EE 341:

POWER SYSTEM III

(Substation,Transmission network,Overhead Lines,Over-

voltage transient,Insulation & Breakdown)

Mrs. Josephine Twumasi(Fianu)

 Outline of Presentation
• Section 1-Substation
⮚Types and element of a substation,substation layout, components and
operation
⮚busbar arrangements and switching systems

• Section 2-Transmission Networks(Network Parameters)

⮚Primary (RLCG) and general (ABCD) parameters transmission line and earth
equations short line and long line charts surge impedance.

• Section 3-Overhead Lines

⮚Lines construction; Sag Tension, Vibration, insulators.
⮚thermal electric stress, line and earth conductors.
⮚Cables: Cable construction, d.c and a.c. electric stress, thermal
characteristics. Sheath currents 2
 Outline of Presentation Continued
• Section 4-Over voltage transients:
⮚Lighting, Switching arrangements, reflection at discontinuity, Single-phase
calculations

• Section 5-Insulation and Breakdown:

⮚Breakdown process in solid and gaseous elements insulation of power
plants, overall system insulation coordination.
⮚Lightning and long-arc breakdown mechanism.
⮚System testing; testing techniques, high-voltage testing, non-destructive;

3
 Substation
• Substation are vital part of an electrical system (generation,transmission,
and distribution) in which voltage is transformed from high to low or vice
versa in order to transmit and distribute power.

• An electrical substation is an assembly of switchgear components used to

direct the flow of electrical energy in a power system

• The purpose of a substation include;

Voltage transformation,Switching,Protection,Fault detection, Reliability

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 Substation

• The functions of a substation include;

⮚Supply of required electrical power within the required limits of
frequency and voltage etc..
⮚Maximum possible coverage of the supply network.
⮚Maximum security of supply.
⮚ Shortest possible fault-duration.
⮚Optimum efficiency of plants and the network

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 Types of Substation
There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most
important ways of classifying them are according to
• Service requirement and
• Constructional features.

 Transformer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the voltage

level of electric supply are called transformer sub-stations. These sub-
stations receive power at some voltage and deliver it at some other
voltage. Obviously, transformer will be the main component in such sub
Most of the sub-stations in the power system are of this type.
 Types of Substation contd.

 Switching sub-stations: These sub-stations do not change the voltage

level i.e. incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However;
they simply perform the switching operations of power lines.

 Power factor correction sub-stations: Those sub-stations which improve

the power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-
stations. Such sub-stations are generally located at the receiving end of
transmission lines. These sub-stations generally use synchronous
condensers as the power factor improvement equipment.
 Types of Substation contd.

 Frequency changer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the

supply frequency are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a
frequency change may be required for industrial utilisation.

 Converting sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change a.c. power

into d.c. power are called converting sub-stations. These sub-stations
receive ac. power and convert it into d.c. power with suitable
apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for such purposes as traction,
electroplating, electric welding etc.
 Transformer Substation

1. Step-up sub-station
2. Primary grid sub-station
3. Secondary sub-station
4. Distribution sub-station
Transformer Substation contd.
 Transformer Substation contd.
 Step-up sub-station: The generation voltage (11 kV in this case) is
stepped up to high voltage (220 kV) to affect economy in transmission
of electric power. The sub-stations which accomplish this job are called
step-up sub-stations. These are generally located in the power houses
and are of outdoor type.

 Primary grid sub-station: From the step-up sub-station, electric power at

220kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to the outskirts
of the city. Here, electric power is received by the primary grid sub-
station which reduces the voltage level to 66 kV for secondary
transmission. The primary grid sub-station, is generally of outdoor type.
 Transformer Substation contd.

 Secondary sub-station: From the primary grid sub-station, electric

power is transmitted at 66 kV by 3-phase, 3-wire system to various
secondary sub-stations located at the strategic points in the city. At a
secondary sub-station, the voltage is further stepped down to 11 kV.
The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city. It may be
noted that big consumers (having demand more than 50 kW) are
generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with their own
sub-stations. The secondary sub-stations are also generally of outdoor
type.
 Transformer Substation contd.

 Distribution sub-station: The electric power from 11 kV lines is delivered to

distribution sub-stations. These sub-stations are located near the consumers
localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for supplying to
the consumers. The voltage between any two phases is 400V and between
any phase and neutral it is 230 V. The single phase residential lighting load is
connected between any one phase and neutral whereas 3-phase, 400V motor
load is connected across 3-phase lines directly. It may be worthwhile to
mention here that majority of the distribution substations are of pole-mounted
type.
 Element or component of a Substation
Basically, a substation consists of a number of incoming and outgoing
circuits, the main components of each circuit being:

 Section of busbar or busbars

 Switching devices (Circuit breakers, Fuses, Disconnecting Switches or
Isolators)
 Instrument transformers (Current and Voltage Transformers)
 Power Transformers (for voltage transformation)
 Protective devices (Lightning arresters, earthing grids, surge diverters,
etc.)
 Voltage regulating devices (Shunt and series capacitors, voltage
regulators)
 Telecontrol systems
 Auxilliaries (DC supply backups, fire fighting equipment, overhead14
cranes, etc)
 Components of a substation contd.
Busbars
 Busbars receive power from incoming circuits and deliver power to
outgoing circuits.When a number of lines operating at the same
voltage have to be directly connected electrically, bus-bars are used
as the common electrical component. Bus-bars are copper or
aluminium bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at
constant voltage

Switching Devices
 Circuit Breakers
 Isolators/Disconnecting switches
 Fuses
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 Components of a substation contd.
Circuit Breakers

 A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device which works like a switch.

 The circuit breaker is arranged in series in an electric circuit so that it

can stop the flow of current through the circuit whenever required.

 The primary function of a circuit breaker is to protect the circuit from

overload and short-circuit faults. The circuit breaker detects such faults
with help of a relay system and interrupts the current flow through the
circuit, preventing further damages
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 Components of a substation contd.
Circuit Breakers

 A typical circuit breaker can be operated manually and

automatically. The circuit breaker also has an in-built extinguishing
system which enables it to operate under on-load conditions.

 A circuit breaker is attached to the electrical devices such as

transformers, etc. and is suitable for handling heavy load currents.

 Generally, bulk oil circuit breakers are used for voltages upto 66kV
while for high (>66 kV) voltages, low oil circuit breakers are used.
For still higher voltages, air-blast, vacuum or SF6 circuit breakers
are used. 17
 Isolators/Disconnecting switches
 In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for
general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating
switch or isolator.

 An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit/

isolate the whole or a specific part of the circuit under no load. In other
words, is that while anyone using an isolator, the current flowing through it
must be zero or within the limits of safety.

 isolator switches are operated only when the lines in which they are
connected carry no current.

 The isolator is a separate part of the electrical system which is created for
safe maintenance of the faulty section. as well as allows repair are to be
done in an electrical system to protect the technicians and other
equipment. 18
 Fuses
 A fuse is an Overcurrent Protective Device (OCPD), as classified by the
National Electrical Code.

 A fuse is an overcurrent protection device; it possesses an element (fuse link)

that is directly heated by the passage of current and is destroyed (through
melting) when the current exceeds a predetermined value.

 A suitably selected fuse should open the circuit by the destruction of the fuse
element, extinguish the arc established during the destruction of the element
and then maintain circuit conditions open with nominal voltage applied to its
terminals. Fuses are mainly used in distribution systems.

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 Fuses

 Since fuse is also used as an OCPD, it is often put in the same

category as a circuit breaker. But they are not the same products!
The main difference between Circuit Breaker and Fuse lies that a
circuit breaker can be reused again, but a fuse cannot. Fuses
protect your home and devices against overloading. While circuit
breakers protect your home against overloading and short-circuits.

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 Instrument Transformers
 The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and carry current of
thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and protective
devices are designed for low voltages (generally 110 V) and currents
(about 5 A). Therefore, they will not work satisfactorily if mounted
directly on the power lines.

 This difficulty is overcome by installing instrument transformers on the

power lines. The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer
voltages or currents in the power lines to values which are convenient
for the operation of measuring instruments and relays

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 Instrument Transformers contd.
There are three primary applications for which ITs are used:

 Metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes

 Protection control (for system protection and protective relaying

purposes)

 Load survey (for economic management of industrial loads).

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 Instrument Transformers contd.
 Current Transformers
A current transformer in essentially a step-up transformer which steps down the current
to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of one or more turns of thick
wire connected in series with the line. The secondary consists of a large number of
turns of fine wire and provides for the measuring instruments and relays a current
which is a constant fraction of the current in the line.

 Voltage/Potential Transformers
A voltage transformer is an open-circuited transformer whose primary winding is
connected across the main electrical system voltage being monitored. A convenient
proportionate voltage is generated in the secondary for monitoring. The most common
voltage produced by voltage transformers is 100–120 V (as per local country
standards) for primary voltages from 380 V to 800 kV or more. There are basically, two
types of voltage transformers used for protection equipment.
 Electromagnetic type (commonly referred to as a VT)
 Capacitor type (referred to as a CVT). 23
Power Transformers (for voltage transformation)
Power Transformers are used to step up or step down a.c. voltages and
to transfer electrical power from one voltage level to another.

A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or step-down the

voltage. Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-stations use
step-down transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of electric
supply and finally deliver it at utilisation voltage. The modern practice is
to use 3-phase transformers

The power transformer is generally installed upon lengths of rails fixed on

concrete slabs having foundations 1 to 1.5 m deep. For ratings upto 10
MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed transformers are used. For higher
ratings, the transformers are generally air blast cooled.
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 Protective devices
Lighting Arresters

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to

protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of
lightning.

Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) have been used for power system
protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also known
as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal.
Current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in
most cases to earth.

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 Protective devices

Earthing Grids

In any Substation earthing layout, the earthing system is made up of an

earthing grid consisting of cross bonded conductors. These conductors
must possess the adequate thermal capacity to provide sufficient time
for the fault currents to flow through them.

The earthing conductors should also be mechanically sturdy and

corrosive resistant. The conductors are normally buried horizontally at a
depth between 0.5m to 1m ensuring the earthing conductor has
adequate mechanical protection.

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 Voltage regulating devices

 The quality of supply is considerably influenced by the quality of the

voltage provided to customers, which can be affected in various
ways. There may be long periods of variation from the normal voltage,
sudden changes in voltage, rapid fluctuations or imbalance of 3-
phase voltages.

 In addition to variations in the actual value of the voltage being

supplied, other irregularities such as harmonics, variations in frequency
and the presence of non-linear system or load impedances will distort
the voltage waveform, and transient spikes and surges may be
propagated along circuits in the supply system and cause improper
operation of utility equipment or customers’ appliances.
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 Voltage regulating devices

Shunt Reactors

 Shunt Reactors are used for long EHV transmission lines to control
voltage during low – load period.
 Shunt reactors is also used to compensate shunt capacitance of
transmission line during low load periods.

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 Voltage regulating devices
 Series reactors are used to limit short – circuit current and to limit current
surges associated with fluctuating loads. Series reactors are located at
the strategic locations such that the fault levels are reduced.

 Shunt capacitors are used for compensating reactive power of LPF. They
are used for improving the power factor. It is also used for voltage control
during heavy lagging power factor loads. They are located at the
receiving stations and distribution substations. They are switched on
during heavy loads and switched off during low loads.

 Series Capacitors are used for some long EHV a.c. lines to improve power
transferability. They located at the sending end / receiving end of the
lines. They are provided with by pass circuit breaker and protective spark
–gaps.
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Telecontrol systems &Auxiliaries
 Telecontrol systems enable real-time information to be obtained from
the supply system and permit remote-control operation of various
switching equipment. Such systems thus actively assist in improving
fault-clearance times and the overall security of the supply.

 Microprocessor-based modular telecontrol systems make it possible to

monitor and control individual remote items of equipment to achieve
a better operational standard. The information collected via the
telecontrol system can easily be processed and stored in data banks
and then later used as the basis for network design studies.

 The telecommunication network is an essential part of any telecontrol

system. Public and utility owned telephone networks, radio links,
SCADA ,power line carrier (PLC) systems as well as optical fibre arrays
now offer alternative data transmission paths. 30
 Telecontrol systems &Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries

 DC supply backups,

 fire fighting equipment,

 overhead cranes

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A LINE DIAGRAM OF A SUBSTATION

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 Substation Layout
 Substation layout consists essentially in arranging a number of
switchgear components in an ordered pattern governed by their
function and by rules of spatial relationship, and connecting them
together electrically in accordance with a pre-determined diagram:
the busbar system.

 The principles of layout are not much affected by variations in voltage

or current, which merely affect the size of the components and the
scale of the distance separating them.

 The principles of substation layout are influenced by specific

considerations resulting from its situation.

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 Substation Layout
These include:

 Spatial relationships of equipment

 Maintenance zoning
 Electrical separations
 Limits imposed by the nature of the site
 Type of substation - whether indoor or outdoor type
 Aesthetic considerations
 Planning authority requirements

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 Substation Layout
Spatial relationships of equipment

Four clearance distances govern the spacing of components and conductors:

1. Earth clearance: between live parts and earthed structures, walls, screens and ground

2. Phase clearance: between live parts of different phases

3. Isolating distance: between terminals of an isolator or connections thereto; also

applies between connections to the terminals of a CB.

4. Section clearance: between live parts and the limits of a maintenance zone (work
section). The limits of the maintenance zone may be the ground or a platform from
which a man works.

With the exception of ground clearance, the values to be assigned to clearances are
determined by the maximum overvoltages to which the system can be subjected, and
by the contours of the parts. 35
 Maintenance zoning
Maintenance Zoning
 One of the most important aspects of substation layout is the zoning of
equipment for maintenance. It is necessary at the outset to have a clear
idea of how the various items of equipment are to be grouped, how they are
to be isolated and physically separated from neighbouring live equipment
and how safe access to them is to be achieved. eg.

 The components in series with the main circuit of power flow are: Bus-bars,
power transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, fuses, CTs, series capacitors,
series reactors, diode or thyristor rectifiers etc. series cap

 The components in the shunt circuits connected between phase and groun
d are: Shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, static VAR sources, harmonic filters,
pTs, lightning or surge arresters etc.
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 Electrical Separation
 Together with maintenance zoning, the electrical separation (by
isolating distances and phase clearances) of the substation
components and of the conductors interconnecting them, constitute
the main basis of substation layout.

Fundamentally, at least three such electrical separations per phase are

needed in a circuit;

(a) between the terminals of the busbar isolator(s) or their connections

(b) between the terminals of the CB or their connections
(c) between the terminals of the feeder isolator or their connections
Additional separations may be needed to obtain phase clearances at
points where conductors of different phase cross.
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Site Limitations
 These include such obvious factors as Limited ground area or a peculiarly shaped
site, often imposed by built-up areas Restrictions on the position and direction of
line entries, and The need to integrate the substation with other projects such as
power stations, or buildings housing low-voltage switchgear or other equipment

Indoor or Outdoor Substation

 The design to put EHV open-type switchgear indoors or outdoors is usually
influenced by one or more of the following factors: Atmospheric pollution Ease,
safety and comfort in operation and maintenance Small site area Aesthetic
considerations The cost of putting a substation indoors is a widely variable factor,
as it depends on the busbar system adopted, the local cost of materials and land,
the layout (particularly whether it is of cellular or open-hall type), and other
conditions. It is estimated that the extra cost involved in indoor substations is 10-25%
of the cost of an equivalent outdoor substation.
 HV level, it is common practice to install equipment outdoors, provided there are
no major environmental or weather constraints.
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 Aesthetic Considerations

 This is a controversial issue, in which personal preferences inevitably

play a large part. There is little doubt that a well-designed building is
considered by the majority of people to be less objectionable than
an outdoor substation. In urban areas, particularly in the heart of
cities, aesthetic considerations sometimes combine with the need
for a small ground area and protection from pollution to justify the
choice of an indoor arrangement. Modern techniques have made
the transplanting of mature trees a possibility, and although this is
expensive, it may be justified in areas of natural beauty.

 Planning Authority Requirements Planning authority requirements

affect substation design mainly with respect to site limitations and
aesthetic considerations
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 Transmission lines

 Determination of voltage regulation, transmission

efficiency, etc is important in the design of transmission
lines.

 These values are affected by these four line parameters of

the transmission line:
 Performance of transmission lines
Efficiency and voltage regulation
• In the design and operation of a transmission
line, determination of voltage regulation, line
losses and efficiency is important.
Efficiency
 It is defined in per cent as follows:
or
Voltage regulation
 Transmission Network
 The behaviour of a transmission line can be considered to be
made up of identical symmetrical T sections connected in
series
 The Conductor of a transmission line of a certain length and
diameter has resistance and and inductance
 The two conductor is separated by a dielectric medium say
air therefore has a capacitance
 The dielectric between these conducting wires may not be
perfect hence the there will leakage current flowing creating
a leakage conductance.
 The 4 parameters of Resistance ,Inductance,capacitance
and Conductance is called Distributed parameters

43
 Transmission Network Parameters

Series resistance R:
 This is due to the conductor resistivity.
 It is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the transmission line

Shunt conductance G :
 This represents losses due to leakage currents along insulator strings and
corona.
 In power lines, its effect is small and usually neglected.
 This is due to electric field between conductors
 It is defined as the loop conductance per unit length between two
transmission line
 Transmission Network Parameters

Series inductance L :

 This is due to magnetic field surrounding the conductors.

 For overhead lines, the inductances of the three phases are
different from each other unless the conductors have equal
spacing
 It is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the
transmission line
 Shunt capacitance C :
 This is due to electric field between conductors
 It is defined as the loop capacitance per unit length between two
transmission line

The actual line or cable has a series resistance, series inductance , shunt
capacitance, and shunt leakage resistance distributed evenly along its
length as follows.
 Transmission Network Parameters
 The actual line or cable has a series resistance, series
inductance , shunt capacitance, and shunt leakage
resistance distributed evenly along its length as follows:
Transmission line models
 The model used for a transmission line depends on
its length and the accuracy required.
 Based on length, transmission lines are classified into
three types:
Short Transmission Line

 Length is less than 80 km.

 Capacitance effect is negligible.
 Line impedance is lumped.
Medium Transmission Line
 Length is from 80 km to 250 km
 Capacitance effect is present.
 Line impedance and shunt admittance are each lumped.

Long transmission line

 Length is more than 250 km
 Line constants are considered as distributed over the length of
the line.
Two port network representation of
transmission lines
• If a transmission line is assumed to be
transposed and also operated with a
balanced three-phase load, then its
performance can be analyzed on a
single-phase or per-phase basis.
• On per-phase basis, the transmission line
can be regarded as a two-port network.
 Two-port representation of transmission line
• As a two-port network, the relationships
between the sending end voltage VS and
current IS , and the receiving end voltage VR
and current IR can be expressed in terms of
the ABCD parameters as

𝑉S = 𝐴𝑉R + 𝐵𝐼R
𝐼S = 𝐶𝑉R + 𝐷𝐼R
• Also the following identity holds for the
ABCD parameters: AD – BC = 1

Short Line Model

𝑉S = 𝑉R + 𝑍𝐼R 𝑉S 1 𝑍 𝑉R
=
𝐼S = 𝐼R 𝐼S 0 1 𝐼R
• Therefore the ABCD parameters are given by
 A = D =1,
 B = Z Ω and
C=0
Medium Line Model

 There are two different models:

 nominal-π and
 nominal-T
Nominal-π model
• This representation is used for load flow studies.

Nominal-T model
 BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT
Busbar are the important components in a substation.
Conductors used for buses

 Aluminium
 Copper
 All Aluminum conductor (AAC) •
 All Aluminum alloy conductor (AAAC) •
 Aluminum conductor with aluminum alloy reinforced (ACAR) •
 Aluminum conductor with steel reinforced (ACSR)

58
 BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT continued
There are several Busbar Arrangements in Substations that can be used in
a substation.

The choice of a particular arrangement depends upon various factors

such as system voltage, position of substation, degree of reliability, cost ,
safety etc.

The following are the important busbar arrangements used in substations :

 Single bus-bar/Radial system:
 Sectionalise Single Busbar
 Double bus Double breaker Scheme
 Ring main arrangement scheme
 Mesh System 59
 Single/Radial Busbar System

 As the name suggests, it consists of a single bus-bar and all

the incoming and outgoing lines are connected to it.
 The chief advantages of this type of arrangement are low
initial cost, less maintenance and simple operation.
 However, the principal disadvantage of single bus-bar
system is that if repair is to be done on the bus-bar or a fault
occurs on the bus, there is a complete interruption of the
supply.
 This arrangement is not used for voltages exceeding 33kV.
The indoor 11kV substations often use single Busbar
Arrangements in Substations.
60
Single/Radial Busbar System

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 Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation

 In this arrangement, the single bus-bar is divided into sections and

load is equally distributed on all the sections. Any two sections of
the bus-bar are connected by a circuit breaker and isolators. Two
principal advantages are claimed for this arrangement.

 Firstly, if a fault occurs on any section of the bus, that section can
be isolated without affecting the supply from other sections.
Secondly, repairs and maintenance of any section of the bus-bar
can be carried out by de-energising that section only, eliminating
the possibility of complete shut down. This arrangement is used for
voltages upto 33 kV.
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