or Ontario. 25 Despite
the wide acknowledgement of these international disparities in price and spending, researchers
have not explored in great detail the differences in prices for drugs across an array of comparable
developed countries. This report examines patterns of drug pricing in the U.S. relative to other
international comparator countries, using a subset of 79 common drugs and a descriptive
empirical approach to document differences in pricing in the U.S. relative to other countries.
Findings from this report will provide context for policy proposals to bring down drug prices in
the U.S.
21
22
23
Sachs, Rachel (2019). Prescription Drug Policy: The Year in Review, and the Year Ahead. Health Affairs Blog.
Retrieved from https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20190103.183538/full/
24
Cubanski, Juliette et. al. (2019). What’s the Latest on Medicare Drug Price Negotiations? Retrieved from
https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/whats-the-latest-on-medicare-drug-price-negotiations/
25
Kang, So-Yeon et. al. (2019). Using External Reference Pricing in Medicare Part D to Reduce Drug price
Differentials with Other Countries. Health Affairs Blog. Retrieved from
https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/pdf/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05207
7
Background
The U.S. spent $457 billion in 2016 on combined retail (dispensed at the pharmacy) and
non-retail (dispensed in physician offices) drugs. 26 27 Medicare alone spent nearly $130 billion
on prescription drugs that year, $99.5 billion of which was for Part D pharmacy drugs and $29.1
billion of which was for Part B physician-administered drugs. 28 In total, 30 percent of Medicare
spending went to prescription drug costs in 2016. 29 As Figure 1 shows, U.S. spending on
prescription drugs has been rising precipitously during the time that Medicare has been paying
for drugs under Part D. Projections indicate this spending will only continue to increase.
Figure 1. Historical and Projected Prescription Drug Spending by Payer, 2005-2026 30
SOURCES and NOTES: Figure 1 was reproduced from the Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation article entitled “10
Essential Facts About Medicare and Prescription Drug Spending.” Data were provided by the Henry J. Kaiser
Family Foundation. The figure only includes Medicare Part D data.
There is a direct and positive relationship between the cost of drugs and drug spending.
Between 2012 and 2016, drug spending grew by 27 percent for individuals with employer-
26
Observation on Trends in Prescription Drug Spending (2019). Department of Health and Human Services.
Retrieved from https://aspe.hhs.gov/system/files/pdf/187586/Drugspending.pdf
27
Retail Prescription Drugs Filled at Pharmacies per Capita (2018). Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved
from https://www.kff.org/health-costs/state-indicator/retail-rx-drugs-per-
capita/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Location%22,%22sort%22:%22asc%22%7D
28
29
Id.
30
Id.
8
sponsored health insurance; at the same time, drug prices increased by almost 25 percent (and
utilization only increased by about two percent during that time). 31
The introduction of new types of drugs into the market is one driving factor of these
increases in spending. For example, in 2014 and 2015, prescription drug spending increased
rapidly because of the new high-cost hepatitis C drugs that came to market. 32 Drugs are most
expensive when they are first introduced to market, before there is competition of other drugs in
their class, and before the original patent expires and generics become available. 33
America’s Drug Prices are Too High
American consumers are feeling the effects of drug pricing increases directly, with many
facing the life-threatening choice between filling a necessary prescription and putting food on the
table. 34 Six in 10 Americans report they currently take at least one prescription medication, and
one in four report taking four or more medications. 35 According to a 2018 Kaiser Family
Foundation poll, 79 percent of Americans believe the costs of prescription drugs are
unreasonable, and 26 percent are worried they may not be able to afford the prescription drugs
they need. 36
Such concerns are merited: According to one 2015 poll, an estimated one in four
Americans had not filled a prescription in the last year because of the high cost of the drug. 37
Similarly, a 2013 study found that one in four cancer patients had either not filled a prescription
or had reduced their prescribed dosage as a result of the price tag associated with the drugs. 38
As the cost of prescription drugs continues to climb, this reality will only affect more
Americans. In 2015, the average total cost of treating a patient with specialty medications was
more than $52,000, with patients responsible for a bill in excess of $10,000, on average. 39
31
2016 Health Care Cost and Utilization Report (2018). Health Care Cost Institute. Retrieved from
https://www.healthcostinstitute.org/research/annual-reports/entry/2016-health-care-cost-and-utilization-report
32
Henry, B. (2018). Drug Pricing and Challenges to Hepatitis C Treatment Access. Journal of Health & Biomedical
Law, 14, 265-283.
33
Id.
34
The Affordability Conundrum (2017). National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Retrieved
from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493099/
35
36
Id.
37
Poll: Nearly 1 in 4 Americans Taking Prescription Drugs Say It’s Difficult to Afford Their Medicines (2019).
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/health-costs/press-release/poll-nearly-1-in-
4-americans-taking-prescription-drugs-say-its-difficult-to-afford-medicines-including-larger-shares-with-low-
incomes/
38
Zafar et al. (2013). The financial toxicity of cancer treatment: A pilot study assessing out-of-pocket expenses and
the insured cancer patient’s experience. Oncologist. 2013;18(4):381-90. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23442307
39
Trends in Retail Prices of Specialty Prescription Drugs Widely Used by Older Americans, 2006 to 2015 (2017).
AARP Public Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/ppi/2017/11/full-report-trends-
in-retail-prices-of-specialty-prescription-drugs-widely-used-by-older-americans.pdf
9
Among Medicare beneficiaries, 21 percent of out-of-pocket spending in 2016 went to
prescription drugs. 40
External Reference Pricing and Pharmaceutical Cost Containment Abroad
Given the rise in prescription drug costs and the associated out-of-pocket spending
burden on consumers, U.S. policymakers and experts have been focusing their attention on ways
to bring down costs for constituents, in part by looking to models abroad. Based on the average
cost of drugs, models in other developed nations are arguably more effective than the U.S. in
protecting consumers from rising drug prices by using an external reference pricing (ERP)
system.
An ERP system refers to the practice of using the price of a pharmaceutical product
(generally an ex-factory price, also referred to as a “list price”) in one or several countries to
create a benchmark or reference price for the purposes of setting or negotiating drug prices in a
given country. 41 42 With the exceptions of Denmark, Sweden, and the U.K., almost every
European country – and most other developed nations – has established some form of an ERP. 43
Most countries with an ERP create a “basket” of rates in comparable countries and use
the average of all prices in the basket as a benchmark, but there is some variation (e.g., Spain
uses the lowest price of comparator systems; Greece uses the average of the three lowest prices).
The number of countries used as references ranges from three in Portugal to 30 in Poland. Most
countries use manufacturer prices (i.e., the price that the manufacturer charges wholesalers or
pharmacies) for their ERP; however, Finland uses wholesale prices (i.e., list prices for a drug to
wholesalers or other direct purchasers, which does not include discounts or rebates) and the
Netherlands uses retail prices (i.e., manufacturers’ sales prices for a drug, net of price
adjustments). 44 Every country with an ERP uses publicly available price information, which does
not incorporate confidential discounts and rebates negotiated between payers and manufacturers.
Many countries also incorporate an internal reference price (IRP), which is typically used
for pricing generics. 45 IRPs are meant to determine pharmaceutical prices based on market
equivalents or similar products within the country. 46 They are also used to set payment rates for
40
41
Dimitra Panteli et al. (2016). Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries. Health Systems in Transition.
Retrieved from http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/322444/HiT-pharmaceutical-regulation-15-
European-countries.pdf?ua=1
42
WHO Guideline on Country Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies (2013). World Health Organization. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK258618/
43
Id.
44
Mattingly, Joey (2012). Understanding Drug Pricing. U.S. Pharmacist. Retrieved from
https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/understanding-drug-pricing
45
46
10
product groups, which typically cluster drugs according to active substance or therapeutic
class. 47 Figure 2 provides a summary of the variation in reference pricing approaches across
European countries; only three countries (Sweden, Denmark, and the U.K.) with data depicted on
the map do not use some form of ERP.
Figure 2. Use of Reference Pricing in European Countries, 2016 48
SOURCES and NOTES: Figure 2 was reproduced from the from the Dimitra Panteli et al. (2016) Health Systems
in Transition article entitled, “Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries.”
Regardless of the approach, empirical evidence shows ERPs are effective in ensuring
drug prices are more moderately priced in a market, resulting in reductions in prices of about 15
percent over 10 years, according to one study. 49 In the domestic context, a Center for Economic
and Policy Research study suggested Medicare could save $541 billion over 10 years –
approximately $54 billion annually – if Medicare’s system looked more like Denmark’s;
beneficiaries would save $112.4 billion within this same policy framework. 50 The study also
47
Id.
48
Id.
49
Id.
50
Shih, C., Schwartz, J., and Coukell (2016). A. How Would Government Negotiation of Medicare Part D Drug
Prices Work? Health Affairs Blog. Retrieved from
https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20160201.052912/full/
11
found that on average, Americans spend nearly twice as much per person per year on
prescription drugs, when compared to countries like Canada, Denmark, Germany and the UK. 51
EFPIA Principles for External Reference Pricing Systems
The European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) is the

advocacy group that represents the pharmaceutical industry operating in Europe. 52 In 2014, the
EFPIA provided recommendations for configuring an ERP system and integrating it into a wider
pricing mechanism. 53 The EFPIA issued such recommendations to address difficulties in cross-
market comparisons, consumer costs, consumer access, and research and development (R&D)
spending. 54
EFPIA-issued recommendations on ERP system standards
• An ERP should be used in the context of a broader pricing and reimbursement methodology
that provides flexibility in price negotiations.
• An ERP should cluster approximately five to seven countries with comparable Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) per capita and similar health care systems.
• Ex-factory prices should be referenced since distribution structures and tax rates vary
widely across countries. Incorporating negotiated prices or discounts could undermine the
flexibility of customers to agree to the terms of the manufacturer.
• The methodology of an ERP should use an average price and not the lowest price of the
basket. Responsible ERP methods should calculate a weighted average of a “basket” of ex-
factory prices.
• ERP is best used for the launch of a product.
• Restricting country baskets to the same currency zone avoids distortions to currency
fluctuations.
• Data sources should be valid, reliable, public, and vetted by stakeholders with direct
interest in the pricing process.
No country has configured its ERP to match all of these guiding principles. Most
countries with an ERP use the average price of a basket and do not weight them by market size
or purchasing power parity. 55 With the exception of the basket size recommendation, Germany’s
ERP configuration strategy comes closest to the EFPIA recommendations. 56
51
Principles for Application of International Reference Pricing Systems (2014). European Federation of
Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations. Retrieved from http://www.pharmalogica.pl/efpia-position-paper-
principles-for-application-of-international-reference-pricing-systems,i2301?download=2362
52
About Us (2019). European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations. Retrieved from
https://www.efpia.eu/about-us/
53
Id.
54
Id.
55
Dimitra Panteli et. al. (2016). Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries. Health Systems in Transition.
56
Id.
12
Trump Administration Part B International Price Index (IPI) Proposal 57
In 2018, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) released an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) that for the first time sought to leverage international
models to reduce drug prices in the U.S. 58 Specifically, the ANPRM sought public input on ways
to change how Medicare pays for Part B prescription drugs that patients receive in doctors’
offices, like chemotherapy or eye injections (the model did not include drugs patients pay for at
the pharmacy under Medicare Part D). 59 While not fully developed, the Trump Administration
took a first step at initiating an ERP system, though its design did not echo most ERP
recommendations. Still, the IPI was an acknowledgement that the U.S. is paying more for drugs
than other countries, a reality that has harmed American consumers.
The model lacked clarity on many structural details; however, it proposed supplying Part
B drugs to providers through a middleman vendor based on an average sales prices (ASP) and
International Price Index (IPI) blended rate. Currently, CMS pays doctors and hospitals the ASP
plus six percent of the drug price for administrative costs. 60 The ASP is a calculation of the
weighted average of manufacturers’ sales prices for a drug for all purchasers, net of price
adjustments. 61 As described, the model changes how Medicare pays hospitals and providers (but
not pharmaceutical companies) for drugs. Since nothing requires drug companies to sell the
prescriptions to the middleman at a lower price than they receive today, there is concern these
proposals could simply shift costs around. 62
The Trump Administration’s initial projections estimate that the plan would save $17.2
billion over five years and reduce out-of-pocket costs for Medicare beneficiaries by $3.4
billion.63 However, key details are missing in this proposal on how it would be operationalized.
Additionally, most drug costs are incurred in Part D and this proposal is limited to Part B – a
small part of the drug market – reducing IPI’s ability to affect the drug pricing system on a larger
scale for Medicare beneficiaries or Americans more broadly. CMS has not released the policy as
a Proposed Rule. 64
57
ANPRM International Pricing Index Model for Medicare Part B Drugs (2018). Centers for Medicare and
Medicaid Services. Retrieved from https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/anprm-international-pricing-index-
model-medicare-part-b-drugs
58
Id.
59
Id.
60
Mattingly, Joey (2012). Understanding Drug Pricing. U.S. Pharmacist. Retrieved from
https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/understanding-drug-pricing
61
Id.
62
Liberman, Steven and Ginsburg, Paul B. (2019). CMS’s International Pricing Model for Medicare Part B Drugs:
Implementation Issues. Health Affairs Blog. Retrieved from
63
Id.
64
Id.
13
Results
Given the focus on international drug pricing models as an example for bringing down costs
in the U.S., we conducted an analysis to understand the extent to which U.S. drug prices exceed
those in other similar countries globally. As policymakers continue to consider ways to drive
down drug prices in the U.S. – particularly through external reference-type models – it is
increasingly important to better understand the relationship between the prices and costs in the
U.S. system and comparable countries abroad. Accordingly, the following section describes the
results from our six-part analysis conducted to examine price differentials among a select subset
of 79 drugs sold in 11 countries and the U.S. in 2017 and 2018; a detailed description of the
methodology employed and limitations of this analysis is included in Appendix A to this
report. 65
1. Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for average drug prices, by country, for each of the
12 countries in our study cohort. Across the 79 drugs in our sample, the average list price was
$152.92, ranging from $0.08 (Premarin, a medication used to treat symptoms of menopause, in
the U.K.) to $16,597 (Stelara, a medication used to treat moderate to severe plaque psoriasis, in
the U.S.). 66 67 Pharmaceutical spending per capita varied from $318 in Denmark to $1,220 in the
United States. Average per capita spending on pharmaceuticals was $675.25 across the 12
countries. Across the 12 countries sampled, there were an average of 61.4 drug prices listed (out
of a possible 79 drugs). Due to data aberrations, the number of drug prices listed on each
country’s database varied from 37 drugs in Portugal to all 79 drugs in the U.S.
65
Although Ontario is a province and not a country, it is included in the analysis because it purchases its own drugs
independently of the rest of Canada. For the purposes of simplicity, we refer to all comparison entities as “countries”
or “nations.” In all instances throughout this report, this reference to “countries” is inclusive of Ontario.
66
Premarin (2019). Pfizer Inc. Retrieved from https://www.premarin.com/
67
Stelara (2019). Janssen Biotech, Inc. Retrieved from https://www.stelarahcp.com/
14
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics on Prescription Drug Prices for Select Countries, 2018
Summary Statistics of Pharmaceutical List Prices, 2018

Pharmaceutical Spending per Drugs
Average Min Max
Capita 68 Listed
U.S. $466.15 $5.36 $16,597.86 $1,220.00 79

UK $105.45 $0.08 $2,921.09 $469.00 78
Japan $69.50 $0.15 $488.66 $838.00 58
Canada
$132.59 $0.27 $3,557.82 $832.00 47
(Ontario)
Australia $113.57 $0.67 $3,043.87 $673.00 62
Portugal $82.97 $0.32 $682.02 $403.00 37
France $104.51 $0.42 $2,455.79 $653.00 54
Netherlands $152.86 $1.42 $3,742.87 $396.00 61
Germany $165.01 $0.46 $4,728.76 $823.00 65
Denmark $182.29 $0.90 $4,719.68 $318.00 65
Sweden $143.91 $0.54 $3,612.73 $515.00 59
Switzerland $116.22 $0.69 $3,475.85 $963.00 72
Average $152.92 $0.08 $16,597.86 $675.25 79
Average
(excluding $124.45 $0.08 $4,728.76 $625.73 59.9
US)
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources.
Pharmaceutical spending per capita refers to the entire country of Canada and not specifically Ontario, Canada.
As Table 1 shows, U.S. drug prices are, on average, outliers relative to all comparator
countries. When excluding the U.S., the average
Most countries had average drug
drug price of the other 11 countries ($124.45) is
prices around 24 to 30 percent of those
only about 27 percent of the average drug price in
in the United States. The greatest
the US ($466.15). When excluding both the U.S.
disparity was with Japan, where the
and Portugal (the country with the lowest GDP)
average drug price was only 15
from this cohort, the average drug price was
percent that of the U.S., meaning that
$129.56 for the other 10 countries. Most countries
the U.S. on average spends seven times had average drug prices around 24 to 30 percent of
what Japan pays for the same drugs. those in the United States. The greatest disparity
was with Japan, where the average drug price was
only 15 percent that of the U.S., meaning that the U.S. on average spends seven times what Japan
pays for the same drugs. Denmark represented the smallest disparity, where average drug prices
were 40 percent of the average U.S. drug price.
68
Pharmaceutical Spending (2018). Organisation for Economic co-operation and Development. Retrieved from
https://data.oecd.org/healthres/pharmaceutical-spending.htm
15
The highest per-dose drug price in the sample was for Stelara, priced at a $16,597.86. 69
Stelara was between 3.5 to 6.75 times more expensive in the U.S. than in other countries in our
dataset. Of the 79 drugs listed, the lowest-priced drug in the U.S. was Premarin. 70 Still, in the
U.S., this drug costs $5.36, which is 20 to 67 times the average price of Premarin in the other 11
countries.
2. Factors Affecting Price Differentials

Figure 3 shows results from our analysis on the extent to which per capita GDP might
drive drug prices in a given country. If per capita GDP is positively associated with drug prices
in a given country, we would expect the 11 non-U.S. countries in our analysis to have drug prices
at about 80 percent of those in the U.S. Figure 3 shows this was not the case: For the drugs
included in this analysis, the combined average drug prices were 26.8 percent (or 34.3 percent
without Portugal) of average U.S. drug prices.
Figure 3. Percent of International GDP per Capita to US GDP per Capita and Average
Prescription Drug Price Compared to U.S. Average Drug Price under Medicare Part D,
2018
140.0% 132.2%
120.0%
96.7%
100.0% 91.5%
84.6% 86.4%
79.6% 76.9%
80.0% 73.6%
67.8% 66.2%
62.7%
60.0%
36.9% 39.1%
40.0% 32.8% 35.0%
28.4% 30.4%
26.8% 23.9% 24.4% 24.9%
22.4%
14.9% 17.8%
20.0%
0.0%
Ratio of GDP per Capita to US Ratio of Average Drug Price to US
69
Stelara (2019). Janssen Biotech, Inc. Retrieved from https://www.stelarahcp.com/
70
Premarin (2019). Pfizer Inc. Retrieved from https://www.premarin.com/
16
While most countries had a lower GDP per capita than the U.S., Switzerland had a GDP
per capita over 30 percentage points greater than that of the United States. Despite its greater per
capita wealth and, thus, purchasing power,
If per capita GDP is positively Switzerland had average drug prices about 25
associated with drug prices in a given percent of those in the U.S. As shown in Figure 3,
country, we would expect the 11 non- although relative GDP per capita per country ranged
U.S. countries in our analysis to have from 37 percent to 132.2 percent that of the U.S.,
drug prices at about 80 percent of average drug prices were more consistent, at about
those in the U.S. This was not the case: 15 percent to 40 percent of the U.S.’s average drug
For the drugs included in this analysis, price.
the combined average drug prices
were 26.8 percent (or 34.3 percent Notably, Portugal had a lower GDP per
without Portugal) of average U.S. drug capita ($21,136.30) compared to the average GDP
prices. per capita ($50,931.58) across the entire sample of
countries. We included it in our study because
Portugal utilizes a unique ERP model, which bases its ERP calculation on the lowest price of its
three-country basket. 71 Where relevant, we have included calculations that exclude Portugal from
the sample.
3. International Comparison of Average Prescription Drug Prices

One of the primary goals of this study was to
determine the price differential between drug prices With one exception, individual
in the U.S. and other comparable nations. If prices in drug prices in the U.S. ranged
the U.S. are just marginally higher than most from 70 percent to 4833 percent
countries, then these price differentials may be higher than the combined mean
explained by justifiable variations in per capita price in the 11 other countries
income or other manufacturing costs. If the price studied… On average, U.S. drug
differentials between the U.S. and other nations are prices were 3.7 times higher than
large, then factors other than per capita GDP are the combined average of the other
likely driving the higher prices in the U.S. market. 11 countries.
With one exception, we found that individual drug prices in the U.S. ranged from 70
percent (Lantus Solostar – a type of insulin) to 4,833 percent (Dulera – a prescription asthma
medication) higher than the combined mean price in the other 11 countries. 72 73 Compared to
individual countries, drug prices in the U.S. ranged from 0.6 to 67 times the price for the same
drugs. On average, U.S. drug prices were 3.7 times higher than the combined average of the
other 11 countries. There was only one drug, Reyataz, an HIV medication, where the price in the
U.S. ($7.93) was lower than the combined mean price of the other 11 countries ($8.25) – by
about 3.9 percent. 74
71
Dimitra Panteli et. al. (2016). Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries. Health Systems in Transition.
72
Using Lantus (2019). Sanofi-Aventis US LLC. Retrieved from https://www.lantus.com/using-solostar-insulin-pen
73
Dulera (2018). Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Retrieved from https://www.dulera.com/
74
What is Reyataz? (2018). Bristol-Myers Squibb Company. Retrieved from http://www.reyataz.com/what-is-
reyataz
17
Lower-priced drugs exhibited larger disparities between the U.S. and its international
comparators. The largest disparity occurred with Dulera, which costs $23.95 per dose in the U.S.
but averages $0.49 in the other countries, making it nearly 5,000 percent more expensive in the
U.S. Similarly, Premarin (3,116 percent higher price in the U.S.), Advair Diskus 75, an asthma
medication (1,296 percent higher price in the U.S.), Januvia 76, a non-insulin Type 2 diabetes
medication (1,019 percent higher price in the U.S.), and Combigan 77, a medication to treat
symptoms of glaucoma (985 percent higher price in the U.S.), were all about 10 times more
expensive in the U.S. compared to the mean price in the other 11 countries.
For high-priced drugs, the relative price differential in the U.S. was lower, but prices
were still higher in the U.S. than in other countries. Humira, an anti-inflammatory drug used to
treat a number of conditions, is the best-selling prescription drug in the world. 78 Since 2012, it
has doubled in price in the U.S. and is currently priced at $2,346.02 per dose (it reputedly costs
an average of $38,000 per patient per year after rebates). 79 Compared to the combined mean
price of the other 11 countries ($450.60), Humira is over 500 percent more expensive in the U.S.
In fact, by country, the next highest price for Humira is in Denmark, where it costs $787.10 per
dose, about a third of the price in the U.S. Figure 3 summarizes these data, showing average drug
prices by country as a percentage of U.S. prices.
Comparative Analysis of Manufacturers
Our analytic file of 79 drugs included 31 manufactures, only 12 of which manufactured a

single drug represented in the database. Of these 12 companies, the ratio of U.S. list prices
compared to average international list prices varied substantially, though prices were consistently
higher in the U.S. For instance, Pharmacyclics priced its cancer medication Imbruvica 88 percent
higher in the U.S. than the average international list price. 80 Glaxosmithkline priced Advair
Diskus, nearly 1,300 percent higher in the U.S. than the average international price.
Of the 19 companies that manufacture multiple drugs in our sample, most manufacturers
priced their drugs in the U.S. at about 200 to 400 percent of the list prices in other countries. This
range was close to the average ratio of U.S. list prices to average international list prices; several
drugs were significantly higher, however. Gilead Sciences priced Sovaldi, Harvoni, Stribild,
Genvoya, and Letairis between 200 percent and 350 percent the average international price, but
they priced Ranexa at almost 650 percent the average international price. 81 A number of
manufacturers had multiple drugs with extremely large disparities between U.S. and international
prices. To illustrate this point, Figure 4 depicts a breakdown of five select manufacturers and the
drugs with the largest discrepancies between U.S. and international prices.
75
Advair Diskus (2018). GSK or licensor. Retrieved from https://www.advair.com/
76
About Januvia (2019). Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Retrieved from https://www.januvia.com
77
Combigan (2018). Allergan. Retrieved from https://www.combigan.com/patient/Default.aspx
78
Hakim, Danny (2018). Humira’s Best-Selling Drug Formula: Start at a High Price. The New York Times.
Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/06/business/humira-drug-prices.html
79
Id.
80
How does Imbruvica work? (2019). Pharmcyclics LLC. Retrieved from https://www.imbruvica.com/cll/how-does-
imbruvica-work
81
Medicines (2019). Gilead Sciences, Inc. Retrieved from https://www.gilead.com/science-and-medicine/medicines
18
Figure 4. Prescription Drug Prices for Select Drugs by Manufacturer, 2018
Biogen-Idec Merck
1800 1697.49 1697.49 $30.00
1600 $23.95
$25.00
1400
1200 $20.00
$15.70
1000
$15.00
800
600 $10.00 $7.16
400 270.95 252.74
$5.00
200 $0.49 $1.40 $0.91
0 $0.00
Avonex Pen Avonex Dulera Januvia Janumet
US Average (excluding US) US Average (excluding US)
Boehringer Ingelheim Janssen

$16.00 $20.00
$13.72 $13.26
$14.00 $15.48
$15.00 $13.95
$12.00
$10.00
$8.00 $10.00
$6.00
$4.00 $5.00 $2.59
$1.57 $1.25 $1.83
$2.00
$0.00 $0.00
Tradjenta Spiriva Respimat Invokana Xarelto
Novartis
600
518.27
500
400
300 261.9
200
81.92 66.28
100
0
Afinitor Gilenya
US Average (excluding US)
19
In the Merck & Co. example, Dulera was priced at almost 50 times the average
international price ($23.49 compared to $0.49). Januvia 82 and Janumet 83, both used to treat Type
2 diabetes, are priced in the U.S. at 1,120 percent and 790 percent the average international price,
respectively.
Comparative Analysis of Disease Groups and International Drug Prices
When analyzing by disease groups, arthritis medications, multiple sclerosis medications,

and non-insulin diabetes medication exhibited the largest U.S.-international drug price
differentials in our dataset.
Diabetes Medication
The U.S. spends $327 billion annually on costs associated with diabetes. 84 According to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 30.3 million Americans suffered from
diabetes in 2015, while the price of insulin increased by 197 percent from 2002 to 2013. 85 86
Total Medicare Part D spending on insulin increased by 840 percent from $1.4 billion to $13.3
billion between 2007 and 2017, far outpacing the growth in number of beneficiaries using
insulin. 87
Based on our analysis, insulin averaged $34.75 Six of the seven non-insulin
per dose in the U.S., which is 247 percent of the $10.58 medications used to treat Type 2
price in other countries. However, we found significant diabetes were priced 600 to 1,100
variation by drug. For example, Lantus SoloStar in the percent higher in the United States
U.S. was 170 percent of the average in other countries, than abroad.
while the HumaLOG Mix 75-25 KwikPen was priced at
620 percent of the non-U.S. price. The Sanofi-Avertis-manufactured Lantus and Lantus SoloStar
account for more than $4 billion of annual Medicare spending. 88 89 Figure 5 shows price
differentials between the U.S. and the average non-U.S. price for a select set of insulin drugs.
82
Januvia (2019). Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Retrieved from https://www.januvia.com/
83
What is Janumet (2019). Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Retrieved from
https://www.janumetxr.com/sitagliptin_metformin_HCL/janumetxr/consumer/what-is-janumet/index.xhtml
84
Cefalu, WT, Dawes, DE, Gavlak, G, Goldman, D, Herman, WH, Van Nuys, KV, et al. (2018). Insulin Access and
Affordability Working Group: Conclusions and Recommendations. Diabetes Care. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.2337/dci18-0019
85
Id.
86
Squires, E, Duber, H, Campbell, M, Cao, J, Chapin, A, Horst, C, et al. (2018). Health Care Spending on Diabetes
in the U.S., 1996-2013. Diabetes Care 41: 1423-1431.
87
Cubanski, Juliette and Neuman, Tricia (2019). How Much Does Medicare Spend on Insulin. Henry J Kaiser
Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/how-much-does-medicare-spend-on-
insulin/
88
Using Lantus (2019). Sanofi-Aventis US LLC. Retrieved from https://www.lantus.com/using-solostar-insulin-pen
89
Medicare Part D Drug Spending Dashboard (2019). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Retrieved from
https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/Information-on-
Prescription-Drugs/MedicarePartD.html
20
Figure 5. Select Insulin Drug Prices, 2018 90
$90.00 $82.74
$80.00
$70.00
$60.00
$50.00
$37.26 $36.55 $35.36 $35.36
$40.00
$26.96 $26.95
$30.00
$20.00 $16.37 $15.00 $15.86
$7.26 $8.69 $7.75 $6.75
$10.00
$0.00
Toujeo Solostar NovoLOG Flexpen NovoLOG HumaLOG HumaLOG Mix Lantus Lantus SoloStar
KwikPen U-100 75-25 KwikPen
Information on the types of insulin were retrieved from Cleveland Clinic “Injectable Insulin Medications” article.
Insulin medications tended to have price differentials close to the average U.S.-
international price differential, but non-insulin diabetes medications had much higher prices
compared to the international average. Non-insulin Type 2 diabetes medications averaged $49.28
per dose in the U.S., 526 percent of the non-U.S.
international average of $12.70. The U.S. price for The seven non-insulin medications
Victoza was 278 percent of the non-U.S. international used to treat Type 2 diabetes were
average, while Onglyza and Tradjenta were priced at priced 178 to 1,020 percent higher
about 900 percent of the non-U.S. international average. in the U.S. compared to the
Januvia was priced at $15.70 in the U.S., compared to international average price.
an international average of $1.40 – a price differential
of 1,020 percent. The seven non-insulin medications used to treat Type 2 diabetes were priced
178 to 1,020 percent higher in the U.S. compared to the international average price. Figure 6
shows the differential between the U.S. price and the average among the other 11 countries for
all seven non-insulin Type 2 diabetes drugs in 2018.
90
Injectable Insulin Medications (2019). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved from
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/13902-injectable-insulin-medications
21
Figure 6. Non-Insulin Medication Used to Treat Type 2 Diabetes Drug Prices, 2018 91
$200.00
$182.55
$180.00
$160.00
$140.00
$120.00
$96.71
$100.00
$80.00
$60.00 $47.84
$40.00 $30.23
$15.70 $15.48 $13.72 $13.61
$20.00 $7.16
$1.40 $1.83 $1.57 $1.50 $0.91
$0.00
Januvia Invokana Tradjenta Onglyza Janumet Victoza Trulicity
Information on the types of insulin were retrieved from Cleveland Clinic “Diabetes: Non-Insulin Injectable
Medications” article.
Arthritis Medication
Humira, an anti-inflammatory drug, is the best-selling prescription drug in the world. 92

Since 2012, it has doubled in price in the U.S., and is currently priced at $2,436.02 per dose, or
about 500 percent of the international average. 93 After the U.S., the next highest price for
Humira is in Denmark where it costs $787.10 per dose, less than one-third of the U.S. price.
Xeljanz, another arthritis medication, is priced much lower than Humira, but is still over 300
percent more expensive in the U.S. compared to the international average. Figure 7 depicts
differences in the price of Humira and Xeljanz in the U.S. relative to the other 11 countries in
this analysis.
91
Injectable Insulin Medications (2019). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved from
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/13902-injectable-insulin-medications
92
Hakim, Danny (2018). Humira’s Best-Selling Drug Formula: Start at a High Price. The New York Times.
Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/06/business/humira-drug-prices.html
93
Id.
22
Figure 7. Humira and Xeljanz Prices, 2018 94
$3,000.00 $80.00
$68.26
$2,436.02 $70.00
$2,500.00
$60.00
$2,000.00
$50.00
$1,500.00 $40.00
$30.00
$1,000.00 $20.71
$493.64 $20.00
$500.00
$10.00
$0.00 $0.00
Humira Xeljanz
Information on brand name arthritis medication retrieved from the Arthritis Foundation “Drug Guide” database.
Multiple Sclerosis Medication
Patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) saw their yearly cost-sharing increase more than
sevenfold over the past decade. 95 The MS drugs in our sample were typically priced in the U.S
from 350 percent to 670 percent of the international average. Avonex and Avonex Pen from
Biogen, Inc. have a U.S. list price of $1,697.49 close to 650 percent of the international average
times the average international price (see Figure 8). 96 The average U.S. list price for MS drugs
was $769.92 per dose, compared to only $133.99 per dose internationally, making these drugs
5.75 times more expensive in the U.S. compared to the average international price.
94
Drug Guide (n.d.). Arthritis Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.arthritis.org/living-with-
arthritis/treatments/medication/drug-guide/
95
Norton, Amy (2019). For Medicare Patients, Costs of MS Drugs Rise Sevefold Over 10 Years. US News.
Retrieved from https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2019-08-28/for-medicare-patients-costs-of-ms-
drugs-rise-sevenfold-over-10-years
96
Product Portfolio (2019). Biogen. Retrieved from https://www.biogen.com/en_us/product-portfolio.html
23
Figure 8. Select Multiple Sclerosis Prescription Drug Prices, 2018 97
$1,800.00 $1,697.49 $1,697.49
$1,600.00
$1,400.00
$1,200.00
$1,000.00
$800.00
$606.67
$600.00
$400.00 $270.95 $252.74 $261.90 $233.18

$177.05
$200.00 $122.77
$22.61 $66.28 $36.94
$0.00
Avonex Pen Avonex Tecfidera Rebif Gilenya Aubagio
Information on types of Multiple Sclerosis medication provided by National Multiple Sclerosis Society.
Cancer Medication
Most new cancer medications were priced at over $100,000 per patient per year in the
U.S. 98 According to the National Cancer Institute, 90 percent of Americans say cancer drugs are
too expensive. 99 The U.S. list price for the nine cancer medications included in this analysis
ranged from $90.88 to $791.66 per dose with a per-dose average of $342.48. The international
average of these same drugs cost $93.29 per dose – 27 percent of the U.S. price.
Figure 9 highlights four of these drugs. Afinitor, manufactured by Novartis, had the
largest U.S.-international price differential of the nine cancer drugs, with the U.S. price set
almost 700 percent higher than the international average. The other oncology drugs were priced
closer to the average U.S.-international price differential ratio, ranging from 158 percent to 420
percent of the average international price.
97
Medication (n.d.) National Multiple Sclreosis Society. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalmssociety.org/Treating-MS/Medications
98
Urging Affordable Access to High-Value Cancer Drugs (2018). National Cancer Institute at the National Institute
of Health. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2018/affordable-access-to-
cancer-drugs-infographic
99
Id.
24
Figure 9. Select Cancer Medication Ex-Factory Prices in Select Countries, 2018 100
$600.00
$538.94
$518.27
$500.00
$400.00
$341.56
$300.00
$200.00 $161.82 $170.53
$81.92 $92.34
$100.00 $53.34
$0.00
Ibrance Afinitor Sprycel Zytiga
Information on brand-name cancer medication provided by National Cancer Institute.
4. Comparison of United States and Germany Rebate Rates and Price Differentials
One of the major arguments from the pharmaceutical industry on these international price
differentials is that while list prices are much higher in the U.S., the rebates offered are also
significantly higher, so the net price is comparable. To test this claim, we compared rebate rates
in the U.S. to those in Germany, the only publicly available national data on rebate rates for the
countries we studied.
Table 4 in Appendix B shows drugs in our dataset that were available in both Germany
and the U.S. for this analysis, along with the German rebate on those drugs and the U.S. rebate
that would be required for U.S. prices to match German
U.S. rebate rates would need to prices. German rebate rates are relatively low compared
average 67 percent to match to U.S. rebates, averaging 8.72 percent and ranging
average German net prices. from 0 to 35 percent. There were no rebates offered on
15 of the 66 drugs in Germany for which we had data.
On average, U.S. rebate rates would need to average 67 percent to match average German net
prices. According to the CBO the average rebate rate for band name drugs was 22 percent in
2015. 101 The largest rebate of these would need to be applied to Advair Diskus, with a U.S. price
of $12.27 and a net price of $0.46 in Germany to make the net prices equivalent in the two
countries.
100
A to Z list of Cancer Drugs (n.d.). National Cancer Institute at the National Institute of Health. Retrieved from
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/drugs
101
25
Figure 10. U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices, 2018 102
80.0%
70.0% 67.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
22.0%
20.0%
8.7%
10.0%
0.0%
Average US Rebate Rate Estimated Average US Average German Rebate
Needed Rebate Rate Rate
Information on estimated average U.S. rebate rate retrieved from the March 2019 CBO report on specialty
drugs, which disclosed the 2015 rebate rate on brand-name drugs as 22 percent.
5. Comparison of United States and International Rebate Rates and Price Differentials
Table 2 shows the average drug prices across the study sample and the rebate rate that
would be required to lower U.S. list prices to match those in other countries. The average U.S.
rebate rate would need to be about 73.3 percent for its net drug prices to match list prices in the
other 11 countries in the study. When excluding Portugal from this study, the average U.S. rebate
rate would need to be about 72.3 percent for its net prices to match list prices in the other 10
countries.
102
26
Table 2. U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match Select Countries Ex-Factory Prices, 2018
Drug Prices Listed for Each Country

US
Average Rebate Drugs
Country
Price Rate Listed
Needed
U.S. $466.15 - 79
UK $105.45 77.4% 78
Japan $69.50 85.1% 58
Canada (Ontario) $132.59 71.6% 47
Australia $113.57 75.6% 62
Portugal $82.97 82.2% 37
France $104.51 77.6% 54
Netherlands $152.86 67.2% 61
Germany $165.01 64.6% 65
Denmark $182.29 60.9% 65
Sweden $143.91 69.1% 59
Switzerland $116.22 75.1% 72
Average $152.92 73.3% 61.4
6. Estimation of Medicare Part D Savings under External Reference Pricing System
In 2016, the U.S. spent $457 billion on prescription drugs and Medicare Part D alone
spent $99.5 billion on prescription drugs. 103 Using
our basket of comparison drugs (i.e., an index of
Comparing U.S. drug prices to the
drug’s average price across all 11 non-U.S. countries;
prices charged in other developed
for more details, please see Appendix A), we
nations could reduce estimated Part
estimated potential Medicare Part D savings under a
D spending by 69.6 percent to 73.7
foreign pricing index model by averaging list prices
percent, resulting in $69 to $71
across all other countries. We replicated this
billion in annual Medicare Part D
comparison using both German and U.K. drug prices
savings.
as a benchmark.
As shown in Figure 11, the U.S. spent an estimated $67 billion in 2018 on the 79 drugs in
our sample through Medicare Part D plans. Purchasing these same drugs using the “basket list
price” would reduce estimated Part D spending by $48.8 billion. Purchasing these same drugs
using U.K. prices would reduce estimated Part D spending to $49.8 billion. Likewise, using
German prices would reduce estimated Part D spending by $42 billion. Comparing U.S. drug
103
27
prices to the prices charged in other developed nations could reduce estimated Part D spending
by 72.8 to 74.7 percent, resulting in between $72 and $74 billion in Medicare Part D savings
annually. Due to data constraints, these estimates are based on list rather than retail drug prices,
meaning that the potential savings presented in Figure 11 are likely overestimated. The actual
savings would likely still be significant, however.
Figure 11. Estimated Medicare Part D Savings at Three Different IPI Rates (Billions of
U.S. Dollars), 2018
$80.0
$70.0
$60.0
Estimated Medicare Part D Spending
$50.0
$49.8 $48.8
$40.0
$42.0
$67.0
$30.0
$20.0
$10.0 $16.9 $18.2

$15.3
$0.0
US Prices German Prices UK Prices Basket Prices
Pharmaceutical Price Level
Estimated Part D Spending Estimated savings from IPI
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Due to
data constraints, these estimates are based on list rather than retail drug prices, meaning that the potential savings
presented here are likely overestimated. The actual savings would likely still be significant, however.
28
Discussion
The analysis presented in this report clearly illustrates that, across the board, the U.S.
spends more on drugs than other comparable developed countries. The extent of these pricing
differentials varies by drug, manufacturer, and disease group, but the results we present make a
compelling case for the existence of large differences between the U.S. drug pricing system and
other countries, as well as the associated negative effect those differences have on the American
consumer and taxpayer. Even when accounting for rebates, U.S. consumers pay significantly
more for drugs than consumers in comparator nations.
The results we present are meant neither to make a case for one non-U.S. system versus
another, nor to determine the individual factors driving the differences in pricing between the
U.S. and the 11 comparator countries in this study. But the results clearly show that Americans
are paying more for the same drugs, leading many policymakers to look abroad for models that
work better in reigning in costs.
A Call for Help: Medicare Part D Negotiation
In response to the rising cost of drugs – particularly in Medicare Part D, where the bulk
of Medicare drug dollars are spent – many experts and
Proponents believe that Medicare
stakeholders have called for Medicare to negotiate the
could leverage its massive
price of prescription drugs on behalf of beneficiaries. 104
purchasing power better than
Current U.S. law explicitly prohibits the Secretary from
individual Part D plans to drive
negotiating with manufacturers and, instead, requires
down drug costs.
prescription drug plans (PDPs) to negotiate directly with
drug manufacturers to obtain drug discounts (rebates)
for patients. 105
Allowing the Secretary to negotiate drug prices on behalf of Medicare beneficiaries has
overwhelming public support – 86 percent across political parties, 90 percent of Democrats, 80
percent of Republicans, and 87 percent of Independents. 106 Proponents believe that Medicare
could leverage its massive purchasing power better than individual Part D plans to drive down
drug costs. 107
Despite the argument about the potential for a negotiation policy to limit access to
treatments and therapies, patient groups continue to strongly support negotiation – and many
104
Cubanski, J., and Neuman, T (2018). Searching for Savings in Medicare Drug Price Negotiations. Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/searching-for-savings-in-
medicare-drug-price-negotiations/
105
Id.
106
Id.
107
Shih, C., Schwartz, J., and Coukell, A. (2016). How Would Government Negotiation of Medicare Part D Drug
Prices Work? Health Affairs Blog. Available at:
29
experts have indicated this criticism is unfounded. 108 109 In fact, between 2013 and 2017, the five
largest U.S.-based drug companies spent 70 percent more on marketing and administrative costs
than on R&D. 110 Furthermore, from 2006 to 2015, the 25 largest pharmaceutical companies
witnessed their average sales revenues increase by $241 billion, while only increasing R&D
funding by $7 billion. 111
During the Committee on Ways and Means February 8, 2019, hearing entitled “The Cost
of Rising Prescription Drug Prices,” witness Rachel Sachs echoed these sentiments:
“These claims assume a whole host of other conditions, including that there are no other
opportunities to obtain savings within pharmaceutical companies’ current business
models. It is not clear that this is the case, leading HHS [Department of Health and
Human Services] Secretary Alex Azar – himself a former pharmaceutical company
executive – to push back strongly against claims of lower innovation, calling them
‘mathematically unbelievable.’ There is room within the system as it exists today to
realign incentives and lower drug prices without the dire impacts on innovation that
pharmaceutical companies threaten.”
Considerations
The idea of having the Secretary negotiate drug prices on behalf of Medicare
beneficiaries is not a new one, having taken center stage in the initial debates that ultimately
created the Part D benefit through the MMA of 2003. Through those legislative negotiations,
Congress ultimately landed on a private-market-driven drug coverage program, through which
private plans would compete on the basis of cost and coverage, negotiating drug prices directly
with drug manufacturers. 112
The MMA included a “noninterference” clause, which effectively barred the Secretary
from negotiating drug prices. 113 The law states that the Secretary “(1) may not interfere with the
negotiations between drug manufacturers and pharmacies and PDP sponsors; and (2) may not
require a particular formulary or institute a price structure for the reimbursement of covered part
108
New Ad: Fix the System; Let Medicare Negotiate Lower Drug Prices (2018). Patients for Affordable Drugs.
Retrieved from https://www.patientsforaffordabledrugs.org/2018/07/25/let-medicare-negotiate/
109
Statement on the introduction of the Medicare Negotiation and Competitive Licensing Act (2019). Families USA.
2019. Retrieved from https://familiesusa.org/press-release/2019/statement-introduction-medicare-negotiation-and-
competitive-licensing-act
110
Top 5 US-based companies determined by market cap taken 11/12/2018 (JNJ, PFE, MRK, ABBV, AMGN).
Annual research and development (R&D) and selling, marketing and administrative (SG&A) spending reported in
annual filings.
111
Drug Industry Profits, Research and Development Spending, and Merger and Acquisition Deals (2017).
Government Accountability Office. 2017. Retrieved from
https://oversight.house.gov/sites/democrats.oversight.house.gov/files/688472.pdf
112
Cubanski, J., and Neuman, T. (2018). Searching for Savings in Medicare Drug Price Negotiations. Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at: https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/searching-for-savings-in-
113
H.R. 1 – Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003. Congress.gov. Retrieved
from https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/1
30
D drugs.” 114 Such language ties the Secretary’s hands in a manner that distinguishes Medicare
from other federal programs, like Medicaid, which mandates the program receive rebates, and
the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), which will not pay more than the lowest price private-
sector purchasers pay. The noninterference clause also makes Part D distinct from the rest of
Medicare, which sets the amount it pays doctors and hospitals, for example.
Despite the MMA’s market-based structure, a majority of Americans supported a policy

to eliminate the noninterference clause even as early as 2006. 115 A bill to allow the Secretary
negotiating authority passed the U.S. House of Representatives in 2007, but the Senate did not
take it up. 116
A key concern pertaining to a negotiation policy revolves around CBO’s assertion that
the 2007 House bill would have a “negligible effect on federal spending” because “the Secretary
would not be able to negotiate prices that further reduce federal spending to a significant
degree,” according to CBO’s 2004 assessment of the policy. 117 In other words, because the 2007
bill only struck the noninterference clause and did not give the Secretary any additional tools for
negotiating drug prices beyond what the Part D plans already had, CBO concluded that the bill
would not achieve Part D savings. By simply striking the noninterference clause, CBO assumed
that the Secretary would not have a sufficient “hammer” on prescription drug manufacturers to
bring them to the negotiating table and agree to lower drug prices for the Medicare program. In
response to questions relating to the 2007 House bill, CBO found: 118
The key factor in determining whether negotiations would lead to price reductions is the
leverage that the Secretary would have to secure larger price concessions from drug
manufacturers than competing PDPs currently obtain. When several drugs are available
to treat the same medical condition, PDPs can secure rebates from selected drug
manufacturers by giving their drugs preferred status within formularies. Because
enrollees are encouraged to use such preferred drugs (through lower cost-sharing
requirements), manufacturers are willing to offer price concessions to the PDPs in order
to give their drugs preferred status and thereby increase their market share. By itself,
giving the Secretary broad authority to negotiate drug prices would not provide the
leverage necessary to generate lower prices than those obtained by PDPs and thus would
have a negligible effect on Medicare drug spending. Negotiation is likely to be effective
only if it is accompanied by some source of pressure on drug manufacturers to secure
price concessions. The authority to establish a formulary, set prices administratively, or
take other regulatory actions against firms failing to offer price reductions could give the
114
Id.
115
Cubanski, J., and Neuman, T. (2018). Searching for Savings in Medicare Drug Price Negotiations. Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at: https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/searching-for-savings-in-
116
H.R. 4 – Medicare Prescription Drug Price Negotiation Act of 2007. Congress.gov. Retrieved from
https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/4
117
Letter to the Honorable William H. Frist, M.D. (2004). Congressional Budget Office. Retrieved from
https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/108th-congress-2003-2004/reports/fristletter.pdf
118
Letter to Honorable Ron Wyden (2007). Congressional Budget Office. Retrieved from
https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/drugpricenegotiation.pdf
31
Secretary the ability to obtain significant discounts in negotiations with drug
manufacturers.
CBO has since suggested that legislation could generate savings by, for example,
establishing a formulary that excludes some drugs or uses other utilization management
restrictions. 119 CBO also suggested savings could accrue from policies that allowed the Secretary
to set drug prices or take some kind of action against companies that did not negotiate in good
faith. 120 To date, CBO has not released a score of any of these policies (or a combination
thereof) that give the Secretary additional tools for negotiating lower prices than the plans.
Independent researchers have estimated that the federal government could save between $15.2
and $16 billion annually if Medicare negotiated the same prices Medicaid and the VA currently
pay. 121
Conclusions
The results from this study clearly show that a new approach is needed in the U.S. to
provide more equitable drug prices to consumers – one that ensures American families are not
unfairly bearing the burden of much higher prices to fuel drug companies’ profits. A policy of
Medicare prescription drug negotiation using international prices would help rebalance a
distortion created by Medicare’s overpaying for drugs that could yield significant savings for
American families. Given that one in four Americans report taking four or more medications,
action in Medicare alone is not enough, as 180 million Americans with employer coverage also
struggle with prescription drug bills. 122 123 124 Efforts at lowering consumers’ costs need to be
broad in scope so that all Americans are getting a fair deal in what they pay for drugs.
Experiences abroad can provide policymakers with a better understanding of their own
system, but the solution to the drug pricing crisis lies within the U.S.’s domestic policy context
and history. One element is certain, though: The system in place now does not work for the
Americans who depend on it, and change, however challenging, is paramount.
119
Letter to Honorable Ron Wyden (2007). Congressional Budget Office. Retrieved from
https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/drugpricenegotiation.pdf
120
Id.
121
Shih, C., Schwartz, J., and Coukell, A. (2016). How Would Government Negotiation of Medicare Part D Drug
Prices Work? Health Affairs Blog. Available at:
122
123
AHIP Launches Coverage@Work Campaign Showcasing How Employer-Provided Coverage Delivers for 180
Million Americans (2018) America’s Health Insurance Plans. Retrieved from https://www.ahip.org/coveragework-
press-release/
124
Rae, M., Copeland, R., & Cox, C. (n.d.). Tracking the rise in premium contributions and cost-sharing for families
with large employer coverage. Health Systems Tracker. Retrieved from
https://www.healthsystemtracker.org/brief/tracking-the-rise-in-premium-contributions-and-cost-sharing-for-
families-with-large-employer-coverage/?_hsenc=p2ANqtz--
vCGhhfJpJXBuK7qSOv6h0fmd0N6ggVbxRJENcfWGq6ioPAeOm202D0jlQ5kLESxSOi6N0dOkByCmxlAr2r0M
HvH3DJw&_hsmi=75726948&utm_campaign=KFF-2019-Health-
Costs&utm_source=hs_email&utm_medium=email&utm_content=75726948
32
Appendix A: Methodology
Below, we describe the methodology used to construct our analytic file and conduct the
analyses for this study.
Sample
Drug sample. The sample of 79 single-source brand-name drugs used for this report
comes from an analysis So-Yeon Kang et al. (2019) conducted that examined the price
differentials of drugs that did not have generic competitors between drug prices in the U.S. and
those in Canada, Japan, and the U.K. 125 They created the 79-drug sample by first examining 163
brand-name drugs that accounted for 70 percent of total spending in Medicare Part D. Then, they
eliminated all multisource drugs that had generic substitutes in the countries examined to
produce the 79-drug sample. According to 2017 CMS data, these 79 drugs accounted for almost
60 percent of total Medicare Part D spending or over $57.9 billion of the estimated $99.5 billion
total Part D costs. 126 127 128
Country cohort. To understand the variation in prices of these 79 drugs, we selected a

cohort of comparison countries that either use an ERP system or have similar per capita income
levels to the cohort (but a non-ERP system). For more information on the key characteristics of
the non-U.S. countries included in this analysis, please see Appendix C.
Data Sources and Database
For the 12 countries included in this analysis, we used publicly available 2018
pharmaceutical ex-factory pricing data to compare drug prices. Table 3 provides an overview of
the data source for each country’s drug prices, along with the number of the 79 drugs available in
the database. We aggregated drug pricing data from these sources into a single Excel database by
cross-walking the files by the active ingredient variable and/or brand-name variables to create an
analytic file with the brand-name, dosage, manufacturer, 2017 U.S. Medicare Part D spending,
and 2017 beneficiary utilization data, among other variables.
125
126
Medicare Part D Drug Spending Dashboard (2019). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Retrieved from
https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/Information-on-
127
The Medicare Prescription Drug Program (Part D): Status Report. Medicare Payment Advisory Commission,
March 2019, 385. http://www.medpac.gov/docs/default-source/reports/mar19_medpac_ch14_sec.pdf?sfvrsn=0
128
33
Table 3. Prescription Drug Price Data Sources for Select Countries, 2018
Pharmaceutical Price Sources

Country Pharmaceutical Price Source Drugs Listed
U.S. Medi-Span 129 79
UK Monthly Index of Medical Specialties 130 78
Japan Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare 131 58
Canada (Ontario) Ontario Drug Benefit Formulary 132 47
Australia Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme 133 62
Portugal National Authority of Medicines and Health products 134 37
France Ministry of Health 135 54
Netherlands College voor Zorgverzekeringen 136 61
Germany Lauer-Taxe 137 66
Denmark Medicin Priser 138 65
Sweden Dental and Pharmaceutical Benefits Agency (TLV) 139 59
Switzerland Federal Office for Public Health 140 71
Analysis
Results presented in this paper are based on a six-step analysis described in detail below.
1. Descriptive Statistics
First, we calculated summary statistics on prescription drug prices for all 12 countries,
across all 79 drugs for which data were available. Statistics included: average price, minimum
129
Medi-Span Price Rx (2019). Wolters Kluwer. Retrieved from https://www.wolterskluwer cdi.com/price-rx/
130
MIMS (2018). Haymarket media Group Ltd. Retrieved from https://www.mims.co.uk/
131
Drug price list and information on generic drugs (2018). Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare. Retrieved
from https://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai-shimon/kaigi/special/reform/wg1/291018/sankou2.pdf20
132
Formulary Search (2018). Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care. Retrieved from
https://www.formulary.health.gov.on.ca/formulary/
133
The Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (2019). Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved from
http://www.pbs.gov.au/browse/medicine-listing
134
Infarmed Base de Dados de Medicamentos (2018). Republica Portuguesa. Retrieved from
http://app7.infarmed.pt/infomed/
135
Ministere des Affaires Sociales et de la Sante (2018). Republique Francaise.
http://medicprix.sante.gouv.fr/welcome.do
136
Zoe Keen Geneesmiddel (2018). Zorginsituut Nederland. Retrieved from https://www.medicijnkosten.nl/
137
Arzneimittel Recherchieren (2019). Deutsches Institut fur Medizinische Dokumentation und Information.
Retrieved from https://www.dimdi.de/static/en/amg/fbag/index.htm
138
Medicin Priser (2019). Laegemiddel Styrelsen: Danish Medicines Agency. Retrieved from
https://www.medicinpriser.dk/default.aspx
139
Lakemedel (2018). Tandvards-Och Lakemedelsformans Verket, Retrieved from
https://www.tlv.se/lakemedel.html
140
Bundesamt fur Gesundheit BAG (2019). Schweizerische Eldgenossenschaft. Retrieved from http://www.xn--
spezialittenliste-yqb.ch/ShowPreparations.aspx
34
price, maximum price, sum of drug prices, and number of drugs available for each country. We
determined ex-factory unit price per standard dose (the prices at which manufacturers sell their
products to wholesalers) for any available brand-name drug on the drug list. In the U.S., this
price corresponds to the wholesaler acquisition cost (WAC), published in the Medi-Span
database. 141 Similar to So-Yeon Kang et al.’s analysis, we used average exchange rates from the
second quarter in 2018 to convert local currency prices to U.S. dollars to ensure price
comparability across foreign markets. 142
2. Factors Influencing Price Differentials

Second, we reviewed in-country factors that have the potential to drive price differentials
between countries. One claim for higher drug prices in the U.S. is that its GDP per capita is
higher than many other countries, which allows Americans to afford to pay higher prices and,
thus, the market to charge more. 143 To assess this claim, we compared GDP per capita (as
provided by the World Bank) 144 and price differentials between the U.S. and the other 11
countries in our dataset. We calculated each country’s 2018 GDP per capita as a percent of the
2018 U.S. GDP per capita. For each of the other 11 countries, we then compared its GDP per
capita as a percent of the U.S. GDP per capita to its average drug price as a percent of the U.S.
average drug price.
3. International Comparison of Average Prescription Drug Prices

Third, we compared the average prescription drug prices in the U.S. with average prices
in the other 11 countries for the sample of drugs in our dataset. As 31 manufacturers represented
the 79 drugs in our dataset, we were also interested in understanding trends in these average
price differentials by manufacturers. For the purposes of this analysis, we focused on seven
companies representing multiple drugs in the dataset: Biogen Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli
Lily & Company, Janssen Pharamceutica, Merck, Novartis, and Sanofi-Aventis. For each of the
selected drugs, we calculated the average ex-factory price from all countries except the U.S. and
compared this to the U.S.’s drug price, whenever price data were available.
Similarly, we conducted a comparative analysis along seven disease groups, which

included medications to treat arthritis, multiple sclerosis (MS), cancer, diabetes, HIV/pulmonary
hypertension, and hepatitis C. For each of the selected drugs, we calculated the average ex-
factory price from all countries except the U.S. and compared this to the U.S.’s drug price,
whenever price data were available.
4. Comparison of United States and Germany Rebate Rates and Price Differentials
141
142
143
National Center for BioTechnology Information . (2017). Making Medicines Affordable: A National Imperative.
Making Medicines Affordable: A National Imperative. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493099/
144
GDP per Capita (2019). The World Bank. Retrieved from
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
35
Fourth, we compared U.S.-Germany price differentials after rebates were considered. We
chose Germany as a comparator country because, among the non-U.S. countries in our analysis,
Germany was the only one with a database that included net prices and list prices. Compiling
comparable U.S. data is difficult, however. So-Yeon Kang et. al’s analysis estimated a U.S. post-
rebate rate as the list price reduced by 17.8 percent, based on 2014 Medicare data for all brand
name drugs in Medicare (i.e., Parts B and D). In 2016, the Medicare Trustees Report disclosed
the manufacturer’s rebate rate at 19.9 percent for all Part D drugs, but it did not break these
rebates out for brand-name drugs specifically. 145 In March of 2019, CBO released the average
rebate rate for all brand-name drugs in Medicare Part D. 146 From these figures, we assumed the
average U.S. rebate rate of 22 percent based on the CBO report, though there is considerable
variability between therapeutic class. 147
5. Comparison of United States and International Rebate Rates and Price Differentials
Fifth, since we only had data for net prices in Germany, we relied on list prices for the
comparative analysis of U.S.-international rebate rates. For each of the 12 countries in our
cohort, we calculated the average ex-factory price across all available drugs in the database. To
obtain the average rebate rate required in the U.S. for the average U.S. net price to match each
country’s average list price, we calculated the percent difference between the average ex-factory
price in the U.S. and the other 11 countries in the dataset for each drug.
6. Estimation of Medicare Part D Savings under External Reference Pricing System

Finally, using the CMS Medicare Part D dashboard, we compiled data on Medicare Part
D spending, the average dosage per Medicare Part D beneficiary, and the number of Medicare
Part D beneficiaries using each drug for all 79 drugs in 2017. 148 We cross-walked these data with
the 2018 U.S. list prices data to calculate 2018 Medicare Part D spending for the 79 drugs. 149
Since we did not have Medicare Part D spending, dosage, or beneficiary data for 2018, we
assumed 2017 and 2018 dosage and beneficiary data remained stagnant.
We calculated each drug’s average price across all 11 non-U.S. countries to create an
average list price, or our “basket list price.” We used this as a proxy for potential prices under a
model that uses an international price benchmark. Similar to Belgium, Netherlands, Ireland,
France, and Portugal’s un-weighted ERP systems, we did not weight these averages. We then
multiplied the basket list price by the number of 2017 Medicare beneficiaries as well as the
average 2017 dosage units per beneficiary for all 79 drugs to create a proxy for total Medicare
Part D spending under an ERP model. We then took the difference of the 2018 estimated total
145
146
147
Medicare Part D: Use of Pharmacy Benefit Managers and Efforts to Manage Drug Expenditures and Utilization
(2019). Government Accountability Office. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/700259.pdf
148
Medicare Part D Drug Spending Dashboard (2019). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Retrieved
from https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/Information-on-
149
36
Medicare Part D spending for the 79 drugs (using 2018 U.S. list prices) and the estimated ERP
Part D spending for the 79 drugs (using the basket list prices) to create an estimate of potential
Medicare savings under an ERP model weighted by volume. We also calculated estimated Part D
spending for the 79 drugs using both German and U.K. prices and calculated potential Medicare
savings under ERP models that were also weighted by volume.
Limitations
This study had several limitations. First, data from Medicare Part D are outdated and
most of the available information about rebates is based off information from 2014-2016. Our
list prices are based on 2018 Medi-Span data, and our information about Medicare beneficiaries
is based on 2017 information. Thus, the estimates provided in this report are approximations of
potential savings.
Second, access to list price data is limited. Our selection of comparable countries was
determined by available data; several otherwise similar countries (e.g., Sweden and Belgium)
could not be included. Due to varied prices and data access issues, our analysis of Canada’s
prices is limited to the prices in Ontario.
Third, not all other countries sold the 79 drugs in our database or the data were not
available. The U.K. was most similar to the U.S. with 78 out of 79 on the market. The number of
drug prices listed ranged from 37 (Portugal) to 79 (U.S.). To mitigate this issue, we typically
compared the average price in the United States to the average price across the other 11
countries.
Fourth, the data available to estimate rebate rates and savings under an ERP model were
limited. We lacked data on rebate information and net prices across all countries, with the
exception of Germany. Rebate rates are generally not published, and we, thus, used existing
estimates to approximate the U.S. rebate rates. Most countries receive rebates, so the estimates of
prices for the other countries are higher than what the countries actually pay. Due to data
constraints, these estimates are based on list rather than retail drug prices, meaning that the
potential savings may be overestimated. The actual savings would likely still be significant,
however.
Finally, when calculating potential savings under an ERP model, our assessment assumed
that an ERP would be the sole mechanism of price negotiation, which is unrealistic and overly
simplistic. These estimated savings figures are likely overestimated. Additionally, our ERP
model did not weight prices by purchasing power parity, market size, health disparities, or other
differences between countries.
37
Appendix B: U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices
Table 4. U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices, 2018
U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices

U.S. Rebate German U.S. Rebate German
Drugs Drugs
Rate Required Rebate Rate Rate Required Rebate Rate
Stelara 74% 7% Triumeq 69% 0%
Forteo 63% 7% Xtandi 69% 0%
Orencia 54% 7% Prezista 58% 35%
Harvoni 56% 0% Trulicity 89% 7%
Sovaldi 53% 0% Tivicay 61% 0%
Humira 84% 7% Combigan 89% 7%
Enbrel 68% 7% Toujeo SoloStar 79% 7%
Avonex 79% 7% Sensipar 65% 7%
Avonex Pen 79% 7% Isentress 51% 7%
Pomalyst 56% 7% Reyataz 48% 8%
Levemir
Revlimid 61% 7% Flextouch
61% 7%
Daklinza 61% 0% Lantus 59% 9%
Ibrance 78% 0% Levemir 62% 7%
HumaLOG
Rebif 83% 12% KwikPen U-100
75% 16%
NovoLOG
Sprycel 78% 16% Flexpen
74% 7%
HumaLOG Mix
Imbruvica 52% 0% 75-25 KwikPen
75% 16%
Jakafi 71% 7% Suboxone 83% 12%
Opsumit 81% 7% Tecfidera 94% 7%
Gilenya 79% 7% HumuLIN 70-30 57% 10%
Zytiga 67% 0% Xifaxan 84% 8%
Tracleer 71% 7% Xarelto 81% 7%
Victoza 52% 7% Effient 86% 16%
Ofev 70% 0% Vimpat 77% 7%
NexAVAR 76% 7% Multaq 86% 8%
Atripla 61% 7% Pradaxa 79% 0%
Xeljanz 50% 0% Januvia 93% 0%
Tasigna 74% 7% Eliquis 84% 0%
Aubagio 88% 7% Brilinta 83% 7%
Onglyza 94% 7% Ranexa 85% 7%
Stribild 73% 7% Uloric 91% 6%
38
U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices
U.S. Rebate German U.S. Rebate German
Drugs Drugs
Rate Required Rebate Rate Rate Required Rebate Rate
Genvoya 72% 7% Janumet 92% 0%
Advair Diskus 96% 0% - - -
Average 67% 8.7%
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018 collected from recognized price sources.
39
Appendix C: Country Profiles
Table 5. Profiles of Countries Studied with an ERP
Appendix B.1. Profiles of Countries Studied with an ERP

Principle Canada France Germany Japan Netherlands Portugal Switzerland
General
Population (2017) 37.06M 66.99M 82.79M 126.8M 17.08M 10.31M 8.52M
GDP per capita in USD
$45,032.12 $41,463.60 $44,469.91 $39,286.70 $48,223.16 $21,136.30 $82,838.90
(2018)
Current Health
Expenditure (CHE) as 10.53% 11.10% 11.0% 10.93% 10.90% 9.0% 12.25%
% of GDP (2016)
Expenditures on retail
pharmaceuticals and
other medical non- 16.7% 13.2% 14.1% 18.6% 7.50% 14.60% 13.50%
durables as % of CHE
(2017)
Drug Pricing System
Overview
Level of decision-
making on Central Central Central Central Central Central Central
pricing/reimbursement
Outpatient
sector;
prescription-
only medicines
Reimbursable Reimbursable Reimbursable Calculation of and Reimbursable
Scope of centralized pharmaceuticals pharmaceuticals Prescription- pharmaceuticals maximum reimbursable pharmaceuticals
pricing regulation in outpatient in outpatient only medicines in the outpatient prices, all over the in the outpatient
sector sector sector pharmaceuticals counter sector
medicines
(hospitals
negotiate prices
independently)
Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Outpatient
Federal Joint Federal Office
Final decision Social Affairs Social Affairs Health, Labour, Health, Welfare, sector: Ministry
Committee of Public Health
and Health and Health and Welfare and Sport of Health;
40
Inpatient
Sector:
INFARMED
Free Pricing No No Varies No No No No
Yes (as a
secondary
External Reference Yes (for ASMR
Yes criterion during Yes Yes Yes Yes
Pricing I, II, or III)
price
negotiations)
Internal Reference
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Pricing
Elements of Value-
Yes Yes Yes (AMNOG) Yes No No Yes
Based Pricing
Referenced by (number
Not available 20 16 Not Available 15 15 Not available
of countries)
10% copayment
is applied to
most medicines;
Deductible rule
Depends on patients pay a
(specific drugs
therapeutic value, co-insurance
10% with a cap may be
patient, group; no Depends on rate of 20% for
set at 2% of excluded from
cap; 90% of product, patient selecting an off-
Varies by gross income the rule/not
Cost-sharing population uses Not Available group, income patent medicine
Province per year for covered by the
voluntary health and condition priced above
overall plan depending
insurance, which with no cap levels
copayments on the insurer)
covers cost- established by
with a cap set at
sharing low-cost
€345 per year
versions with
the same active
substance
Online auctions
Health
Clinical data Negotiations to set
technology
Other N/A Negotiations N/A analysis and (for high-cost maximum price
assessment and
negotiation orphan drugs) (inpatient
negotiations
sector, SPMS)
41
ERP Mechanisms
All inpatient Reimbursable

drugs covered pharmaceuticals Reimbursable Reimbursable
publicly and (outpatient) and prescription Reimbursable Outpatient and prescription Reimbursable
Score of ERP outpatient drugs some inpatient medicines with pharmaceuticals inpatient and OTC medicines
that are covered medicines (not added benefit (outpatient) medicines medicines (outpatient)
by private financed through (outpatient) (outpatient)
insurance the DRG-system)
Number of reference
6 4 15 Not Available 4 3 9
countries
Austria,
Belgium,
Austria,
Czech,
Belgium,
France, Denmark,
Denmark,
Germany, Italy, Spain, Finland, Belgium,
Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Finland, France,
Reference countries Sweden, France, Greece, Not Available Germany,
Spain, U.K. Slovakia Germany,
Switzerland, Ireland, Italy, France, U.K.
Netherlands,
and the U.K. Netherlands,
Sweden, and the
Portugal,
U.K.
Sweden,
Slovakia, U.K.
Not specified
Highest price is Weighted Outpatient:
(prices similar
set at the based on country
Depends on Average of all to reference
Calculation method median of Not Specified market size and average;
various factors countries countries and
reference purchasing Inpatient:
not lower than
countries power parity lowest price
the lowest price)
Periodically for
maximum
reimbursement
Price Revision amount; Every three
Not available Ad hoc Ad hoc Ad hoc Annual
Timeframe reimbursement years
amounts after
contract
expiration
42
SOURCES and NOTES: Data on Population, GDP per capita, Current Health Expenditures (CHE) as a percent of GDP, and expenditures on retail
pharmaceuticals and other medical non-durables as a percent of CHE were retrieved from the World Bank database. Information on the drug pricing system and
ERP mechanisms for France, German, Netherlands, and Portugal were retrieved from “Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries” by Dimitra
Panteli et. al. (2016). Information on the drug pricing system and ERP mechanisms in Japan were retrieved from L.E.K Consulting LLC report entitled “New
Realities of Drug Pricing and Access in Japan” (2017). Information on the drug pricing system and ERP mechanisms in Switzerland were retrieved from
“Summaries of the National Drug Coverage and Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies” in 10 Countries by Steven Morgan (2016).
43
Table 6. Profiles of Countries Studied without an ERP
Appendix B.2. Profiles of Countries Studied without an ERP

Principle Australia Denmark Sweden United Kingdom
General
Population (2017) 24.6M 5.749M 9.99M 66.04M
GDP per capita in USD (2018) $53,779.94 $56,307.51 $53,442.01 $38,720.44
Current Health Expenditure (CHE) as
9.25% 10.60% 10.93% 9.76%
% of GDP (2016)
Expenditures on retail
pharmaceuticals and other medical 14.7% 6.3% 9.80% 11.90%
non-durables as % of CHE (2017)
Drug Pricing System Overview
Central on whether Central within the
Level of decision-making on
Central pharmaceutical is Central "Pharmaceutical Price
pricing/reimbursement
reimbursable Regulation Scheme" (PPRS)
Reimbursable Reimbursable
Scope of centralized pricing
pharmaceuticals in PBS None pharmaceuticals in the Authorized pharmaceuticals
regulation
market outpatient sector
England: Clinical
Department of Health National Social Insurance Commissioning Groups
Final Decision Varies
and Ageing (DHA) Board (NSIB) Scotland: NHS Boards (“area
drug committees”)
Free Pricing No Yes No Yes
External Reference Pricing No No No No
Internal Reference Pricing Yes (F1 Drugs) Yes Yes No

Elements of Value-Based Pricing Yes No Yes For specific products
Referenced by (number of countries) Not Available Not available 14 17
Depends on patient
Up to $28.59 (USD) for
Cost-sharing No expenditure; cap set €238 About €10; no cap
most people
within 12 months
44
Appendix B.2. Profiles of Countries Studied without an ERP
Principle Australia Denmark Sweden United Kingdom
Pharmacoeconomic Competition (retail); Clinical data analysis and
Other Tendering
evaluation Tendering (hospital) Negotiation
SOURCES and NOTES: Data on Population, GDP per capita, CHE as a percent of GDP, and expenditures on retail pharmaceuticals and other medical non-
durables as a percent of CHE were retrieved from the World Bank database. Information on the drug pricing system for Denmark, Sweden, and the United
Kingdom were retrieved from “Pharmaceutical Regulation in 15 European Countries” by Dimitra Panteli et al. (2016). Information on the drug pricing system
in Australia was retrieved from “Summaries of the National Drug Coverage and Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies in 10 Countries” by Steven Morgan (2016).
45
Appendix D: International List Price Comparison – Overview
Figure 12. Average Pharmaceutical List Prices, 2018
$500.00 $466.15
$450.00
$400.00
$350.00
$300.00
$250.00
$200.00 $182.29
$153.57 $152.86 $163.27
$150.00 $125.15 $132.59
$111.52 $113.57 $104.51
$100.00 $82.97
$69.50
$50.00
$0.00
46
Figure 13. Range of Pharmaceutical List Prices, 2018
$18,000.00 $16,597.78 $16,592.50
$16,000.00
$14,000.00
$12,000.00
$10,000.00
$8,000.00
$4,728.30
$6,000.00 $4,030.83
$2,921.01 $4,030.76
$3,557.55 $2,455.37$3,741.45
$4,000.00 $3,043.20
$2,000.00 $681.70
$470.78
$0.00
Figure 14. Drug List Prices for Medications in All 12 Countries, 2018
$3,000.00
$2,436.02
$2,500.00
$2,000.00
$1,500.00
$1,196.46 $1,125.00
$1,000.00 $555.96
$493.64
$287.31
$500.00
$0.00
Humira Enbrel Harvoni
USA Avg Price (excl. USA) UK Japan Ontario

Australia Portugal France Netherlands Germany
Denmark Sweden Switzerland
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. There
were 10 drugs whose prices were listed in recognized drug price databases for all 12 countries studied. We chose to
compare these drugs separately in Figures 14 and 14.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
47
Figure 14.B. Drug List Prices for Medications in All 12 Countries, 2018
$45.00
$40.94
$40.00
$35.36
$35.00
$30.00
$25.00
$20.00
$15.70
$13.95 $13.61
$15.00
$7.92 $7.75
$10.00 $6.98 $6.68
$5.00 $2.59
$1.40 $1.50 $1.37 $1.29
$0.00
Suboxone HumaLOG Januvia Xarelto Onglyza Eliquis Pradaxa
KwikPen U-100
USA Avg Price (excl. USA) UK Japan Ontario

Australia Portugal France Netherlands Germany
Denmark Sweden Switzerland
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. There
were 10 drugs whose prices were listed in recognized drug price databases for all 12 countries studied. We chose to
compare these drugs separately in Figures 14 and 14.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
48
Appendix E: International List Price Comparison – Disease Groups
Table 7. Select Arthritis Medication List Prices, 2018
Arthritis Medication
Humira Xeljanz
U.S. $2,436.02 $68.26
UK $479.10 $16.76
Japan $259.05 $20.94
Ontario $596.41 $18.56
Australia $444.36 $15.85
Portugal $577.62 -
France $329.94 $4.67
Netherlands $310.32 $19.12
Germany $427.34 $34.36
Denmark $787.10 $21.09
Sweden $650.98 $32.71
Switzerland $567.81 $23.02
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on
Xeljanz were not available for Portugal.
Figure 15. Select Arthritis Medication List Prices, 2018
$3,000.00
$2,436.02
$2,500.00
$2,000.00
$1,500.00
$1,000.00
$500.00
$68.26
$0.00
Humira Xeljanz
USA UK Japan Ontario Australia Portugal

France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Xeljanz were not available for Portugal.
49
Table 8. Blood Thinning Medication List Prices, 2018
Blood Thinning Medication

Eliquis Pradaxa Effient Xarelto
U.S. $6.98 $6.68 $15.30 $13.95
UK $1.29 $1.16 $2.31 $2.45
Japan $1.80 $1.09 $2.83 $4.25
Ontario $1.27 $1.28 $1.48 $2.22
Australia $1.22 $1.03 $2.44 $1.22
Portugal $1.49 $1.60 - $2.75
France $1.04 $0.95 - $1.96
Netherlands $1.42 $1.42 $2.36 $2.71
Germany $1.14 $1.41 $2.52 $2.83
Denmark $2.07 $1.91 - $3.28
Sweden $1.09 $1.09 - $2.19
Switzerland $1.28 $1.30 $2.22 $2.61
Effient were not available in Portugal, France, Denmark, or Sweden.
Figure 16. Blood Thinning Medication List Prices, 2018
$18.00
$16.00 $15.30
$13.95
$14.00
$12.00
$10.00
$8.00 $6.98 $6.68

$6.00
$4.00
$2.00
$0.00
Eliquis Pradaxa Effient Xarelto

France Netherlands Denmark Sweden Switzerland Germany
SOURCES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on Effient were
not available in Portugal, France, Denmark, or Sweden.
50
Table 9. Select Cancer Medication List Prices, 2018
Cancer Medication
Ibranc Tarcev NexAVA Spryce Tasign Imbruvic Xtand Afinito
Zytiga
e a R l a a i r
$538.9 $341.5 $170.5
U.S. $215.30 $155.58 $113.70 $135.33 $90.88 $518.27
4 6 3
$191.1
UK $53.05 $43.45 $88.38 $29.55 $69.52 $66.45 $33.22 $111.34
2
$180.9
Japan $56.94 $37.50 $56.76 $31.97 - - $18.88 $78.42
0
Ontario - - - - - - - - -
$141.3 $100.4
Australia $21.90 $32.36 $22.43 $68.32 $20.02 $23.15 $20.80
0 3
Portugal - - - - - - $33.32 $34.14 -
$146.4 $114.5
France $59.03 $28.84 $22.99 $66.16 $50.80 $28.46 $85.23
3 9
Netherland $134.2 $153.9
$72.02 $40.58 $31.59 $79.95 $67.18 $34.28 $109.24
s 4 5
$117.8
Germany - $39.65 $88.61 $31.35 $64.99 $56.98 $28.49 $37.88
4
$250.7
Denmark $78.95 $40.34 $89.69 $34.51 $96.93 $80.36 $41.06 $113.25
0
$127.3
Sweden $58.51 $31.07 $74.34 $23.20 $63.33 $47.17 $25.09 $88.63
8
Switzerlan $166.5
$70.76 $34.17 $64.27 $31.35 $66.65 $57.77 $33.13 $92.50
d 0
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on any of the
cancer medications examined were not available for Ontario, Canada. Data on Ibrance, Tarceva, NexAVAR, Sprycel, Tasigna,
Imbruvica, or Afinitor were not available in Portugal. Data on Imbruvica and Zytiga were not available in Japan.
51
Figure 17. Select Cancer Medication List Prices, 2018
$600.00
$538.94
$518.27
$500.00
$400.00
$341.56
$300.00
$215.30
$200.00 $155.58 $170.53
$135.33
$113.70
$90.88
$100.00
$0.00
Ibrance Tarceva NexAVAR Sprycel Tasigna Imbruvica Zytiga Xtandi Afinitor
USA UK Japan Australia Portugal France

Netherlands Denmark Sweden Switzerland Germany
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on any of the
cancer medications examined were not available for Ontario, Canada. Data on Ibrance, Tarceva, NexAVAR, Sprycel, Tasigna,
Imbruvica, or Afinitor were not available in Portugal. Data on Imbruvica and Zytiga were not available in Japan.
Table 10 Insulin Medication List Prices, 2018
Insulin Medication
HumaLOG HumaLOG
NovoLOG Levemir
Toujeo Solostar NovoLOG KwikPen Mix 75-25
Flexpen Flextouch
U-100 KwikPen
U.S. $82.74 $37.26 $36.55 $35.36 $35.36 $29.38
UK $10.02 $2.78 $2.74 $2.67 $2.81 $3.81
Japan - - - $3.93 $3.99 -
Ontario - $3.26 $2.79 $3.02 $3.05 $5.62
Australia $33.64 $14.46 $14.46 $14.46 $14.46 $48.70
Portugal $11.16 $9.75 $23.56 $15.94 - $13.96
France $12.06 $6.73 $5.71 $6.73 $6.73 $9.66
Netherlands $17.12 $4.54 - $9.36 $8.03 $13.17
Denmark $13.55 $4.73 $4.17 $4.68 $4.68 $5.34
Sweden $13.03 $6.10 $6.96 $5.84 $5.78 $10.67
Switzerland $18.50 $9.77 $9.15 $8.23 $7.53 -
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on Toujeo
Solostar, NovoLOG Flexpen, NovoLOG, and Levemir Flextouch were not available in Japan. Data on Toujeo Solostar were not
available in Ontario, Canada. Data on HumaLOG Mix 75-25 KwikPen were not available in Portugal. Data on NovoLOG were
not available in the Netherlands. Data on Levemir Flextouch were not available in Switzerland.
52
Table 10.B. Insulin Medication List Prices, 2018
Insulin Medication
Levemir HumaLOG Lantus Lantus SoloStar
U.S. $29.38 $27.47 $26.96 $26.95
UK $3.81 $2.26 $3.43 $26.95
Japan - $2.34 - $3.43
Ontario $5.62 $2.30 $4.78 $5.17
Australia $48.70 $8.70 $33.64 $16.82
Portugal $13.96 $2.59 $45.45 $45.45
France $9.66 $5.71 $8.78 $8.78
Netherlands $12.91 $8.03 $11.11 $11.21
Denmark $5.34 $4.01 $5.26 $5.26
Sweden $11.54 $25.43 $0.00 $26.70
Switzerland $14.11 $8.23 $10.36 $8.81
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on Levemir or
Lantus were not available for Japan.
Figure 18. Insulin Medication List Prices, 2018
$90.00 $82.74
$80.00
$70.00
$60.00
$50.00
$37.26 $36.55 $35.36 $35.36
$40.00
$30.00
$20.00
$10.00
$0.00
Toujeo Solostar NovoLOG Flexpen NovoLOG HumaLOG KwikPen U- HumaLOG Mix 75-25
100 KwikPen

SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price sources. Data on Toujeo
Solostar, NovoLOG Flexpen, NovoLOG, and Levemir Flextouch were not available in Japan. Data on Toujeo Solostar were not
available in Ontario, Canada. Data on HumaLOG Mix 75-25 KwikPen were not available in Portugal. Data on NovoLOG were
not available in the Netherlands. Data on Levemir Flextouch were not available in Switzerland. Data on Levemir or Lantus were
not available for Japan. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 18 and 18.B to cross-compare their drug prices
in each country.
53
Figure 18.B. Insulin Medication List Prices, 2018
$60.00
$50.00
$40.00
$29.38 $29.38 $27.47
$30.00 $26.96 $26.95
$20.00
$10.00
$0.00
Levemir Flextouch Levemir HumaLOG Lantus Lantus SoloStar

Toujeo Solostar, NovoLOG Flexpen, NovoLOG, and Levemir Flextouch were not available in Japan. Data on
Toujeo Solostar were not available in Ontario, Canada. Data on HumaLOG Mix 75-25 KwikPen were not available
in Portugal. Data on NovoLOG were not available in the Netherlands. Data on Levemir Flextouch were not
available in Switzerland. Data on Levemir or Lantus were not available for Japan. We chose to compare these
drugs separately in Figures 18 and 18.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
Table 11. Hepatitis C Medication List Prices, 2018
Hepatitis C Medication
Sovaldi Daklinza Harvoni
U.S. $1,000.00 $750.00 $1,125.00
UK $566.62 $397.11 $631.36
Japan $338.69 $63.37 $438.51
Ontario $507.17 $331.97 $613.96
Australia $316.28 $191.67 $316.28
Portugal $592.76 - $682.02
France $328.57 - $492.86
Netherlands $436.49 $373.11 $553.96
Germany $470.56 $293.26 $491.83
Denmark $783.84 - $902.10
Sweden $475.05 $275.78 $486.44
Switzerland - - $506.24
Sovaldi were not available for Switzerland. Data on Daklinza were not available for Portugal, France, Denmark, or
Switzerland.
54
Figure 19. Hepatitis C Medication List Prices, 2018
$1,200.00 $1,125.00
$1,000.00
$1,000.00
$800.00 $750.00
$600.00
$400.00
$200.00
$0.00
Sovaldi Daklinza Harvoni

Sovaldi were not available for Switzerland. Data on Daklinza were not available for Portugal, France, Denmark, or
Switzerland.
Table 12. HIV Medication List Prices, 2018
HIV Medication
Stribild Genvoya Triumeq Atripla Tivicay Prezista Isentress Reyataz
U.S. $103.00 $98.19 $93.51 $90.80 $55.25 $39.99 $24.92 $7.93
UK $39.89 $39.89 $36.20 $24.17 $22.62 $11.87 $10.66 $3.55
Japan $55.67 $55.67 $55.91 - $26.05 $11.30 $12.46 -
Ontario $37.19 $34.97 $33.46 $35.10 $15.10 $14.98 $10.87 $3.57
Australia $20.82 $22.91 $20.83 $19.94 $15.30 $14.50 $3.46 $8.21
Portugal - - - - - - - -
France $29.94 $25.72 $25.72 $20.21 $18.37 $11.04 $2.53 $6.90
Germany $29.38 $29.38 $29.38 $37.88 $21.28 $25.68 $13.00 $12.74
Netherlands $40.51 $38.48 $37.56 $22.23 $24.34 $12.81 $12.35 $9.18
Denmark $69.51 $66.05 $49.26 $49.34 $28.34 $18.81 $16.56 $11.25
Sweden - - - - - $7.63 $9.84 $7.30
Switzerland $41.79 $39.10 $37.75 $36.79 $23.08 $19.97 $12.37 $11.54
any of the HIV medications studied were not available for Portugal. Data on Atripla and Reyataz were not available
for Japan. Data on Stribild, Genvoya, Triumeq, Atripla, and Tivicay were not available for Sweden.
55
Figure 20. HIV Medication List Prices, 2018
$120.00
$103.00
$98.19
$100.00 $93.51 $90.80
$80.00
$60.00
$40.00
$20.00
$0.00
Stribild Genvoya Triumeq Atripla
USA Average (excluding US) UK Japan

Ontario Portugal France Germany
Netherlands Denmark Sweden
any of the HIV medications studied were not available for Portugal. Data on Atripla were not available for Japan.
Data on Stribild, Genvoya, Triumeq, and Atripla, were not available for Sweden. We chose to compare these drugs
separately in Figures 20 and 20.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
56
Figure 20.B. HIV Medication List Prices, 2018
$60.00
$55.25
$50.00
$39.99
$40.00
$30.00
$24.92
$20.00
$10.00 $7.93
$0.00
Tivicay Prezista Isentress Reyataz
USA Average (excluding US) UK Japan

Ontario Australia Portugal France
Germany Netherlands Denmark Sweden
any of the HIV medications studied were not available for Portugal. Data on Reyataz were not available for Japan.
Data on Tivicay were not available for Sweden. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 20 and 20.B
to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
57
Table 13. Multiple Sclerosis Medication List Prices, 2018
Multiple Sclerosis Medication

Tecfidera Avonex Pen Avonex Rebif Gilenya Aubagio
U.S. $122.77 $1,697.49 $1,697.49 $606.67 $261.90 $233.18
UK $33.33 $222.45 $222.45 $92.12 $71.43 $50.43
Japan $32.40 $313.96 $321.37 - $65.34
Ontario - -
Australia $16.10 $149.57 $149.57 $149.57 $55.23 $17.62
Portugal - - $230.03 - - -
France $16.24 $177.10 $177.10 $191.25 - $25.29
Netherlands $12.76 $270.03 $302.24 $279.84 $75.91 $40.57
Germany $7.38 $382.19 $382.19 $116.41 $58.76 $29.54
Denmark $38.92 $333.25 $317.41 $245.20 $86.74 $61.82
Sweden $21.13 $329.91 $164.95 $164.96 $60.83 $27.18
Switzerland $25.20 $260.06 $260.06 - $55.99 $43.04
Rebif and Aubagio were not available for Japan. Data on Tecfidera, Avonex Pen, Avonex, Rebif, Gilenya, and
Aubagio were not available for Ontario, Canada. Data on Tecfidera, Avonex Pen, Rebif, Gilenya, and Aubagio were
not available for Portugal. Data on Gilenya were not available for France.
Figure 21 Multiple Sclerosis Medication List Prices, 2018
$1,800.00 $1,697.49 $1,697.49
$1,600.00
$1,400.00
$1,200.00
$1,000.00
$800.00
$606.67
$600.00
$400.00 $261.90 $233.18

$200.00 $122.77
$0.00
Tecfidera Avonex Pen Avonex Rebif Gilenya Aubagio

Rebif and Aubagio were not available for Japan. Data on Tecfidera, Avonex Pen, Avonex, Rebif, Gilenya, and
Aubagio were not available for Ontario, Canada. Data on Tecfidera, Avonex Pen, Rebif, Gilenya, and Aubagio were
not available for Portugal. Data on Gilenya were not available for France.
58
Appendix F: International List Price Comparison – Manufacturers
Table 14. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 2018
Bristol-Myers Squibb Company Drugs

Orencia Daklinza Sprycel Reyataz Eliquis
U.S. $1,032.76 $750.00 $341.56 $7.93 $6.98
UK $411.43 $397.11 $88.38 $3.55 $1.29
Japan $224.10 $63.37 $56.76 - $1.80
Ontario - $331.97 - $3.57 $1.27
Australia $186.44 $191.67 $100.43 $8.21 $1.22
Portugal - - - - $1.49
France $235.29 - $114.59 $6.90 $1.04
Netherlands $450.38 $373.11 $153.95 $9.18 $1.42
Germany $512.44 $293.26 $88.61 $12.74 $1.14
Denmark $509.00 - $89.69 $11.25 $2.07
Sweden $405.79 $275.78 $74.34 $7.30 $1.09
Switzerland $454.78 - $64.27 $11.54 $1.28
Orencia were not available for Ontario, or Portugal. Data on Daklinza were not available for Portugal, France,
Denmark, and Switzerland. Data on Sprycel were not available for Ontario, or Portugal. Data on Reyataz were not
available for Japan or Portugal. Information on Bristol-Myers Squibb Company-manufactured pharmaceuticals
provided by “Our Medicines” database on the Bristol-Myers Squibb Company website.
59
Figure 22. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 2018
$1,200.00
$1,032.76
$1,000.00
$800.00 $750.00
$600.00
$400.00 $341.56
$200.00
$0.00
Orencia Daklinza Sprycel
USA UK Japan Ontario Australia France

Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Orencia were not available for Ontario, or Portugal. Data on Daklinza were not available for Portugal, France,
Denmark, or Switzerland. Data on Sprycel were not available for Ontario, or Portugal. We chose to compare these
drugs separately in Figures 22 and 22.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country. Information on Bristol-
Myers Squibb Company-manufactured pharmaceuticals provided by “Our Medicines” database on the Bristol-
Myers Squibb Company website.
Figure 22.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 2018
$14.00
$12.00
$10.00
$7.93
$8.00 $6.98
$6.00
$4.00
$2.00
$0.00
Reyataz Eliquis

Reyataz were not available for Japan or Portugal. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 22 and
22.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country. Information on Bristol-Myers Squibb Company-
manufactured pharmaceuticals provided by “Our Medicines” database on the Bristol-Myers Squibb Company
website.
60
Table 15. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Boehringer Ing., 2018
Boehringer Ing. Drugs

Ofev Tradjenta Spiriva Respimat Pradaxa
U.S. $152.64 $13.72 $13.26 $6.68
UK $48.78 $1.62 $1.58 $1.16
Japan $48.35 $1.25 $1.55 $1.09
Ontario - $1.98 $1.34 $1.28
Australia $39.53 $1.40 $2.19 $1.03
Portugal - $2.04 $1.40 $1.60
France $39.49 - $0.42 $0.95
Netherlands $50.22 $1.67 - $1.42
Germany $45.74 - $50.13 $1.41
Denmark $62.17 - $1.50 $1.91
Sweden $36.05 $1.12 $0.54 $1.09
Switzerland $44.06 $1.46 $0.69 $1.30
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018 collected from recognized price sources. Data on
Ofev were not available for Ontario or Portugal. Data on Tradjenta were not available for France, Germany, or
Denmark. Data on Spriva Respimat were not available for the Netherlands.
Figure 23. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Boehringer Ing., 2018
$180.00
$160.00 $152.64
$140.00
$120.00
$100.00
$80.00
$48.78 $50.22 $62.17
$60.00 $48.35
$44.06
$39.49 $45.74
$39.53
$36.05
$40.00
$20.00
$0.00
Ofev
USA UK Japan Australia France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Ofev were not available for Ontario or Portugal. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 23 and
23.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
61
Figure 23.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Boehringer Ing., 2018
$16.00
$13.72
$14.00 $13.26
$12.00
$10.00
$8.00
$6.68
$6.00
$4.00
$2.00
$0.00
Tradjenta Spiriva Respimat Pradaxa

Tradjenta were not available for France, Germany, or Denmark. Data on Spriva Respimat were not available for
the Netherlands. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 23 and 23.B to cross-compare their drug
prices in each country.
62
Table 16. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Eli Lily & Co., 2018
Eli Lily & Co. Drugs

HumaLO HumaLO
Trulicit G G Mix 75- HumaLO Effien HumuLIN 70-
Forteo
y KwikPen 25 G t 30
U-100 KwikPen
$1,372.7
U.S. 9
$182.55 $35.36 $35.36 $27.47 $15.30 $14.87
UK $154.13 $24.91 $2.67 $2.81 $2.26 $2.31 $1.97

Japan $144.78 $27.76 $3.93 $3.99 $2.34 $2.83 $4.42
Ontario - - $3.02 $3.05 $2.30 $1.48 $2.50
Australia $288.43 - $14.46 $14.46 $8.70 $2.44 $4.86
Portugal $401.14 $32.39 $15.94 - $2.59 - -
France - $19.80 $6.73 $6.73 $5.71 - -
Netherland
$438.73 $45.22 $9.36 $8.03 $8.03 $2.36 $6.53
s
Germany $552.97 $21.85 $10.43 $10.43 - $2.52 $7.03
Denmark $518.23 $35.18 $4.68 $4.68 $4.01 - $2.43
Sweden $367.24 $30.45 $5.84 $5.78 $25.43 - $10.48
Switzerlan
$383.12 $34.50 $8.23 $7.53 $8.23 $2.22 $8.05
d
Forteo were not available for Ontario, Canada and France. Data on Trulicity were not available for Ontario or
Australia. Data on HumaLOG Mix 75-25 Kwikpen were not available for Portugal. Data on HumaLOG were not
available for Germany. Data on Effient were not available in Portugal, France, Denmark, and Sweden. Data on
HumuLIN 70-30 were not available in Portugal and France.
63
Figure 24. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Eli Lily & Co., 2018
$200.00
$182.55
$180.00
$160.00
$140.00
$120.00
$100.00
$80.00
$60.00
$35.36 $35.36
$40.00
$20.00
$0.00
Trulicity HumaLOG KwikPen U-100 HumaLOG Mix 75-25 KwikPen

Trulicity were not available for Ontario or Australia. Data on HumaLOG Mix 75-25 Kwikpen were not available for
Portugal. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 24 and 24.B to cross-compare their drug prices in
each country.
Figure 24.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Eli Lily & Co., 2018
$30.00 $27.47
$25.00
$20.00
$15.30 $14.87
$15.00
$10.00
$5.00
$0.00
HumaLOG Effient HumuLIN 70-30

HumaLOG were not available for Germany. Data on Effient were not available in Portugal, France, Denmark, and
Sweden. Data on HumuLIN 70-30 were not available in Portugal and France. We chose to compare these drugs
separately in Figures 24 and 24.B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
64
Table 17. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Gilead Sciences, 2018
Gilead Sciences Drugs

Harvoni Sovaldi Letairis Stribild Genvoya Ranexa
U.S. $1,125.00 $1,000.00 $308.48 $103.00 $98.19 $6.87
UK $631.36 $566.62 $73.38 $39.89 $39.89 $0.84
Japan $438.51 $338.69 - $55.67 $55.67 -
Ontario $613.96 $507.17 - $37.19 $34.97 -
Australia $316.28 $316.28 - $20.82 $22.91 -
Portugal $682.02 $592.76 - - - $1.22
France $492.86 $328.57 - $29.94 $25.72 -
Netherlands $553.96 $436.49 - $40.51 $38.48 -
Germany $491.83 $470.56 $37.88 $29.38 $29.38 $1.08
Denmark $902.10 $783.84 $130.14 $69.51 $66.05 -
Sweden $486.44 $475.05 - - - -
Switzerland $506.24 - $105.51 $41.79 $39.10 $1.15
Sovaldi were not available for Switzerland. Data on Letairis were not available for Japan, Ontario, Canada,
Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, or Sweden. Data on Stribild, and Genvoya were not available for
Portugal and Sweden. Data on Ranexa were not available for Japan, Ontario, Canada, Australia, France,
Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden.
Figure 25. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Gilead Sciences, 2018
$1,200.00 $1,125.00
$1,000.00
$1,000.00
$800.00
$600.00
$400.00
$200.00
$0.00
Harvoni Sovaldi

Sovaldi were not available for Switzerland. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 25, 25.B, and
25C to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
65
Figure 25.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Gilead Sciences, 2018
$350.00
$308.48
$300.00
$250.00
$200.00
$150.00
$103.00 $98.19
$100.00
$50.00
$0.00
Letairis Stribild Genvoya
USA UK Japan Ontario Australia France Netherlands Germany Denmark Switzerland
Letairis were not available for Japan, Ontario, Canada, Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, or Sweden. Data
on Stribild, and Genvoya were not available for Portugal and Sweden. We chose to compare these drugs separately
in Figures 25, 25.B, and 25C to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
Figure 25.C. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Gilead Sciences, 2018
$8.00
$6.87
$7.00
$6.00
$5.00
$4.00
$3.00
$2.00
$1.22 $1.08 $1.15
$0.84
$1.00
$0.00
Ranexa
USA UK Portugal Germany Switzerland
Ranexa were not available for Japan, Ontario, Canada, Australia, France, Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden. We
chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 25, 25.B, and 25C to cross-compare their drug prices in each
country.
66
Table 18. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Janssen, 2018
Janssen Drugs
Zytiga Stelara Invokana Xarelto Prezista
U.S. $170.53 $16,597.86 $15.48 $13.95 $39.99
UK $66.45 $2,921.09 $1.78 $2.45 $11.87
Japan - - $1.53 $4.25 $11.30
Ontario - $3,557.82 $2.14 $2.22 $14.98
Australia $20.02 $3,043.87 - $1.22 $14.50
Portugal $33.32 - $2.03 $2.75 -
France $50.80 $2,455.79 - $1.96 $11.04
Netherlands $67.18 $3,742.87 $1.84 $2.71 $12.81
Germany $56.98 $4,728.76 - $2.83 $25.68
Denmark $80.36 $4,719.68 $2.35 $3.28 $18.81
Sweden $47.17 $3,612.73 $1.46 $2.19 $7.63
Switzerland $57.77 $3,475.85 $1.48 $2.61 $19.97
Zytiga were not available for Japan or Ontario. Data on Stelara were not available for Japan or Portugal. Data on
Invokana were not available for Australia, France, and Germany. Data on Prezista were not available for Portugal.
Figure 26. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Janssen, 2018
$18,000.00
$16,597.86
$16,000.00
$14,000.00
$12,000.00
$10,000.00
$8,000.00
$6,000.00
$4,000.00
$2,000.00
$0.00
Stelara
USA UK Ontario Australia France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Stelara were not available for Japan or Portugal. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 26, 26.B,
and 26C to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
67
Figure 26.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Janssen, 2018
$180.00 $170.53
$160.00
$140.00
$120.00
$100.00
$80.00
$60.00
$40.00
$20.00
$0.00
Zytiga
USA UK Australia Portugal France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Zytiga were not available for Japan or Ontario. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 26, 26.B,
and 26C to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
Figure 26.C. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Janssen, 2018
$45.00
$39.99
$40.00
$35.00
$30.00
$25.00
$20.00
$15.48
$13.95
$15.00
$10.00
$5.00
$0.00
Invokana Xarelto Prezista

Invokana were not available for Australia, France, and Germany. Data on Prezista were not available for Portugal.
We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 26, 26.B, and 26C to cross-compare their drug prices in
each country.
68
Table 19. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Merck & Co., 2018
Merck & Co Drugs

Isentress Dulera Januvia Janumet
U.S. $24.92 $23.95 $15.70 $7.16
UK $10.66 - $1.62 $0.81
Japan $12.46 - $1.38 -
Ontario $10.87 $0.65 $2.39 $1.30
Australia $3.46 - $1.30 $0.67
Portugal - $0.32 $0.48 $2.19
France $2.53 - $0.94 $0.47
Netherlands $12.35 - $1.61 -
Germany $13.00 - $1.15 $0.54
Denmark $16.56 - $2.03 $0.90
Sweden $9.84 - $1.11 $0.59
Switzerland $12.37 - $1.42 $0.69
Isentress were not available for Portugal. Data on Dulera were not available for the UK, Japan, Australia, France,
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, or Sweden. Data on Janumet were not available for Japan or Netherlands.
Figure 27. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Merck & Co., 2018
$30.00
$24.92
$25.00 $23.95
$20.00
$15.70
$15.00
$10.00
$7.16
$5.00
$0.00
Isentress Dulera Januvia Janumet

Isentress were not available for Portugal. Data on Dulera were not available for the UK, Japan, Australia, France,
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, or Sweden. Data on Janumet were not available for Japan or Netherlands.
69
Table 20. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Novartis, 2018
Novartis Drugs
Afinitor Gilenya Tasigna
U.S. $518.27 $261.90 $113.70
UK $111.34 $71.43 $29.55
Japan $78.42 $65.34 $31.97
Ontario - - -
Australia $20.80 $55.23 $22.43
Portugal - - -
France $85.23 - $22.99
Netherlands $109.24 $75.91 $31.59
Germany $37.88 $58.76 $31.35
Denmark $113.25 $86.74 $34.51
Sweden $88.63 $60.83 $23.20
Switzerland $92.50 $55.99 $31.35
Afinitor, Gilenya, and Tasigna were not available for Ontario or Portugal. Data on Gilenya were also not available
for France.
Figure 28. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Novartis, 2018
$600.00
$518.27
$500.00
$400.00
$300.00 $261.90
$200.00
$113.70
$100.00
$0.00
Afinitor Gilenya Tasigna

Afinitor, Gilenya, and Tasigna were not available for Ontario or Portugal. Data on Gilenya were also not available
for France.
70
Table 21. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Novo Nordisk, 2018
Novo Nordisk Drugs

Victoza NovoLOG Flexpen NovoLOG Levemir Flextouch Levemir
U.S. $96.71 $37.26 $36.55 $29.38 $29.38
UK $17.80 $2.78 $2.74 $3.81 $3.81
Japan - - - - -
Ontario - $3.26 $2.79 $5.62 $5.62
Australia - $14.46 $14.46 $48.70 $48.70
Portugal $60.75 $9.75 $23.56 $13.96 $13.96
France $44.42 $6.73 $5.71 $9.66 $9.66
Netherlands $57.76 $4.54 - $13.17 $12.91
Germany $50.02 $10.43 - $12.26 $11.96
Denmark $75.51 $4.73 $4.17 $5.34 $5.34
Sweden $17.42 $6.10 $6.96 $10.67 $11.54
Switzerland $59.03 $9.77 $9.15 - $14.11
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price. Data on
Victoza, NovoLOG Flexpen, NovoLOG, Levemir Flextouch, and Levemir were not available for Japan. Data on
Victoza were not available for Ontario, or Australia. Data on NovoLOG were not available for Japan, the
Netherlands, or Germany. Data on Levemir Flextouch were not available for Switzerland.
Figure 29. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Novo Nordisk, 2018
$120.00
$100.00 $96.71
$80.00 $75.51
$60.75 $59.03
$57.76
$60.00
$50.02
$44.42
$40.00
$17.80 $17.42
$20.00
$0.00
Victoza
USA UK Portugal France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Victoza were not available for Ontario, Australia, or Japan. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures
29 and 29B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
71
Figure 29.B List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Novo Nordisk, 2018
$60.00
$50.00
$40.00 $37.26 $36.55
$29.38 $29.38
$30.00
$20.00
$10.00
$0.00
NovoLOG Flexpen NovoLOG Levemir Flextouch Levemir
USA UK Ontario Australia Portugal France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
NovoLOG Flexpen, NovoLOG, Levemir Flextouch, and Levemir were not available for Japan. Data on NovoLOG
were not available for Japan, the Netherlands, or Germany. Data on Levemir Flextouch were not available for
Switzerland. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures 29 and 29B to cross-compare their drug prices
in each country.
72
Table 22. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Pfizer, 2018
Pfizer Drugs
Ibrance Xeljanz
U.S. $538.94 $68.26
UK $191.12 $16.76
Japan $180.90 $20.94
Ontario - $18.56
Australia $141.30 $15.85
Portugal - -
France $146.43 $4.67
Germany $117.84 $34.36
Denmark $250.70 $21.09
Sweden $127.38 $32.71
Ibrance were not available for Ontario or Portugal. Data on Xeljanz were not available for Portugal.
Figure 30. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Pfizer, 2018
$600.00
$538.94
$500.00
$400.00
$300.00
$200.00
$100.00 $68.26
$0.00
Ibrance Xeljanz
USA UK Japan Ontario Australia France

Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Ibrance were not available for Ontario or Portugal. Data on Xeljanz were not available for Portugal.
73
Table 23. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Sanofi-Aventis, 2018
Sanofi-Aventis Drugs
Aubagio Toujeo SoloStar Lantus Lantus SoloStar Multaq
U.S. $233.18 $82.74 $26.96 $26.95 $10.51
UK $50.43 $10.02 $3.43 $26.95 $1.53
Japan - - - $3.43 -
Ontario - - $4.78 $5.17 -
Australia $17.62 $33.64 $33.64 $16.82 -
Portugal - $11.16 $45.45 $45.45 $1.87
France $25.29 $12.06 $8.78 $8.78 -
Netherlands $40.57 $17.12 $11.11 $11.21 -
Germany $29.54 $18.24 $12.16 - $1.55
Denmark $61.82 $13.55 $5.26 $5.26 $1.81
Sweden $27.18 $13.03 $0.00 $26.70 $1.51
Switzerland $43.04 $18.50 $10.36 $8.81 $1.53
Aubagio were not available for Japan, Ontario, or Portugal. Data on Toujeo SoloStar were not available for Japan
or Ontario. Data on Lantus were not available for Japan. Data on Lantus Solostar were not available for Germany.
Data on Multaq were not available for Japan, Ontario, Australia, France, or the Netherlands.
Figure 31. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Sanofi-Aventis, 2018
$250.00 $233.18
$200.00
$150.00
$100.00 $82.74
$50.00
$0.00
Aubagio Toujeo SoloStar
USA UK Australia Portugal France Netherlands Germany Denmark Sweden Switzerland
Aubagio were not available for Japan, Ontario, or Portugal. Data on Toujeo SoloStar were not available for Japan
or Ontario. Data on Lantus were not available for Japan. We chose to compare these drugs separately in Figures
31 and 31B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
74
Figure 31.B. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Sanofi-Aventis, 2018
$50.00
$45.00
$40.00
$35.00
$30.00
$26.96 $26.95
$25.00
$20.00
$15.00
$10.51
$10.00
$5.00
$0.00
Lantus Lantus SoloStar Multaq

Lantus were not available for Japan. Data on Lantus Solostar were not available for Germany. Data on Multaq
were not available for Japan, Ontario, Australia, France, or the Netherlands. We chose to compare these drugs
separately in Figures 31 and 31B to cross-compare their drug prices in each country.
75
Table 24. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Takeda Pharmace, 2018
Takeda Pharmace Drugs

Uloric Amitiza
U.S. $10.68 $6.18
UK $1.18 $1.44
Japan $0.87 $0.99
Ontario - -
Australia - -
Portugal - -
France - -
Netherlands - -
Germany $1.02 -
Denmark - -
Sweden - -
Switzerland $1.08 -
SOURCES and NOTES: Authors’ analysis of price data for 2018, collected from recognized price. Data on Uloric
were not available for Ontario, Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden. Data on Amitiza
were not available for Ontario, Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, or
Switzerland.
Figure 32. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Takeda Pharmace, 2018
$12.00
$10.68
$10.00
$8.00
$6.18
$6.00
$4.00
$2.00
$0.00
Uloric Amitiza
USA UK Japan Germany Switzerland
Uloric were not available for Ontario, Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and
Switzerland. Data on Amitiza were not available for Ontario, Australia, Portugal, France, Netherlands, Germany,
Denmark, Sweden, or Switzerland.
76
Table 25. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Viiv Healthcare, 2018
Viiv Healthcare Drugs

Triumeq Tivicay
U.S. $93.51 $55.25
UK $36.20 $22.62
Japan $55.91 $26.05
Ontario $33.46 $15.10
Australia $20.83 $15.30
Portugal - -
France $25.72 $18.37
Germany $29.38 $21.28
Denmark $49.26 $28.34
Sweden - -
Triumeq and Tivicay were not available for Portugal or Sweden.
Figure 33. List Prices of Drugs Manufactured by Viiv Healthcare, 2018
$100.00
$93.51
$90.00
$80.00
$70.00
$60.00 $55.25
$50.00
$40.00
$30.00
$20.00
$10.00
$0.00
Triumeq Tivicay
USA UK Japan Ontario Australia France Netherlands Germany Denmark Switzerland
Triumeq and Tivicay were not available for Portugal or Sweden.
77

U.S. vs. International Prescription Drug Prices

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

U.S. vs. International Prescription Drug Prices

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

U.S. vs. International Prescription Drug Prices

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Painful Pill to Swallow:

U.S. vs. International Prescription

Prepared by Ways and Means Committee Staff

U.S. Drug Prices Significantly Higher than All 11 Other Countries

Countervailing trends – skyrocketing drug prices coupled with an increasingly aging

Figure 1. Historical and Projected Prescription Drug Spending by Payer, 2005-2026 30

America’s Drug Prices are Too High

External Reference Pricing and Pharmaceutical Cost Containment Abroad

Figure 2. Use of Reference Pricing in European Countries, 2016 48

EFPIA Principles for External Reference Pricing Systems

The European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) is the

EFPIA-issued recommendations on ERP system standards

Summary Statistics of Pharmaceutical List Prices, 2018

U.S. $466.15 $5.36 $16,597.86 $1,220.00 79

2. Factors Affecting Price Differentials

Ratio of GDP per Capita to US Ratio of Average Drug Price to US

3. International Comparison of Average Prescription Drug Prices

Comparative Analysis of Manufacturers

Our analytic file of 79 drugs included 31 manufactures, only 12 of which manufactured a

US Average (excluding US) US Average (excluding US)

Boehringer Ingelheim Janssen

US Average (excluding US) US Average (excluding US)

US Average (excluding US)

Comparative Analysis of Disease Groups and International Drug Prices

When analyzing by disease groups, arthritis medications, multiple sclerosis medications,

US Average (excluding US)

US Average (excluding US)

Humira, an anti-inflammatory drug, is the best-selling prescription drug in the world. 92

US Average (excluding US) US Average (excluding US)

Multiple Sclerosis Medication

$1,800.00 $1,697.49 $1,697.49

$400.00 $270.95 $252.74 $261.90 $233.18

US Average (excluding US)

$200.00 $161.82 $170.53

US Average (excluding US)

Drug Prices Listed for Each Country

6. Estimation of Medicare Part D Savings under External Reference Pricing System

Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/infographic/10-essential-facts-about-medicare-and-prescription-drug-spending/

$10.0 $16.9 $18.2

Estimated Part D Spending Estimated savings from IPI

A Call for Help: Medicare Part D Negotiation

Despite the MMA’s market-based structure, a majority of Americans supported a policy

Country cohort. To understand the variation in prices of these 79 drugs, we selected a

Data Sources and Database

Pharmaceutical Price Sources

2. Factors Influencing Price Differentials

3. International Comparison of Average Prescription Drug Prices

Similarly, we conducted a comparative analysis along seven disease groups, which

6. Estimation of Medicare Part D Savings under External Reference Pricing System

U.S. Rebate Rate Required to Match German Net Prices

Table 5. Profiles of Countries Studied with an ERP

Appendix B.1. Profiles of Countries Studied with an ERP

Free Pricing No No Varies No No No No

All inpatient Reimbursable

Appendix B.2. Profiles of Countries Studied without an ERP

Free Pricing No Yes No Yes

External Reference Pricing No No No No

Internal Reference Pricing Yes (F1 Drugs) Yes Yes No

Figure 12. Average Pharmaceutical List Prices, 2018

$18,000.00 $16,597.78 $16,592.50