Distribution Midterms Review

Distribution
The purpose of the Distribution system is to deliver power

to the customers after the voltage has been stepped-down to
a “distribution” voltage. As the power gets closer to the
customers, it is generally more economical to move the
power at these lower
voltages.
Distribution
Typical Primary distribution voltages include:
19.9 kV
12.7 kV
7.6 kV
7.2 kV
2.4 kV
Note: Phase to Ground voltages
Distribution
Before the power gets to the customer, a transformer may
lower the “primary” voltage to a “secondary” voltage of
120/240 volts.
Primary: 19,900 volts
Secondary:
120/240 volt service
Distribution
The distribution circuits may be overhead or underground.
This will depend on the load density and the physical
conditions of the particular area to be served.
Padmount Transformer
Overhead Transformer
for Underground System
Bank & Service
Distribution
Typical distribution equipment are listed below:

Capacitors
Fuses
Circuit Reclosers
Regulators
Poles
Switches & sectionalizers
Transformers - Overhead
Underground Equipment
Distribution - Underground Equipment
A riser or riser pole is used to

connect underground cables to
an overhead primary line.
Riser Pole
Padmount transformers
perform the same function
as overhead transformers.
Padmounts step down the
“primary” voltage to
“secondary” voltage -
usually 120/240 volts.
Single Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Primary Cable Secondary

Cable
Single Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Three phase underground distribution systems provide

underground service to large customers.
Three Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Outdoor metal clad switchgear provides a weather proof
housing for circuit breakers, protective relays, meters, current
transformers, potential transformers, bus conductors, and
other items necessary to provide electric system requirements.
Switchgear
Sectionalizers
A sectionalizer is designed to isolate faults on circuits in conjunction
with reclosers. A sectionalizer does not interrupt fault current. It waits
until the recloser de-energizes the line. After a pre-determined number
of operations by the recloser, the sectionalizer opens to isolate the
section of faulty line. This allows the recloser to re-energize the line up
to the open
sectionalizer.
Distribution Regulators/Autoboosters
Voltage regulators are devices

that maintain distribution voltage
within a specified range of values.
They are used by power
companies to minimize voltage
drop and to ensure that the proper
voltage is supplied to customers.
Most Voltage Regulators are capable of raising or lowering the
voltage by 10%.
Controls Position
Indicator
Most Voltage Regulators have 16 taps or steps in the raise and
lower position.
The position indicator shown
here has 16 “steps” in the lower
position, 16 steps in the raise
position, and a Neutral position.
Each step can raise or lower the
voltage by 5/8%. At Step 16-
Raise, the voltage is raised by
10%. Likewise, in Step 16-
Lower, the voltage is lowered
by 10%.
If a voltage regulator needs to be bypassed, it is import to have the
regulator in the Neutral position.
Bypass Switches
Position Indicator
Autoboosters are very similar to voltage regulators. The
difference is that autoboosters can only increase voltage.
Autoboosters
Distribution - Switches
Switches are used to disconnect or close circuits that may be
energized.
Gang Operated Switch Switch Control Handle

Some switches are equipped with motor controls and
supervisory control so that switches may be operated remotely
Gang Operated Switch

with Motor Controls
The picture below shows a Solid Blade “In-Line” Disconnect
switch that is operating using a switch stick.
Solid Blade Disconnect Switch

Distribution Transformers - Overhead
Transformers are designed to reduce the voltage of the
primary circuit to the voltage required to supply the
customer.
Transformer banks are used to provide customers

with 3-phase power.
3-Pot Transformer Bank

Depending on the customer’s needs, transformer banks are
connected in different configurations.
2-Pot Transformer Bank

Distribution Operation Center
A distribution system is divided into several regions or divisions
within each operating company. These regions or divisions have
distribution control centers sometimes referred to as
Distribution Operation Centers or DOC’s.
Distribution Control Center
The Distribution Operation Centers are responsible for all

distribution lines and equipment within their area of control.
Whenever switching is performed on their system, it is

coordinated through the DOC.
Operators track the status of

lines and equipment using
various tags.
An automated control system

called SCADA allows
operators to monitor and
control substation and line
equipment remotely.
SCADA stands for

Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition.
Customer Service Representatives
deal directly with the customers. They
relay information about system outages
to the control center operators.
Electrical Distribution System Arrangements
The primary function of the electric power distribution system in a building or facility is to
receive power at one or more supply points and to deliver it to lighting, elevators, chillers,
motors and all other electrical loads.
The best distribution system is one that will, cost-effectively and safely, supply adequate electric
service to both present and future probable loads. The selection of a system arrangement has a
profound impact upon the reliability and maintainability of the electrical system.
Four basic circuit arrangements are used for the distribution of electric power. They are the
radial, primary selective, secondary selective and secondary network circuit arrangements.
Several commonly-used electrical distribution systems are discussed below. It is usually

necessary to combine two or more of these arrangements for increased system reliability.
1. Radial system
The radial system is the simplest electrical distribution arrangement, and the least expensive in
terms of equipment initial cost. It's also the least reliable arrangement since it only uses a single
utility source.
With the simple radial system, the loss of the utility source, transformer, or the service or
distribution equipment will result in a loss of service.
The conventional simple radial system receives power at the utility supply voltage at a single
substation and steps the voltage down to the utilization level. The loss of the utility source,
transformer, or the service or distribution equipment will result in a loss of service.
Further, the loads must be shut down in order to perform maintenance on the system. This
arrangement is most commonly used where the need for low initial cost, simplicity, and space
economy outweigh the need for enhanced reliability.
Typical equipment for this system arrangement is a single unit substation consisting of a fused
primary switch, a transformer of sufficient size to supply the loads, and a low voltage
switchboard.
2. Expanded Radial System
One of the main advantages of the simple radial system is that it can easily be expanded by the
inclusion of additional transformers. Reliability increases with a larger number of substations
since the loss of one transformer will not result in a loss of service for all of the loads.
The simple radial system can easily be expanded by the inclusion of additional transformers.
To minimize voltage drop, the additional transformers can be located close to the center of each
group of loads. If the loss of a transformer or feeder can't result in the loss of service to a part of
the facility, a more reliable system arrangement is required.
3. Radial system with Primary Selectivity
When two utility sources are available, radial systems with primary selectivity provides almost
the same economic advantages of the simple radial system with greater reliability since the
failure of one utility source will not result in a total loss of service.
Primary selectivity brings greater reliability to the radial system since the failure of one utility
source will not result in a total loss of service.
A brief outage will occur between the loss of the primary utility source and switching to the
alternate source, unless the utility sources are paralleled. The loss of the transformer or of the
distribution equipment would still result in a loss of service.
An automatic transfer scheme may be used between the two primary sources to automatically
switch from a failed utility source to an available source. Maintenance on the primary system
requires all loads to be shut down.
4. Primary and Secondary Simple Radial system
An improved form of the conventional simple radial system distributes power at a primary
voltage. The voltage is stepped down to utilization level in the several load areas, typically
through secondary unit substation transformers.
In the Primary and Secondary Simple Radial system, a fault on a primary feeder circuit or in one
transformer will cause an outage to only those secondary loads served by that feeder or
transformer.
Each secondary unit substation is an assembled unit consisting of a transformer, an integrally

connected primary fused switch, and low voltage switchgear or switchboard. Circuits fed to each
load from circuit breakers or fused switches.
A fault on a primary feeder circuit or in one transformer will cause an outage to only those
secondary loads served by that feeder or transformer. In the case of a primary main bus fault or a
utility service outage, service is interrupted to all loads until the trouble is eliminated.
Because power is distributed to the load areas at a primary voltage, losses are reduced, voltage
regulation is improved, and in many cases the interrupting duty imposed on the load circuit
breakers is reduced.
5. Primary Loop system
This distribution arrangement consists of one or more "Primary Loops" with two or more
transformers connected on the loop. This system is typically most effective when two services
are available from the utility.
An outage to part of the primary loop system will be experienced after the failure of a feeder
cable until the loop is switched to accommodate the loss of the cable.
The main advantage of the loop system over radial arrangements is that a failure of one
transformer or feeder cable will not cause one part of the facility to experience a loss of service
and that one feeder cable can be maintained without causing a loss of service.
Each primary loop is operated such that one of the loop sectionalizing switches is kept open to
prevent parallel operation of the sources. An outage to part of the system will be experienced
after the failure of a feeder cable until the loop is switched to accommodate the loss of the cable.
By operating the appropriate sectionalizing switches, it is possible to disconnect any section of

the loop conductors from the rest of the system. A key interlocking scheme is normally used to
prevent closing all sectionalizing devices in the loop.
6. Secondary Selective system
Another method of allowing a distribution system to remain in service after the failure of one
component is the secondary selective system. In this system, each transformer secondary is
connected in a typical double-ended unit substation arrangement.
In the selective secondary arrangement, the secondary main circuit breakers and secondary tie
breaker of each unit substation are either mechanically or electrically interlocked to prevent
parallel operation.
The two secondary main circuit breakers and secondary tie breaker of each unit substation are
either mechanically or electrically interlocked to prevent parallel operation. In the event that
secondary source voltage is lost on one side, manual or automatic transfer may be used to
transfer the loads to the other side, thus restoring power to all secondary loads.
7. Primary Selective system
If a single primary source is used in the secondary selective system, loss of voltage at that source
would result in a complete loss of the system. For greater reliability, duplicate sources from the
power supply point using two primary main circuit breakers and a primary tie breaker is
recommended.
When combined with the primary selective system, greater reliability can be achieved with a
secondary selective system.
In a primary selective system, two primary main breakers and primary tie breaker are again
either mechanically or electrically interlocked to prevent parallel operation. Upon loss of a
primary voltage source on one side, manual or automatic transfer may be used to restore power
to all primary loads.
Metal-Clad switchgear is most commonly used with this type of arrangement, due to the
limitations of metal-enclosed load interrupter switches. Secondary radial or selective systems can
be combined with the primary selective arrangement to create a composite system.
8. Sparing Transformer system
A larger-scale version of the secondary selective system is the transformer sparing scheme. It
essentially replaces double-ended substations with single-ended substations and one or more
"sparing" transformer substation, all of which are interconnected on a common secondary bus.
The sparing transformer electrical distribution system allows for good flexibility in switching.
This type of electrical distribution system allows for good flexibility in switching. The sparing
transformer supplies one load bus if a substation transformer fails or is taken off-line for
maintenance.
All main breakers, including the sparing main breaker, are normally closed; the tie breakers are
normally open. A transformer is switched out of the circuit by opening its secondary main
breaker and closing the tie breaker to allow the sparing transformer to feed its loads.
Care must be used when allowing multiple transformers to be paralleled as the fault current is
increased with each transformer that is paralleled, and directional relaying is required on the
secondary main circuit breakers to selectively isolate a faulted transformer.
An electrical or key interlock scheme is required to enforce the proper operating modes of this
type of system, especially considering that switching is carried out over several pieces of
equipment that can be in different locations from one another. An automatic transfer scheme may
be utilized to switch between a failed transformer and an available transformer.
9. Secondary Spot Network system
In high-density areas where large loads must be served and a high degree of reliability is
required, secondary network systems are often used. In this arrangement, several utility services
are paralleled at the low voltage level, creating a highly reliable system.
Secondary Spot Network systems are commonly used in buildings where a high degree of
service reliability is required.
The major advantage of the secondary network system is continuity of service. No single fault
anywhere on the primary system will interrupt service to any of the system's loads.
Network protectors are specially designed circuit breakers used at the transformer secondary to
isolate transformer faults which are back-fed through the low voltage system. Most faults will be
cleared without interrupting service to any load.
The common secondary bus is often referred to as the "collector bus." Secondary Spot Network
systems are commonly used in hospitals, high rise office buildings, and institutional buildings
where a high degree of service reliability is required from the utility sources.
10. Composite Systems
The system arrangements discussed above are the basic building blocks of power distribution
system topologies, but are rarely used alone for a given system. To increase system reliability it
is usually necessary to combine two or more arrangements.
As reliability increases, so does complexity and cost. Economic considerations will usually
dictate how complex of a system arrangement can be used, which will have a great deal of
impact on how reliable the system is.
Radial, Parallel, Ring Main and Interconnected Distribution
Systems
An electric power distribution system can be classified according to its feeder connection
schemes or topologies as follows -
 Radial distribution system
 Parallel feeders distribution
 Ring main distribution system
 Interconnected distribution
There are few other variations of distribution feeder systems, but we'll stick to these four basic
and commonly used systems.
Radial Distribution System

This system is used only when substation or generating station is located at the center of the
consumers. In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or a generating station and
feed the distributors at one end. Thus, the main characteristic of a radial distribution system is
that the power flow is in only one direction. Single line diagram of a typical radial distribution
system is as shown in the figure below. It is the simplest system and has the lowest initial cost.
Although this system is simplest and least expensive, it is not highly reliable. A major drawback
of a radial distribution system is, a fault in the feeder will result in supply failure to associated
consumers as there won't be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.
Parallel Feeders Distribution System
The above-mentioned disadvantage of a radial system can be minimized by introducing parallel

feeders. The initial cost of this system is much more as the number of feeders is doubled. Such
system may be used where reliability of the supply is important or for load sharing where the
load is higher.
Ring Main Distribution System
A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be achieved by using ring
distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders but in different
paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the substation bus-bars, runs
through the load area feeding distribution transformers and returns to the substation bus-bars.
The following figure shows a typical single line diagram of a ring main distribution system.
Ring main distribution system is the most preferred due to its following advantages.
Advantages of Ring Main Distribution System
 There are fewer voltage fluctuations at consumer's terminal.
 The system is very reliable as each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders. That
means, in the event of a fault in any section of the feeder, the continuity of the supply is
ensured from the alternative path.
Interconnected Distribution System
When a ring main feeder is energized by two or more substations or generating stations, it is
called as an interconnected distribution system. This system ensures reliability in an event of
transmission failure. Also, any area fed from one generating stations during peak load hours can
be fed from the other generating station or substation for meeting power requirements from
increased load.
Distribution and Utilization Power System
High Voltage Network
•High-voltage networks, consist of transmission lines, connects the power plants and high-
voltage substations in parallel.
•This network permits load sharing among power plants.
•The typical voltage of the network is between 240 kV and 700 kV.
•The high-voltage substations are located near the load centers.
Subtransmission Network
•The subtransmission system connects the high-voltage substations to the distribution

substations.
• The typical voltage of the subtransmission system is between 138 and 69 kV.
•In high load density areas, the subtransmission system uses a network configuration that is
similar to the high voltage network.
•In medium and low load density areas, the loop or radial connection is used.
Distribution and Utilization Network

•The distribution system has two parts, primary and secondary.
•The primary distribution system consists of overhead lines or underground cables, which are
called feeders.
•The feeders supply the distribution transformers that step the voltage down to the secondary
level.
•The secondary distribution system contains overhead lines or underground cables supplying the
consumers directly by single- or three-phase power.
Services, Wires, and Scheme of Connection for Distribution System
Type of Service:
•General Lighting & Power
•Industrial Power
•Railway
•Streetlight etc
Number of Wires:
•Two Wire
•Three Wire
•Four Wire
Scheme of Connection:
•Radial Distribution System
•Ring or Loop Distribution System
•Interconnected Distribution System
Factors Affecting Distribution-System Losses
•Inadequate Size of Conductor.

•Feeder Length.
•Location of Distribution Transformers.
•Low Voltage.
•Use of Over-Rated Distribution Transformers.
•Low Power Factor.
Primary Distribution
 Includes everything from the distribution substation to the distribution transformers
 Rural areas served by overhead lines
 Urban areas served by underground systems
Three common topologies:
1.Radial
2.Loop
3.Network
Primary Radial Systems

•Three phase feeder mains of length 1 to 30 miles.
•Single phase laterals branch off main feeder.
•Try to balance the load on the 3 phases.
•Economical and widely used in low load density areas.
•Re-closers are used on overhead lines to minimize loss of load; Typically have 3 shots before
lockout.
•Sectionalizing fuses also reduce downtime.
Secondary Distribution
•Distribution system must ensure customer voltage is within ANSI standards +/-5% (114-126V).
•Most problematic:
1. Voltage of first customer under light load.
2. Voltage of last customer under peak load.
•Load tap changers, voltage regulators, and shunt capacitors are used.
•Four types of secondary systems:
1. Individual distribution transformer per customer.
2. Common secondary main.
3. Secondary network.
4. Spot network.
Load Characteristics
To begin the electrical design of transmission and distribution systems, it is necessary to

know the characteristics of the building blocks upon which the design of the systems is
predicated; that is, the consumer to be served. Obviously, each consumer cannot be
considered independently, but they may be studied as a class and as groups as they affect the
final design of the systems.
For convenience, consumers may be broadly classified as residential, commercial, and

industrial. The requirements of each type to be determined include:
1. The total consumption of electricity over a period of time, (say) annually.
2. The changes in rate of consumption, (say) hourly, over periods of time: daily, weekly,
monthly, annually.
3. The voltage required for the proper operation of the loads to be served; the tolerance
permitted in the variation of this voltage, and whether the rapidity of such variations would
cause flicker of lights to result.
4. The reliability requirements of the loads to be served, that is, the degree of interruption to
service, as well as variations in the three items above, that may be tolerated or permitted.
Electric systems consist essentially of conductors in the form of wire, terminals, blades of
switches or circuit breakers, wires in transformers, motors, and other equipment. The criteria
on which their designs are based are two:
1. The permissible drop in voltage or pressure of the electricity flowing through them,
2. The permissible energy loss caused by electricity flowing through them, manifested in the
form of heat to be dissipated harmlessly.
From Ohm’s Law, the loss in voltage is equal to the product of the current flowing through a
conductor and its resistance:
Energy loss is the product of power and time; power, however, is the product of the voltage
imposed on the conductor and the current flowing through it. Again, from Ohm’s Law, this
can be derived into the product of the square of the current flowing through the conductor and
its resistance:
P (in watts) = E × I
IR × I = I2 R
and energy = Power × Time, in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours.

The heat generated must be dissipated if temperature rise is to be limited to safe values (i.e.,
before failure results, usually in the insulation surrounding a conductor). Also, the heat
generated represents a loss of energy for which there is no economic return, and some
reasonable value must be placed on its limits.
The consumer’s connected load, therefore, becomes the starting point for the design of such
systems. An examination of “typical” consumer’s connected loads will quickly determine the
voltage requirements:
120 volts for lighting and many of the appliances and 240 volts for some of the larger size
units; for some large motor loads, poly phase (usually three phase) voltages of 120/208 volts,
120/240 volts, or 277/460 volts. This will determine the number of conductors to supply the
consumer’s load: 2, 3 or 4 wires, as well as the value of the associated insulation.
The size of the conductor is determined by the highest value of current to be carried.
Common sense indicates the consumer will, at various times throughout the day, be using
different combinations of the units comprising his connected load. The magnitude of the total
current to be supplied over the conductors will, therefore, also vary throughout the day. For
design purposes, the maximum current is determined by taking the maximum consumption of
electricity over a definite period of time (usually 15, 30 or 60 minutes) and converting it into
current or amperes, Figure 1.
Figure 1 - Load Factor; Maximum Demand
This value may be different for each day of the week, month or year; hence, the largest of
these is taken as the basis for design and is known as the “maximum demand” of the
individual consumer. This factor affects the selection of conductors, transformers and other
facilities comprising the distribution system.
The distinction between the consumer’s demand and connected load is most important.
Connected load is the total of the rated capacities of all electric appliances, lights, motors,
etc., that are connected to the wiring of a consumer. The actual demand is almost always
considerably less than the connected load, because the different units are used at different
times, or, if used at the same time, their peak loads may not be simultaneous, or in either
case, all units may not be loaded to full capacity at their peak loads.
The exception to this is on loads where all utilization equipment is of the same general type
and is used at the same time and at the same capacity, such as may be found in some
manufacturing plants, in water or sewer treatment plants, or in street lighting circuits. The
ratio of maximum power demand to total connected load is called the “demand factor.”
Figure 2 - Diversity Factor
The method of determining the demand factor is also applied to the loads of a group of
consumers. Here, the combined maximum demand of the group is compared to the total of
the maximum demands of each of the members of the group, and this ratio is known as the
diversity factor, Figure 2. For example, a transformer may supply six consumers whose
individual maximum demands total 150 kVA, but whose combined maximum demand may
be only 75 kVA. The diversity factor is 150/75 or 2. It should be noted that the demand
factor is defined in such a way that it is always less than 1, while diversity factor in such a
way it is always greater than 1.
Load Factor
In electrical engineering the load factor is defined as the average load divided by the peak
load in a specified time period. It is a measure of the utilization rate, or efficiency of
electrical energy usage; a high load factor indicates that load is using the electric system more
efficiently, whereas consumers or generators that underutilize the electric distribution will
have a low load factor.
An example, using a large commercial electrical bill:
 peak demand = 436 kW
 use = 57200 kWh
 number of days in billing cycle = 30 days
Hence:
 load factor = (57200 kWh / (30 d × 24 hours per day × 436 kW) ) × 100% = 18.22%
The load factor is closely related to and often confused with the demand factor.
Demand Factor
In electrical engineering the demand factor is taken as a time independent quantity where the
numerator is taken as the maximum demand in the specified time period instead of the
averaged or instantaneous demand.
Example: If a residence has equipment which could draw 6,000 W when all equipment was
drawing a full load, drew a maximum of 3,000 W in a specified time, then the
Demand factor = 3,000 W / 6,000 W = 0.5
Coincidence factor
The ratio of the maximum demand of the whole to the sum of the maximum demands of each
of the individual consumers is known as the coincidence or diversity factor.
Loss Factor
A companion factor, the ratio of average power loss for a stipulated period of time (day,
week, month, year) to the maximum loss or loss at peak (15, 30, 60 minutes) during the same
period. The distinction between the load factor and loss factor is that the former pertains to
loads (maximum and average) while the latter pertains to losses which are proportional to the
square of the corresponding loads
Equivalent Hours
Associated with the loss factor is a quantity called “equivalent hours.” It is defined as the
average number of hours per day which the peak load would have to continue to give the
same total energy loss as that given by the variable load (throughout the week, month, year,
as the case may be). Equivalent hours = loss factor × 24. This factor is useful in determining
the cost of energy losses which, in turn, may result in the installation of more economical
larger facilities.
Figure 3 - Load; Loss; Load Factor; Loss Factor
Another factor, the ratio of the average demand to the installed capacity is called the use
factor, and is an indication of how much of the investment is used. It is sometimes used in
place of the load factor as an index of the efficiency with which the system under
consideration is utilized.
Load Curves and Load – Duration Curves
The consumption of electrical power or energy by any utility varies from time to time in a day as
well as during a week, month, season or year. For example in summer fans, AC units, cooler etc
are used but not during winter or cold season. Industries working during day time will consume
only lighting load during night (10 pm to 6 am) . Hence knowledge of variation of loads and
their nature is essential for distribution planning. The load characteristics are usually presented
as load curves and load duration curves;
a. Load Curves
The load (power requirement) of any concern or unit is tabulated as the amount of power
required or consumed during a certain period in a day, week or a given season.
b. Load-Duration Curves
This is a graph obtained from load curve showing the load in (kW) and duration over which it
occurs in descending order of load magnitudes.
Example
Time Hour/Load kW Stree Light Residential Commercial Industrial Agricultural

0:00 - 6:00 AM 80 200 320 100 600
6:00-8:00 AM 700 400 100 400
8:00-9:00 AM 800 400 300
9:00 - 10:00 AM 600 400 400
10:00 - 5:00 PM 500 700 400
5:00 - 6:00 PM 600 900 400
6:00 - 7:00 PM 80 800 1200 320
7:00 - 8:00 PM 80 1000 1200 320
8:00 - 9:00 PM 80 1000 1200 220
9:00 - 10:00 PM 80 800 1050 170
10:00 - 12:00 80 500 320 100 400
1. Draw Load Curve and Load Duration Curve.

2. What are the peak (maximum) demands of individual load, system maximum demand?
3. What are the contribution factors for each of the loads?
Solution:
Distribution Transformer Application
A distribution transformer is the type of transformer that performs the last voltage
transformation in a distribution grid. It converts the voltage used in the transmission lines to
one suitable for house hold and commercial use, typically down to 240 volts.
Distribution transformers are classified into different categories based on factors such as:
1. Mounting location
a. Pole mounted
b. Pad mounted
2. Type of insulation
a. Liquid immerse
b. Dry type
3. Number of phases
a. Single phase
b. Three phase
4. Voltage class
5. Connection:
a. WYE
b. Delta
Every Utility pole has a grounding wire. There is also grounding wire that accompanies the
two 120 volt hot wires that come from transformer. These two 120 volts are 180 degrees out
of phase so that if both electric currents are used, there is a combination voltage of 240 volts.
These allows for both 120 and 240 volt devices to be powered by the same distribution grid.
Basic Parts of a Transformer
These are the basic components of a transformer.
1. Laminated core
2. Windings
3. Insulating materials
4. Transformer oil
5. Tap changer
6. Oil Conservator
1
7. Breather
8. Cooling tubes
9. Buchholz Relay
10. Explosion vent
Conservator
The conservator conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight, metallic, cylindrical drum that
is fitted above the transformer. The conservator tank is vented to the atmosphere at the top,
and the normal oil level is approximately in the middle of the conservator to allow the oil to
expand and contract as the temperature varies. The conservator is connected to the main tank
inside the transformer, which is completely filled with transformer oil through a pipeline.
Breather
The breather controls the moisture level in the transformer. Moisture can arise when
temperature variations cause expansion and contraction of the insulating oil, which then
causes the pressure to change inside the conservator. Pressure changes are balanced by a flow
of atmospheric air in and out of the conservator, which is how moisture can enter the system.
If the insulating oil encounters moisture, it can affect the paper insulation or may even lead to
internal faults. Therefore, it is necessary that the air entering the tank is moisture-free.
The transformer's breather is a cylindrical container that is filled with silica gel. When the
atmospheric air passes through the silica gel of the breather, the air's moisture is absorbed by
the silica crystals. The breather acts like an air filter for the transformer and controls the
moisture level inside a transformer. It is connected to the end of breather pipe.
Tap Changer
The output voltage of transformers varies according to its input voltage and the load. During
loaded conditions, the voltage on the output terminal decreases, whereas during off-load
conditions the output voltage increases. In order to balance the voltage variations, tap
changers are used. Tap changers can be either on-load tap changers or off-load tap changers.
In an on-load tap changer, the tapping can be changed without isolating the transformer from
the supply. In an off-load tap changer, it is done after disconnecting the transformer.
Automatic tap changers are also available.
Cooling Tubes
Cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The transformer oil is circulated through
the cooling tubes. The circulation of the oil may either be natural or forced. In natural
circulation, when the temperature of the oil rises the hot oil naturally rises to the top and the
cold oil sinks downward. Thus the oil naturally circulates through the tubes. In forced
circulation, an external pump is used to circulate the oil.
2
Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz Relay is a protective device container housed over the connecting pipe from
the main tank to the conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults occurring inside the
transformer. It is a simple relay that is operated by the gases emitted during the
decomposition of transformer oil during internal faults. It helps in sensing and protecting the
transformer from internal faults.
Explosion Vent
The explosion vent is used to expel boiling oil in the transformer during heavy internal faults
in order to avoid the explosion of the transformer. During heavy faults, the oil rushes out of
the vent. The level of the explosion vent is normally maintained above the level of the
conservatory tank.
Core
The core acts as support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. It is made of laminated soft iron core in order to reduce
eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss. The composition of a transformer core depends on such
as factors voltage, current, and frequency. The diameter of the transformer core is directly
proportional to copper loss and is inversely proportional to iron loss. If the diameter of the
core is decreased, the weight of the steel in the core is reduced, which leads to less core loss
of the transformer and the copper loss increase.
Reasons for using copper in winding
 Copper has high conductivity. This minimizes losses as well as the amount of copper
needed for the winding (volume & weight of winding).
 Copper has high ductility. This means it is easy to bend conductors into tight
windings around the transformer's core, thus minimizing the amount of copper needed
as well as the overall volume of the winding.
Winding
Two sets of winding are made over the transformer core and are insulated from each other.
Winding consists of several turns of copper conductors bundled together, and connected in
series.
Winding can be classified in two different ways:
1. Based on the input and output supply
2. Based on the voltage range
3
Within the input/output supply classification, winding are further categorized:
1. Primary winding - These are the winding to which the input voltage is applied.
2. Secondary winding - These are the winding to which the output voltage is applied.
Within the voltage range classification, winding are further categorized:
1. High voltage winding - It is made of copper conductor. The number of turns made
shall be the multiple of the number of turns in the low voltage winding. The conductor
used will be thinner than that of the low voltage winding.
2. Low voltage winding - It consists of fewer number of turns than the high voltage
winding. It is made of thick copper conductors. This is because the current in the low
voltage winding is higher than that of high voltage winding.
Input supply to the transformers can be applied from either low voltage (LV) or high voltage
(HV) winding based on the requirement.
Insulating Materials
Insulating paper and cardboard are used in transformers to isolate primary and secondary
winding from each other and from the transformer core.
Transformer oil is another insulating material. Transformer oil performs two important
functions: in addition to insulating function, it can also cool the core and coil assembly. The
transformer's core and winding must be completely immersed in the oil. Normally,
hydrocarbon mineral oils are used as transformer oil. Oil contamination is a serious problem
because contamination robs the oil of its dielectric properties and renders it useless as an
insulating medium.
How to Calculate the Required Capacity kVA Rating or Amperage Capacity for Single and
Three Phase Transformers
Calculation of kVA capacity for a Single or Three Phase Transformer, based on Winding
Voltage and Amperage information.
Product Line:
Low Voltage (LV) Transformers
To determine kVA you must have at least two pieces of information:
1. the load line-to-line voltage (V)

2. the maximum load phase current (I)
4
Single Phase Transformers: kVA = (V * I) /1000
Three Phase Transformers: kVA = (V * I * 1.732) / 1000
where 1.732 is the simple numerical value for the square root of 3 (1.7320508...)
Single Phase Transformer Example: V = 240, I = 175;
Therefore: kVA = (240 x 175) / 1000 = 42 kVA

This calculates to 42 kVA, thus we round up to a standard Single Phase size 50kVA.
Three Phase Transformer Example: V = 208, I = 175; Therefore: kVA = (208 x 175 x
1.732) / 1000 = 63.05kVA
This calculates to 63+ kVA, thus we round up to a standard Three Phase size 75kVA.
Amperage provided for a given KVA can be determined by similar techniques:
Single Phase Example: Using a 50 KVA Single Phase Transformer as a starting point.
50KVA is equal to 50,000 VA. (K= 1,000) The full value in VA, 50,000 is then divided by
the Voltage 240V = 208 Amperes.
Three Phase Example: Using a 75 KVA Three Phase Transformer as a starting point. 75
KVA is equal to 75,000 VA. (K= 1,000) The full value in VA, 75,000 divided by 1.732 =
43,302, which is then divided by the Voltage 208V = 208.2 Amperes.
5
6
Transmission and distribution lines
Generally transmission lines are higher off the ground

And carry higher voltage than distribution lines
For example transmission lines might be 69,000 V or 69Kv
While distribution lines can be a lower voltage
Transmission lines run between substations

Distribution lines run from the substation to the end-user location
Transmission and distribution wires are bare

They have no insulation covering the wire
This helps keep the wire cool and increases transmission distance
Wires are kept away from the poles using purified glass insulators
Other types of materials are also use for insulators
Birds sitting on the bare wire are not electrocuted as long as they do not touch two
wires or any part of the pole
Electricity on the wire is a potential
The voltage potential is only reach if two wires come together or one wire comes
together with a ground
Overhead and Underground Distribution Cable
Disadvantages of underground cables in comparison to overhead lines:
1. Charging current of cables is more (due to higher capacitance) compared to overhead

lines of same voltage level. This limits the use of cables for high voltage levels.
2. Insulation cost: Overhead lines are insulated only at tower contact point while the
underground cables are insulated throughout.
3. Size of conductor: Cables have lesser heat dissipation capability because of numerous
layers of insulation and protection. So, the required size of underground cable is larger
than an overhead line of same power.
4. Erection: Digging tren...
Overhead Cabling
Advantages:
1. Overall Cost is low when compared to Underground cable laying.
2. Time Consumption is less.
3. Replacement of damaged cable can be done easy.
Disadvantages:
1. Losses may be high (For UV Protection High Cost req).
2. Frequent Cuts will be there due to some obstacles (By Vehicles, Natural disaster etc.,)
Underground Cabling
Advantages:
1. Losses are less.
2. Cable Cut events occur rarely(Due to some mining, Digging etc)
Disadvantages:
1. Time Consumption is high for Trenching, Laying and Closing.
2. Replacement of damaged cable cannot be done easy.
3. Cables are a bit costlier depends on the Protection rating of Cables.
What is the difference between an overhead cable and an underground cable?

An overhead cable has a UV resistant weather proof jacket, and generally has what is called a
messenger attached a steel cable to support the weight of the power or communication cable.
A direct burial cable has a waterproof jacket that is thicker to protect from nicks or punctures
from rocks. Sometimes it also has a metal cladding for additional protection, as well as
grounding. It has a gel filling in the jacket, around the conductors to prevent water infiltration,
sometimes if a very sticky substance.
Overhead Line Design
An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external

interferences. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to ensure the
continuity of operation in the line. In general, the strength of the line should be such so as to
provide against the worst probable weather conditions.
Main components of Overhead lines:
An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power. The successful
operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical design of the line.
While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical strength of the line
is such so as to provide against the most probable weather conditions. In general, the
main components of an overhead line are:
(i) Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving end
station.
(ii) Supports which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level above the
ground.
(iii) Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.
(iv) Cross arms which provide support to the insulators.
(v) Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing
wires etc.
Conductor materials used in Overhead lines:
The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is invested for it.
Therefore, proper choice of material and size of the conductor is of considerable importance. The
conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power should have the
following properties:
(i) high electrical conductivity.
(ii) high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
(iii) low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
(iv) low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.
All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while selecting a
conductor material for a particular case, a compromise is made between the cost and the required
electrical and mechanical properties.
Commonly used conductor materials: The most commonly used conductor materials for
overhead lines are copper, aluminum, steel-cored aluminum, galvanized steel and cadmium
copper. The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the required electrical and
mechanical properties and the local conditions.
All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the
flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive
layers of wires
1. Copper: Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength. It is always used in the hard-drawn from as stranded
conductor. Although hard drawing decreases the electrical conductivity slightly yet it increases
the tensile strength considerably.
Copper has high current density i.e., the current carrying capacity of copper per unit of X-
sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, the smaller X-sectional area of
the conductor is required and secondly, the area offered by the conductor to wind loads is
reduced. Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has high scrap value.
There is hardly any doubt that copper is an ideal material for transmission and distribution
of electric power. However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, it is rarely used for these
purposes. Now-a-days the trend is to use aluminum in place of copper.
2. Aluminum: Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller
conductivity and tensile strength. The relative comparison of the two materials is briefed below:
(i) The conductivity of aluminum is 60% that of copper. The smaller conductivity of aluminum
means that for any particular transmission efficiency, the X-sectional area of the conductor must
be larger in aluminum than in copper. For the same resistance, the diameter of the aluminum
conductor is about 1·26 times the diameter of the copper conductor. The increased X-section of
aluminum exposes a greater surface to wind pressure and, therefore, supporting towers must be
designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires the use of higher towers with the
consequence of greater sag.
(ii) The specific gravity of aluminum (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8·9 gm/cc).
Therefore, an aluminum conductor has almost one-half the weight of the equivalent copper
conductor. For this reason, the supporting structures for aluminum need not be made so strong as
that of copper conductor.
(iii) Aluminum conductor being light is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms are
required.
(iv) Due to lower tensile strength and higher coefficient of linear expansion of aluminum, the sag
is greater in aluminum conductors.
Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc.,
aluminum has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor material. It
is particularly profitable to use aluminum for heavy-current transmission overhead line
design where the conductor size is large and its cost forms a major proportion of the total cost of
complete installation.
3. Steel cored aluminum: Due to low tensile strength, aluminum conductors produce greater
sag. This prohibits their use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance
transmission. In order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminum conductor is reinforced with
a core of galvanized steel wires. The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel cored
aluminum and is abbreviated as ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced).
Steel-cored aluminum conductor consists of a central core of galvanized steel wires surrounded
by a number of aluminum strands. Usually, the diameter of both steel and aluminum wires is the
same. The X-section of the two metals are generally in the ratio of 1 : 6 but can be modified to 1
: 4 in order to get more tensile strength for the conductor. The figure below shows steel cored
aluminum conductor having one steel wire surrounded by six wires of aluminum. The result of
this composite conductor is that steel core takes a greater percentage of mechanical strength
while aluminum strands carry the bulk of current. The steel cored aluminum conductors have the
following advantages:
(i) The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the
composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminum conductors will produce smaller sag
and hence longer spans can be used.
(ii) Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminum conductors, towers of smaller heights can be
used in overhead line design.
4. Galvanized steel: Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanized steel conductors
can be used for extremely long spans or for short line sections exposed to abnormally high
stresses due to climatic conditions. They have been found very suitable in rural areas where
cheapness is the main consideration. Due to poor conductivity and high resistance of steel, such
conductors are not suitable for transmitting large power over a long distance. However, they can
be used to advantage for transmitting a small power over a small distance where the size of the
copper conductor desirable from economic considerations would be too small and thus
unsuitable for use because of poor mechanical strength.
5. Cadmium copper: The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is copper
alloyed with cadmium. An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases the tensile
strength by about 50% and the conductivity is only reduced by 15% below that of pure copper.
Therefore, cadmium copper conductor can be used for exceptionally long span overhead lines.
However, due to the high cost of cadmium, such conductors will be economical only for lines of
small X-section i.e., where the cost of conductor material is comparatively small compared with
the cost of supports.
Types of Electric poles
The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles and towers
called line supports. In general, the line supports should have the following properties :
 High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
 Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
 Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
 Longer life.
 Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of various
types including
1. wooden poles
2. steel poles
3. RCC poles
4. lattice steel towers
1. Wooden poles: These are made of seasoned wood (Sal or chirr) and are suitable for lines
of the moderate X-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say up to 50 meters. Such
supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties and, therefore, are widely used
for distribution purposes in rural areas as an economic proposition. The wooden poles generally
tend to rot below the ground level, causing foundation failure. In order to prevent this, the
portion of the pole below the ground level is impregnated with preservative compounds like
creosote oil. Double pole structures of the „A‟ or „H‟ type are often used to obtain a higher
transverse strength that could be economically provided by means of single poles.
The main objections to wooden supports are :
(i) the tendency to rot below the ground level
(ii) comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
(iii) cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
(iv) less mechanical strength and
(v) require periodical inspection.

2. Steel poles: The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They
possess greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans to be used. Such poles
are generally used for distribution purposes in the cities. This type of support needs to be
galvanized or painted in order to prolong its life. The steel poles are of three types (i) rail poles
(ii) tubular poles and (iii) rolled steel joints.
3. RCC poles: The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular as line supports
in recent years. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans than
steel poles. Moreover, they give a good outlook, require little maintenance and have good
insulating properties. The figure shows RCC poles for the single and double circuit. The holes in
the poles facilitate the climbing of poles and at the same time reduce the weight of line
supports. The main difficulty with the use of these types of electric poles is the high cost of
transport owing to their heavyweight. Therefore, such poles are often manufactured at the site in
order to avoid the heavy cost of transportation.
4. Steel towers: In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for distribution
purposes at low voltages, say up to 11 kV. However, for long-distance transmission at
higher voltage, steel towers are invariably employed. Steel towers have greater mechanical
strength, longer life, can withstand most severe climatic conditions and permit the use of longer
spans. The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is
considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are usually grounded by driving
rods into the earth. This minimizes the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a lightning
conductor.
The figure below shows a single circuit tower. However, at a moderate additional cost, the
double-circuit tower can be provided as shown in Figure below. The double circuit has the
advantage that it ensures continuity of supply. In case there is a breakdown of one circuit, the
continuity of supply can be maintained by the other circuit.
Underground Distribution Cable
Advantages of Underground Cables
There are several advantages that are associated with the laying of specific types of cables under
the ground for purposes of transmitting electricity.
The following is a brief outline of these advantages.
1. Compared to overhead cables, underground cables are much safer. This is because
underground electrical cables are not exposed to the many dangers that ead power cables
are exposed to.
2. It is cheaper to maintain underground cables over the course of time as compared to

overhead ones. In practice, the cost of installing underground cables far exceeds what is
associated with the installation of overhead ones. But once the underground cables have
been installed, it is highly unlikely that will have to be repaired every now and then as it
is the case with overhead electrical cable types.
3. Underground transmission of electricity is associated with reliability. This is because

instances of constant disruption in the supply of power as a result of storms or faults that
are associated with overhead transmission lines are not common when power
transmission lines are laid underground.
Use of Underground Cables
There are several issues that are usually taken into consideration in relation to the use of
underground cables.
1. The first one is the actual manner in which the cables are laid underground. In practice,
there are three main methods that are used: placing the cables in concrete-reinforced
troughs, directly burying the cables and placing thees in underground tunnels. The choice
of any of these methods is usually based on the geographical features of the area in which
the grounding is supposed to be done.
2. The second issue is related to the actual type of cables that are used in the process. There
are different types of cables that can be laid underground and used to transmit electricity.
What is important to note is that the choice of the cables is largely determined by the type
of installation that has to be done. For example, plastic cables, also known as XLPE and
fluid-insulated cables are used when only a small portion of the transmission line has to
be put underground. On the other hand, HVDC cables are regarded as heavy-duty
underground cable types and they are used for main transmission lines.
Maintenance costs
The following factors determine the overall costs that can be incurred in the process
of maintaining underground electric transmission cables.
 It is practically difficult to detect a fault in an underground electric transmission line and

address the problem. Therefore, the need for more advanced techniques in detecting and
fixing faults in underground cables contributes to the overall costs of maintaining
underground power transmission lines.
 It is also difficult to upgrade an underground cable. Regardless of the specific types of

cables and system used, upgrading underground lines simply means the installation of
new supply lines. Hence, this factor contributes to the overall costs that are incurred in
the process of maintaining underground cables.
Cable repairs
In general, underground electric cables hardly need to be repaired on a regular basis as is the case
with the overhead ones. The main reason for this is simple: underground cables are usually well
insulated against weather elements. And since faults in power transmission lines are usually a
result of the effect of the elements of weather, underground cables, which are insulated from
these effects, hardly experience faults. However, over the course of time, the insulation wears off
and the need to carry out repairs on the lines arises.
A cable is basically an insulated conductor and is used for underground distribution of

electricity. Insulation is used to cover the conductor and provides isolation from the
surroundings. It should possess high resistance, high dielectric strength, high mechanical strength
and long durability. Underground cables are generally used in densely populated areas such as
cities and metros, where there is high density of automobiles; high raised commercial, residential
buildings and places; where vital installations of uninterrupted power supply such as water
supply system, hospitals and IT services, etc. Underground cables are also preferred in
industries, sub-stations, railways and road crossings, servicing of residential installations and
other similar locations. Underground cables system provides high reliability, least interruptions
due to line faults and good safety. In addition to this, the I2R losses are quite low compared to
overhead system due to the absence of steel wires. Its advantages such external protection is
provided against mechanical injury, moisture entry and chemical reactions.
Cable design:
A power cable commonly consists of Conductor, Bedding, Armoring, Outer sheath and
Insulation. Underground cables consist of one central core or a number of cores of tinned
stranded copper or aluminum conductor‟s insulation from each other. A metallic sheath of lead
or alloy or of aluminum is provided around the insulation to protect it against ingress of
moisture. The initial heavy cost is the only factor which discouraged the use of underground
cables for the purpose of transmission and distribution of electric power.
For mining, extra mechanical strength is provided to cable with double armoring. For wind
power plant customers generally require flexible and UV protected cable with mechanical tough
sheath. The underground cables have several advantages such as less liable to damage through
storms, lightning, low maintenance cost, less chances of faults, smaller voltage drop and better
general appearance. Voltage drop is also an important factor of cable design.
The type of cable to be used at a particular location is determined by the mechanical

considerations and the voltage at which it is required to operate. According to voltage these are
classified as low-voltage cables for operating voltage up to 1kV, high-voltage cables for
operating voltage up to 11kV, super tension cables for operating voltage up to 33 kV, extra high
tension cables for operating voltage up to 66kV and extra super voltage power cables for
operating voltage beyond 132kV. The current rating of the cables apart from the above factors
also depends on a large number of other factors such as method of cable laying employed,
spacing between the cables, number of cores and the thermal conductivity of the soil. An
approximate indication of the current carrying capacity for Indian conditions, which is based on
a maximum conductor temperature of 80 °C for 11KV cables and above. The ground ambient
temperature of 30 °C applies to most places in India.
Selection of Cables:
Electrical cables are the nerves of any electrical network. Cables consist of a huge percentage of
capital investment in any electrification project. And, they are the most vulnerable to failures too.
Most of the cable failures could be attributed to improper selection. Right selection of cables is
not only very important for reliability of power supply and safety of devices as well as human
beings present around them; it also prevents loss of assets and saves costly business hours. The
type of cable used at a specific location is determined by the mechanical considerations and the
voltage at which it is required to operate. The grade of insulation of the underground cable
depends on the voltage levels. For selection of cable of correct size and type for a particular
application, the following factors/ Selection Parameters to be considered are:
1. Voltage Rating: This is the rated voltage of the system, in which the cable is to be
installed & used. The type of operating system such as dc (2-wire or 3-wire) or ac
(Single-phase, three phase), earthed or unearthed and operating voltage such as 415/240
V, 11, 33, 66, 132 KV etc.
2. Type of Conductor: The most generally used conductor in a cable is either Copper or
Aluminum. As is known, for the same voltage rating, type, insulation, cross sectional area
and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short time current rating and
the per unit length cost of a Copper cable is considerably higher than that of an
Aluminum cable.
 Type of Insulation: Most of today‟s cables are insulated either with PVC or with XLPE.
Obviously, for the same conductor material, voltage rating, type, insulation, and other
parameters, the per unit length cost of an XLPE insulated cable is considerably higher
than that of a PVC insulated cable.
1. Type of Cables: Unarmored cables are used in indoor installations and on above ground
installations, such as in cable trays, in pre-built concrete cable trenches, etc., armored
cables are mandatory for any underground cable installation. The armor can be a wire or
strip made of Galvanized Iron or Aluminum. In many cases, this armor is connected to
the earthling system, preferably at one end only, generally, the sending end.
2. Continuous Current Rating: The continuous current rating of cables with Aluminum /
Copper conductor is made available by the manufacturers. But, it should be noted that the
continuous current ratings are given by the manufacturers for certain standard conditions
of laying. In practice, it is not possible to get or to maintain these standard conditions.
Thus, certain rating factors are applied to arrive at the practical continuous current rating.
3. Rating Factors: The Rating factor for variation in ground temperature or in duct
temperature, variation in ambient temperature, variation in thermal resistivity of soil and
Group Rating Factor – Vertical Spacing & Horizontal Spacing should be considered
appropriately.
 Voltage Drop: Cables consist of resistance & reactance. And, thus the current flowing
though such an impedance will cause a voltage drop. This drop should not affect the
loads connected by the cable.
 Short Circuit Values: The “short-circuit current rating” is the maximum short-circuit
current that a component can withstand. Failure to provide adequate protection may result
in component destruction under short circuit conditions. Short circuits and their effects
must be considered in selecting cables. These cables should have a short circuit rating
which is the highest temperature the cable can withstand during an electrical short circuit
lasting up to about half a second.
3. No of Core: No of core selection is depends upon power system. For Single Phase Power
Supply, we can use 2 core cables for three phase supply we can use 3.5 core or 4 core
cables for HV supply.
4. Economics: It is also an important factor for selecting the type of cable. It is to be kept in
mind that the cost of cable should not be such large that it causes loss and another cable
may fetch the same results in low cost and loss.
5. Environmental Conditions: Cable operates at its best when it is installed in its optimum
environmental conditions. For example, XLPE cables work well in areas where moisture
content is good. Thus, proper cable should be selected so that the system becomes more
efficient.
Cross Linked Polyethylene Cable (XLPE)
XLPE cable is most commonly used in transmission and distribution network due to its
characteristics. Specially treated low density polyethylene results in cross linking of carbon
atoms and the compound is a new material having extremely high melting point with light
weight, small dimension, low dielectric constant, higher current carrying capacity, high overload
capacity, higher short circuit rating and high mechanical strength due to high thermal resistance
and very low moisture absorption. These cables can be directly laid on the soil bed and easily
worth for voltages up to 33 kV. Depending on the type of cores, the cable is further classified as
1 core, 3 core, and 3 ½ core. Commonly used conductor materials are aluminum and copper.
However, aluminum cables are more common because of expensiveness of copper.
Operating limitations with cables
1. Cables required high charging current and reactive power for operation. The reactive
power is capacity in nature and can affect at lightly loaded conditions due to Ferranti
effects of rising of sending end voltage of the cable.
2. Flow of charging current causes heating of cables and reduces the lower current
capability. Sometimes, higher dielectric loss may further rise in the temperature.
 Switching of cable capacitive current may give rise to over voltages.
1. The main limitations of underground cable are expensive compared to OH lines,

difficulty in fault detection, restoration of power supply takes longer time during break
down and more expensive maintenance and management.
2. For ensuring longer life of the cable, UG cable should never be overloaded for longer
duration and always advisable to restrict the loading to about 75% of the rated capacity.
3. Before carrying out maintenance of the UG cable, care should always be taken to
discharge the static charges stored in the cable.
 Underground system cannot be operated above 66 KV because of insulation difficulties

but overhead system can be designed for operation up to 400 KV or higher even.
 Underground cables are more subjected to damage by ground movement.

What is Sag?
Sag is defined as the different in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the
conductor.
Here AOB is the transmission line conductor. Two supports are at point A and at point B. AB
is the horizontal line and from this horizontal line to point O, S is the sag when measured
vertically.
Sag is mandatory in transmission line conductor suspension. The conductors are attached
between two supports with perfect value of sag. It is because of providing safety of the
conductor from not to be subjected to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the
conductor, conductors are not fully stretched; rather they are allowed to have sag.
If the conductor is stretched fully during installation, wind exerts pressure on the conductor,
hence conductor gets chance to be broken or detached from its end support. Thus sag is
allowed to have during conductor suspension.
Some important points are to be mentioned:
1. When same leveled two supports hold the conductor, bend shape arises in the
conductor. Sag is very small with respect to the span of the conductor.
2. Sag span curve is like parabolic.
3. The tension in each point of the conductor acts always tangentially.

4. Again the horizontal component of the tension of conductor is constant throughout
conductor length.
5. The tension at supports is nearly equal to the tension at any point of the conductor.
Sag calculation is classified on two conditions.
1. When supports are at equal levels
2. When supports are not at equal levels
Sag calculations for supports are at equal levels
Suppose, AOB is the conductor.
A and B are points of supports. Point O is the lowest point and the midpoint.
Let, L = length of the span, i.e. AB

w is the weight per unit length of the conductor
T is the tension in the conductor.
We have chosen any point on conductor, say point P.

The distance of point P from Lowest point O is x.
y is the height from point O to point P.
Equating two moments of two forces about point O as per the figure above we get,
Sag calculations for supports are at unequal levels
Suppose AOB is the conductor that has point O as the lowest point.
L is the Span of the conductor.
h is the difference in height level between two supports.
x1 is the distance of support at the lower level point A from O.
x2 is the distance of support at the upper level point B from O.
T is the tension of the conductor.
w is the weight per unit length of the conductor.
What is the Effect of Wind on Sag?
 The weight per unit length of the conductor is changed when wind blows at a certain
force on the conductor.
 Wind force acts on the conductor to change the conductor self weight per unit length
horizontally in the direction of the air flow.
 Considering wind force, the conductor will have a resultant weight per unit length.
Let us assume, w is the weight of the conductor per unit length.
ww is the force of wind per unit length

ww = wind pressure per unit area × projected area per unit length
The sag in the conductor is given by
Wt = w + ww
Example:
1. An electric power line of length 140 m and mass per unit length of 3 kg/m is to be
suspended between two towers 120 m apart and of the same height and the cable tension
should not be exceeding 10 kN. Determine the sag in the power line.
Soln:
L = 120 m
T = 10 kN
W = (3)(9.81) = 29. 43 kg-m/s2
( )( )
-
( )
S = 5.21 m
Voltage Regulator Theory
Importance of voltage regulation:
1. Power quality criteria requires a constant voltage despite variations in load current
2. Load current variations are due to:
•New loads
•Load profiles – Daily and Seasonal
The inability to supply proper voltage affects the following:
1. Heating Element
• A 10% voltage reduction reduces heat output by 9.75%

• Overvoltage may cause burnouts.
2. Lighting
• A 10% voltage reduction reduces light output by 30%

• A 10% overvoltage reduces lamp life 70%.
• Incandescent light bulbs wear out much faster at higher voltages
3. Motors
• Low voltage causes overheating, reduced starting and running torques and overload
capacity
• Operating at 90% nominal, the full load current is 10 to 50% higher; temperature
rises by 10 to 15%
• At a reduced voltage, the motor has reduced starting torque
4. Electronics
• Low voltage on computers and televisions can cause them to become inoperative
Voltage Regulators: Solve voltage drop problem
OLTC = On Load Tap Changer
Medium Voltage Substations
SVR = Step-Voltage Regulator
Voltage Regulator Features
•Voltage Regulator - A device which will provide a constant voltage output under varying
input voltages and load currents
•By standards, regulates +10% voltage and –10% voltage.
•Total of 33 steps; = 5/8% voltage per tap.
•16 steps in the Raise direction, 16 steps in the Lower direction, and one Neutral position.
Voltage Regulation Equation:
Three Basic Parts of a Voltage Regulator
1. Autotransformer - A transformer in which part of one winding is common to both the

primary and secondary windings
2. Load Tap Changer - A switch designed to work under load to change the
configuration of a transformer coil
3. Voltage Regulator Control - A control which senses the system and automatically
commands the tap changer.
TYPE A REGULATOR
TYPE B REGULATOR
Regulator Sizing
Example:
Given: 10 MVA, 3phase transformer, 13.2 kV system voltage, grounded wye.
Find: The proper regulator rating to use.
Solution:
10 MVA = 10,000 KVA
For the regulator current rating:
IL=438 A
For Regulator kVA Rating:
kVA rating = 𝐿−𝐺× ×% 𝑅 𝑔𝑢𝑙 𝑡
=7.62 ×438×0.10
=333
Choose standard rating from tables

Location of Shunt Capacitors
The power factor improver capacitor can be installed in:
1. system bus
2. distribution point
3. load side
In such cases it is recommended to install capacitor bank with the feeder which provides
entire of this particular load. This scheme is known as branch capacitor bank scheme. As
capacitor bank is directly connected to feeder or branch, it does not help to reduce losses in
primary system from where the branch comes out.
The main reasons of complexity is in that case, different sizes and capacities of capacitor
bank are required to be installed depending upon the demand of individual load. To overcome
this difficulty, it is always preferable to install a bulk capacitor bank at high voltage bus
system instead of installing smaller capacitor bank at every load point. Although the control
over reactive power of the system is little bit compromised but still it is much practical
approach in the view of complexity and cost. So capacitor bank at load side and capacitor
bank at primary systems both have their own benefits. Depending upon the demand of
system, both schemes are used.
Distribution System Capacitor Bank
In distribution feeder capacitor bank are installed on pole to compensate reactive power of
that particular feeder. These banks are normally mounted on one of the poles on which the
distribution feeders run. The mounted capacitor banks are normally interconnected with over
head feeder conductors by means of insulated power cable. The size of the cable depends
upon the voltage rating of the system. The voltage range of the system for which pole
mounted capacitor bank can be install, may be from 440 V to 33 KV. The rating of capacitor
bank may be from 300 KVAR to MVAR. The pole mounted capacitor bank can be either
fixed unit or switched unit depending upon varying load condition.
EHV Shunt Capacitor
In extra high voltage system, the generated electrical power may have to be transmitted a
long distance via transmission line. During journey of power, sufficient voltage may be
dropped due to inductive effect of the line conductors. This voltage drop may be
compensated by providing EHV capacitor bank at EHV sub-station. This drop of voltage is
maximum at peak load condition; hence, the capacitor bank installed for in this case should
have switching control to make it off and on as when required.
Substation Capacitor Bank
When high inductive load has to be delivered from a high voltage or medium voltage
substation, one or more capacitor bank of suitable size should be installed at substation to
compensate inductive VAR of the entire load. These capacitors banks are controlled by
circuit breaker and provided with lightening arrestors. Typical protection scheme along with
protection relays are also provided.
Metal Encoder Capacitor Bank
For small and industrial subtraction indoor type capacitor banks may also be used. These
capacitor banks are installed in metal cabinet. This design is compact and bank requires less
maintenance. The uses of these banks are more compared to outdoor bank, as these are not
exposed to external environment.
Distribution Capacitor Bank
Distribution capacitor banks are normally pole mounted capacitor bank installed nearer to
load point or installed at distribution subtraction.
These banks do not help to improve power factor of primary system. These capacitors bank
are cheaper than other power capacitors bank. All types of protection schemes for capacitor
bank cannot be provided to a pole mounted capacitor bank. Although pole mounted cap bank
is outdoor type but sometimes it is kept in metal enclosure to protect from outdoor
environmental conditions.
Fixed Capacitor Bank
There are certain loads mainly certain industrial loads which need fixed reactive power to
meet power factor. In this type feeder fixed capacitor bank is used. These banks do not have
separate control system to switch ON or OFF. These banks run with feeders. The banks are
connected to the feeders as long as the feeders are live.
Switched Capacitor Banks
In high voltage power system, compensation of reactive power is mainly required during
peak load condition of system. There may be reverse effect if the bank is connected to the
system at mean load condition.
At low load condition, the capacitive effect of bank may increase the reactive power of the
system instead of decreasing it.
In this situation capacitors bank must be switched ON during peak load poor power factor
condition and must also be switched OFF during low load and high power factor condition.
Here switched capacitor banks are used. When a capacitor bank is switched ON it provides
more or less constant reactive power to the system. It helps to maintain desired power factor
of the system even at peak load condition. It prevents, over voltage of system during low load
condition as capacitor is disconnected from the system during low load condition. During
operation of bank, it reduces losses both of the feeders and transformer of the system as it is
directly installed at primary power system.
How to Calculate the Suitable Capacitor Size in Farads & kVAR for Power factor
Improvement
Once the power factor (cos θ1) of the installation and the power factor to be obtained (cos θ2)
are known, it is possible to calculate the reactive power of the capacitor bank necessary to
improve the power factor.
 P – the installed active power

 θ1 – the phase displacement angle before power factor correction
 θ2 – the phase displacement angle to be obtained with the power factor correction the
power of the capacitor bank Qc is:
How to Calculate the Suitable Capacitor Size in Farads & kVAR for Power factor
Improvement
Example: 1
A 3 Phase, 5 kW Induction Motor has a P.F (Power factor) of 0.75 lagging. What size of
Capacitor in kVAR is required to improve the P.F (Power Factor) to 0.90?
Solution :
Motor input = P = 5 kW
Original P.F = Cosθ1 = 0.75
Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 0.90
θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.75) = 41°.41; Tan θ1 = Tan (41°.41) = 0.8819
θ2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25°.84; Tan θ2 = Tan (25°.50) = 0.4843
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90
Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan θ1 – Tan θ2)
= 5kW (0.8819 – 0.4843) = 1.99 kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase
1.99/3 = 0.663 kVAR
Example 2:
An Alternator is supplying a load of 650 kW at a P.F (Power factor) of 0.65. What size of
Capacitor in kVAR is required to raise the P.F (Power Factor) to unity (1)? And how many
more kW can the alternator supply for the same kVA loading when P.F improved.
Solution :
Supplying kW = 650 kW
Original P.F = Cosθ1 = 0.65
Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 1

θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.65) = 49°.45; Tan θ1 = Tan (49°.45) = 1.169
θ2 = Cos-1 = (1) = 0°; Tan θ2 = Tan (0°) = 0
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.65 to 1
= 650kW (1.169– 0) = 759.85 kVAR
P.F = Cosθ = kW/kVA
kVA = kW / Cosθ
= 650/0.65 = 1000 kVA
When Power Factor is raised to unity (1)
No of kW = kVA x Cosθ
= 1000 x 1 = 1000kW
Hence increased Power supplied by Alternator
1000kW – 650kW = 350kW
How to Calculate the Required Capacitor bank value in both kVAR and Farads?
(How to Convert Farads into kVAR and Vice Versa)
Example: 3
A Single phase 400V, 50Hz, motor takes a supply current of 50A at a P.F (Power factor) of
0.6. The motor power factor has to be improved to 0.9 by connecting a capacitor in parallel
with it. Calculate the required capacity of Capacitor in both kVAR and Farads.
Solution:
Motor Input = P = V x I x Cosθ
= 400V x 50A x 0.6
= 12kW
Actual P.F = Cosθ1 = 0.6

Required P.F = Cosθ2 = 0.90
θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.60) = 53°.13; Tan θ1 = Tan (53°.13) = 1.3333
θ2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25°.84; Tan θ2 = Tan (25°.50) = 0.4843
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.60 to 0.90
= 5kW (1.3333– 0.4843) = 10.188 kVAR
Solving for capacitance:
kVAR = 10.188
We know that;
IC = V/ XC
Whereas XC = 1 / 2 π F C
IC = V / (1 / 2 π F C)
IC = V * 2 pi * F *C
= (400) x 2π x (50) x C
IC = 125663.7 x C
And,
kVAR = (V x IC) / 1000 … [kVAR =( V x I)/ 1000 ]
= 400 x 125663.7 x C
IC = 50265.48 x C … (ii)
Equating Equation (i) & (ii), we get,
50265.48 x C = 10.188
C = 10.188 / 50265.48
C = 2.0268 x 10-4
C = 202.7 x 10-6
C = 202.7μF
Example 4
What value of Capacitance must be connected in parallel with a load drawing 1kW at 70%
lagging power factor from a 208V, 60Hz Source in order to raise the overall power factor to
91%.
Solution:
P = 1000W
Actual Power factor = Cosθ1 = 0.71
Desired Power factor = Cosθ2 = 0.97
=783 VAR (required Capacitance Value in kVAR)
Current in the Capacitor :
IC = QC / V = 783 / 208 = 3.76A
And
XC = V / IC = 208 / 3.76 = 55.25Ω
C = 1/ (2 π f XC)
C = 1 (2 π x 60 x 55.25)
C = 48 μF (required Capacitance Value in Farads)
Note:
Good to Know:
Important formulas which is used for Power factor improvement calculation as well as used
in the above calculation
Power in Watts
kW = kVA x Cosθ
kW = HP x 0.746 or (HP x 0.746) / Efficiency … (HP = Motor Power)
kW = √ ( kVA2– kVAR2)
kW = P = VI Cosθ … (Single Phase)
kW = P =√3x V x I Cosθ … (Three Phase)
Apparent Power in VA
kVA= √(kW2+ kVAR2)
kVA = kW/ Cosθ

Reactive Power in VA
kVAR= √(kVA2– kW2)
kVAR = C x (2 π f V2)
Power factor (from 0.1 to 1)

Power Factor = Cosθ = P / V I … (Single Phase)
Power Factor = Cosθ = P / (√3x V x I) … (Three Phase)

Power Factor = Cosθ = kW / kVA … (Both Single Phase & Three Phase)
Power Factor = Cosθ = R/Z … (Resistance / Impedance)
XC = 1/ (2 π f C) … (XC = Capacitive reactance)
IC = V/ XC … (I = V / R)
Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads
C = kVAR / (2 π f V2) in microfarad
Required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR
kVAR = C x (2 π f V2)
Reliability
The term reliability in the utility context usually refers to the amount of time end users are
totally without power for an extended period of time (i.e., a sustained interruption).
Definitions of what constitutes a sustained interruption vary among utilities from 1 to 5 min.
This is what many utilities refer to as an “outage.” Current power quality standards efforts are
leaning toward calling any interruption of power for longer than 1 min a sustained
interruption. In any case, reliability is affected by the permanent faults on the system that
must be repaired before service can be restored. Of course, many industrial end users have a
different view of what constitutes reliability because even momentary interruptions for
transient faults can knock their processes off-line and require several hours to get back into
production. There is a movement to extend the traditional reliability indices to include
momentary interruptions as well.
The traditional reliability indices for utility distribution systems are defined as follows:
where customer hours service demand = 8760 for an entire year.
Typical target values for these indices are

Increased sectionalizing
The first step in sectionalizing the feeder further to improve overall reliability is to add a line
recloser as shown in Fig.1 . If only traditional reliability is of concern, one might place the
recloser halfway down the feeder or at the half-load point. For power quality concerns, it
might be better for the recloser to be located closer to the substation, depending on the
location of critical loads. One possible criterion is to place it at the first point where the fault
current has dropped to where one can nearly always guarantee coordination with the fuses on
fast tripping. Another would be to place the recloser just downline from the bulk of the
critical loads that are likely to complain about momentary interruptions.
With this concept, the fast tripping can be removed from the substation breaker while only
sacrificing fuse saving on a small portion of the feeder. As pointed out previously, it is often
difficult to achieve fuse saving near the substation anyway. A special effort is made to keep
the first section of the main feeder free of transient faults. This would include more frequent
maintenance such as tree trimming and insulator washing. Also, extraordinary measures can
be taken to prevent lightning flashover, for example, line shielding or the application of line
arresters at least every two or three spans.
Typical main line feeder construction with fused taps.

Figure 1 - Adding a line recloser to the main feeder as the first step in sectionalizing.
Sample Reliability Indices Computed for Feeder

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Distribution

The purpose of the Distribution system is to deliver power

Typical Primary distribution voltages include:

Primary: 19,900 volts

Typical distribution equipment are listed below:

A riser or riser pole is used to

Single Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Primary Cable Secondary

Single Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Three phase underground distribution systems provide

Three Phase Pad Mounted Transformer

Voltage regulators are devices

Gang Operated Switch Switch Control Handle

Gang Operated Switch

Solid Blade Disconnect Switch

Transformer banks are used to provide customers

3-Pot Transformer Bank

2-Pot Transformer Bank

The Distribution Operation Centers are responsible for all

Whenever switching is performed on their system, it is

Operators track the status of

An automated control system

SCADA stands for

Several commonly-used electrical distribution systems are discussed below. It is usually

2. Expanded Radial System

Each secondary unit substation is an assembled unit consisting of a transformer, an integrally

5. Primary Loop system

By operating the appropriate sectionalizing switches, it is possible to disconnect any section of

6. Secondary Selective system

7. Primary Selective system

8. Sparing Transformer system

10. Composite Systems

 Radial distribution system

 Parallel feeders distribution

 Ring main distribution system

Radial Distribution System

The above-mentioned disadvantage of a radial system can be minimized by introducing parallel

Ring Main Distribution System

Advantages of Ring Main Distribution System

 There are fewer voltage fluctuations at consumer's terminal.

High Voltage Network

•The subtransmission system connects the high-voltage substations to the distribution

Distribution and Utilization Network

•Inadequate Size of Conductor.

Primary Radial Systems

To begin the electrical design of transmission and distribution systems, it is necessary to

For convenience, consumers may be broadly classified as residential, commercial, and

1. The total consumption of electricity over a period of time, (say) annually.

and energy = Power × Time, in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours.

Figure 1 - Load Factor; Maximum Demand

Figure 2 - Diversity Factor

An example, using a large commercial electrical bill:

 peak demand = 436 kW

 use = 57200 kWh

 number of days in billing cycle = 30 days

Demand factor = 3,000 W / 6,000 W = 0.5

Figure 3 - Load; Loss; Load Factor; Loss Factor

Time Hour/Load kW Stree Light Residential Commercial Industrial Agricultural

1. Draw Load Curve and Load Duration Curve.