Switchyard

S S CHOPADE
TYPICAL POWER SYSTEM
 what is power system?

Power system comprises the-following regions :

Generating Transmission Distribution Receiving Stations

Stations Systems Systems -Load Points

Types of generating staions:

base load and peak load plants, conventional and non conventional
plants

Types of transmission systems:
hv,ehv,uhv,hvdc
medium length,long distance,short distance

load points:
Industrial,commercial,resedential,agriculture…………
 Definition of a switchyard

A switchyard may be defined as a center for receiving and

controlling the flow of power along different routes by
means of various electrical equipments.
 Need…

Electric power is generated in Generating Stations. The voltage
at which the power is generated in generating stations lies
between 11 KV to 25 KV. This voltage is not suitable for bulk
power transmission over long distances as it results in increased
transmission line losses.

To reduce these losses the generator terminal voltage is suitably
stepped up to Transmission Voltage (Say, 132 K.V. / 220 K.V.
or 400 K.V.)

At these Transmission Voltages the bulk power can be
efficiently transmitted over long distances where load centers
are located.

However the bulk power thus transmitted can not be directly
consumed by a consumer for the reason that the voltage(s) at
which it is available is not suitable for direct use.

Hence, the Sub-Station has come in to Existence to cater the
needs of different types of consumers requiring power at suitable
voltage levels and varying quantities.
 NEED OF SUBSTATIONS FOR DISTRIBUTION
UTILITY

To meet the aims of electricity supply utility: such as supply

of required electrical power to all the consumers continuously
at all times.

Maximum possible coverage of the supply network over the
given region.

Supply of electrical power within targeted frequency limits,
(49.5 Hz and 50.5 Hz).

Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits.

Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost
 TYPES OF SUB-STATIONS

Following are the common types of switchyards/Sub-Stations.

Generating Station Main Sub-Station :
A substation connected to the generator(s) of a power plant. Most of the
generating Sub-Stations are step-up Substations used to step up the
generator terminal voltage to the grid voltage level.

Primary Sub-Stations or EHV Substations :
They receive bulk power at 400KV / 220KV/ 132KV and transfer them to
33KV / 22KV / 11 KV depending on load requirements and distance of
the consumer.

Secondary or Distribution :
They receive power at 33KV / 22KV etc. and Sub-Stations step down the
voltage to Either 6.6KV/3.3KV/415V for L.V. distribution among
consumers. These are all step-down Substations.
 TYPES OF SUB-STATIONS…………….

Industrial Sub-Station : A substation located in the premises of an

industrial consumer.

Indoor Sub-Station
A Substation located inside a building is called an indoor Substation. In
door substations are normally L.V./M.V. Sub stations but in highly
polluted areas & costal areas, EHV substations are also constructed in
doors.

Traction Substations: Used basically by Railways to provide power for

electric traction purposes.

Conversion Sub-Stations:
Conversion Substations are basically used for converting A.C. to D.C. or
inverting D.C. to A.C: They are associated with A.C./D.C. transmission
systems.
Type of sub stations…………………….
COMMON FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT SWITCHYARD ARE
FUNCTIONS PERFORMED……

Protection of transmission system/equipments.

Controlling the exchange of energy.

Ensuring steady state and transient stability.

Maintaining the system frequency within targeted limits,

Load shedding and prevention of loss of synchronism.

Voltage control, reducing the reactive power flow by

compensation of reactive power, tap-changing.
 FUNCTIONS PERFORMED ……….

Securing the supply by providing adequate line capacity and facility.

For changing the transmission paths.

Data transmission via power line carrier for the purpose of network
monitoring.

Determining the energy transfer through transmission lines and tie

lines.

Securing supply by feeding the network at various points.

Establishing economic load distribution to several associated


A switchyard is an assemblage of manual
,semi automatic and automatic equipments.

Switchyard is an integral parts of a power

system and form important links between the
generating ,transmission , distribution
systems and the load points
Switchyard equipments
To perform these functions, we need following manual, semi-automatic and fully
automatic devices /equiptments.

Power Tranformer/ I.C.T.

Lightning arrestor

Current transformer

Potential transformer/Capacitor voltage transformer (cvt)

Isolators

Circuit breaker

Earthing switch

Control and relay panel

Wave trap

Power line carrier communication panel

Shunt/series reactor

Support/Post insulator

Bus bar & clamp fittings

Supporting structures for the hanging buses
 Bay of a switch yard
Isolator Load
Isolator
CB

source

Earth S/W
400 KV Air blast circuit breaker
 SUB-
SUB-STATION, MAIN EQUIPMENTS
1. BUS - BARS

Function: Bus bars receive power from incoming circuits

and deliver power to the out going circuits.

All the incoming and out going circuits are connected to
bus-bars.

Definition: Bus-bars are Current Carrying Conductors to
which various circuits and equipments are connected.

Types of bus-
bus-bars

Rigid bus-bars : Are Tubular Aluminum or copper bus-bars
supported on post top insulators.

Flexible bus-bars : Are ACSR, Standard conductors,
supported on either end by strain insulators

Each circuit has certain electrical components such
as circuit-breakers, isolators, earthing switches,
current transformers, voltage transformers etc.

Depending on the requirement these components are

connected in a definite sequence such that a circuit
can be switched off during normal operation by
manual command and automatically during
abnormal conditions such as short-circuits.
Bus Bar Scheme in Switchyard
Bus Bar Schemes
* Single Sectionalized bus
* Main & Transfer bus
* Sectionalized Main bus with Transfer bus
* Sectionalized Double Main & Transfer bus
* One and Half breaker
Single Sectionalized Bus-
Bus-Bar System

I/C Feeders

CB

Bus-
Bus-bar

Isolators

O/G Feeders
 Main & Transfer Bus-
Bus-bar system

I/C Feeders

CB

Transfer Bus
Bus Coupler

Main Bus

Isolators
 One and Half Breaker scheme

Main 1

Main 2

Tie CB
Feeder 2 Feeder 1
SELECTION OF BUS-
BUS-BAR SCHEMES
SELECTION OF BUS-
BUS-BAR SCHEME
BUS BAR SCHEMES
BUS BAR SCHEMES
 2. POWER TRANSFORMERS

Function :
To transfer Electrical power from one voltage level
to another voltage level, accordingly we have.

Types:
1.Step up Transformer :Increases Voltage Level from
a lower value to a higher value
2.Step down Transformer :Decreases Voltage level
from a higher value to a lower value.
 3. CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Functions:
Functions: Closing, opening & Auto reclosing of an
Electrical circuit during normal & abnormal operating
conditions (under fault conditions). Thus circuit
breaker is a Switching and current interrupting device

Types of circuit breakers:
breakers Depending on the medium of
are quenching, circuit breakers are classified as
1. Miniature circuit breaker
2. Molded case circuit breaker
3. Air break circuit breaker
4. Vacuum circuit breaker
5. SF6 circuit breaker
6. Minimum oil circuit breaker
7. Air blast circuit breaker
 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB)

Small & suitable to replace fuse in distribution box

rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics
normally not adjustable

Advantages compared to fuse
 Less time need to install
 Easy to check whether circuit is ON state or OFF – easy
while doing maintenance works.
 Long-lasting, can be reused after break contact-Unlike a
fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced
 Did not affect by ambient temperature
 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
• Current rating- 6,10,16,20,25,32,40,63 &100A.
• Rated voltage up to 415v.
• Breaking capacity 10 KA.
• Electrical life: 20,000 operation.
• Mechanical life: 100,000 operations.
 DESIGN COMPONENT IN SIDE MCB
1. Actuator lever-
lever- used to manual trip and reset the circuit breaker Also
indicates the status of circuit breaker ( on/of or tripped)
2. Actuator mechanism -forces the contacts together or apart
3. Contacts-Allow
Contacts current when touching and break the current when
move apart
4. Terminal
5. Bimetallic strip
6. Calibration screw-
screw-allow

manufactures to precisely adjust

the trip current of the device
7.Solenoid
8.Arc divider/
divider extinguisher
 MCB OPERATION
Thermal operated
– use a bimetallic strip, which heats and bends with increased
current, and is similarly arranged to release the latch, and
causing the contact to open under spring action. This type is
commonly used with motor control circuits
Electromagnet operated
– In magnetic type having a solenoid(electromagnet) which
pull force increases with current. The contacts are held close
by a latch
When short circuit fault occurs, the rising fault current
energizes the solenoid of the hammer trip mechanism and the
trip lever causes immediate opening of the contacts.
MCCB (MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER)
◦ Rated current up to 1000 A.
◦ With protection releases in microprocessor, thermal- magnetic
and only magnetic.
◦ Trip current may be adjustable.
 FEATURES OF MICROPROCESSOR RELEASE

Overload protection with inverse time delay.

Short circuit protection

Neutral protection.

Earth fault protection with selectable time delay.

Push to trip button.

Port for release testing
Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB)

For 60A and above usage

For three phase power supply

ON- after Short circuit ,Earth fault and over
loading.

Easy to operate

The tripping system of MCCB is of two type.
A) Thermal magnetic type
B) Micro processor release
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

Rated current In(A)from 63 to 1250A

Over load(phase):-

current setting: in steps of 0.1

Time delay Tr -10 sec.

Overload(neutral)-

Current settingIn-.5.7.5&1.0

Time delay- inverse 10sec at 6 Ir/fixed 200m.

Short circuit:-

Current setting-1.5,4,6.

Time delay – inst./100msec.

Earth fault:-

Current setting Ig -.2 to .5 in steps of 0.1

Time delay, tg -100/200msec
 Air circuit breaker
– Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics often fully adjustable
including configurable trip thresholds and delays.
– Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor
controlled.
– Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where
the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of
maintenance.
– In ACB the arc chutes enclose the contact and serve to cool and quench
the arc during breaking and release hot gas produce during arc.
– Arc chute are equipped with de ion plates covered with special arc
resistance coating which ensure that the arc is extinguish
Air circuit breaker
 CONTACT MECHANISM

ARC CHUTE
ARC
ARCING CONTACT

BUTTONS
Air blast circuit breaker

These breaker employ a high pressure *air blast as an arc

quenching medium.

Arc produce from this breaker is more compare to gas circuit
breaker, because of this breaker contact need to be replaced
regularly

Air circuit breaker is more expensive than oil circuit breaker, but
its operate faster, less arc, less maintenance and less possibility to
create fire.

Arc produce while opening contact or make contact will be blow
out by compress air
working principle

The fixed & moving contacts remain closed by spring pressure under
normal condition.

The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve.

The valve remain closed under normal condition but opens automatically
by trip impulse when fault occurs on system.

When fault occurs, the tripping impulse opens the air valve which is
connect to the CB reservoir to the arcing chamber.

The high pressure air entering the arcing chamber push away the
contacts against spring pressure.

The moving contact is separated an arc is struck between the contacts.
contact separation is 1.75cm.

At the same time high pressure air blast flows along the arc which is
take away the ionized gases along with it,Consequently the arc is
extinguished and current flow is interrupted.
ADVANTAGES:
ADVANTAGES:-

The arcing products are completely removed by the blast.

The arcing time is very small due to rapidly build up
dielectric strength between the contact.

Due to lesser arc energy, these are very suitable where
frequent operation is required.

Dielectric strength is so rapid so final contact gap need
for arc extinction is very small
Disadvantage

The air is used as arc quenching medium which has
relatively inferior arc extinguish properties.

Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant

which supplies the air .

Application

These are finding wide application in high voltage

installation for voltage beyond 110 KV.
KV
 OIL--FILLED CIRCUIT BREAKER
OIL

◦ In this circuit breaker usually Mineral oil used to extinguish

arc .They are usually Installed in substation and factory.
◦ This circuit breaker function as over current protection and
isolation switch at the same time.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF OIL CB

In this type of C.B. insulating oil (x’mer oil) is used as arc
quenching medium.

When the contact of the OCB are opened under oil an arc is
struck between them.

The heat of arc evaporate the surrounding oil and
dissociated in to substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen at
high pressure.

The hydrogen gas occupies a volume of about one thousand
times than that of oil decomposed.

The oil therefore passed away from the arc and expanding
hydrogen gas bubble surrounding the arc region.
THE ARC EXTINCTION PROCESS
1) Hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cool the arc, thus de-
ionize the medium between the contact.

2) The gas set up turbulence in the oil and forces into the space between
the contact thus eliminating the arcing product from the arc path

ADVANTAGE OF OCB: OCB:-

It absorbs arc energy to decompose the oil in to gas which have
excellent cooling properties.

DISADVANTAGE:
DISADVANTAGE:-
It is inflammable and there is a risk of fire.
It may form an explosive mixed with air.
The arcing product (e.g.. carbon) remain in the oil and its quality
detoriates with successive operation. so that periodic checking
required.
 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
– With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt
the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a
vacuum container.

– These can only be practically applied for voltages up to

about 35,000 V, which corresponds roughly to the
medium-voltage range of power systems.

– Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life

expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF VCB
 Operating Principle
• Breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts, called
electrode.
• Under normal operating condition, these contact remain
closed and will not open automatically until and unless the
system becomes faulty.
• When fault occurs on any part of the system ,the trip coil of
the breaker is energized through relay and the moving
contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism.
Operating Principle
• When contacts of the breaker open under fault conditions, an
arc is struck between them.

• The production of arc not only delays the current interruption

process but also generates some enormous heat, which may
damage the system or breaker.

• Therefore the main problem in CB is to extinguish the arc with

in the shortest possible time so that the heat generate by it not
reach a dangerous value.

• As soon as the arc is produce in vacuum it is quickly

extinguished due to fast rate of recovery of high dielectric
strength with a short contact separation of
 ADVANTAGES OF VCB

They are compact ,reliable and have longer life.

There are no fire hazard.

There is no generation of gas during and after operation.

They have low arc energy.

They required little maintained and are quite in operation.

The main feature of a VCB is that it can break heavy fault current
perfectly just before the contacts reach the definite open position.

These are suitable for protection of generator, feeders, traction,

induction furnaces and are available up to 36kv/3150A/44KA.
 GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER (SF6)

In such circuit breaker SF6 gas is used as the arc
quenching medium

Arc is extinguished by releasing electronegative gas, it has
strong tendency to absorb free-electron from the arc and
rapidly capture by the gas to form –ve ions.

Size of this circuit breaker is larger compared to other
circuit breaker.

This circuit breaker is usually used in generating station
and substation

Operation is simpler, not poisonous, reliable and easy to
operate (less force need)
sf6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

The success of the circuit
breaker depends solely on
the high arc interruption
performance of this gas.

For example, when the gas is

broken down under electrical
stress, it quickly reconstitute
itself.

It is five times heavier than air

and has approximately twice
the electric strength.
70
INTERRUPTION CHAMBER DETAILS
INTERRUPTION CHAMBER
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Fixed contact and moving contact enclosed in a chamber
containing SF6 gas.
• The chamber is connected SF6 gas reservoir.
• In closed position the contact is surrounded by SF6 gas
reservoir at a pressure of 2.8 kg/cm²
• When breaker operated the moving contact is pulled apart and
an arc is struck between the contacts.
• The movement of moving contact is synchronized with the
opening valve which permit SF6 gas at a pressure of
14 kg/cm² press. from reservoir to arc interruption chamber.
Working principle…………….
• The high pressure SF6 gas rapidly absorbs the free electron in
arc path and form –ve ion which are ineffective as charge
carrier.
• This build up high dielectric strength in between contacts and
cause the extinction the arc.
• then the valve is closed by action of a spring.
BREAKING PRINCIPLE
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES::-
ADVANTAGES
• Due to superior arc quenching properties of SF6 ,such CB have
very short arcing time.
• The dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such
breaker interrupt much large current.
• This gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit.
• There is no risk of fire because SF6 gas is non- inflammable.
• SF6 gas is totally enclosed and free from atmosphere, thus they
are particularly suitable where explosion hazard exits i.e. coal
mines.
DISADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES:-
• SF6 CB is costly due to high cost of SF6.
• SF6 CB has to reconditioned after some operation so additional
requirement is required.
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

What is ct?

How it is different from a normal transformer

classification

errors

burden in a ct

knee point voltage

effect of saturation

effect of dc component

effect of residual flux

connection methods
Current Transformers :

What is CT ?

it’s an instrument transformer which transforms current
from one level to another level such as 1000/1 (ct ratio)

transforms current of the level of 1000 amps into current of
1 amp level

Function of CT:
Stepping down the current in the main circuit to a value
suitable for measurement & Protection purposes , Electrical
Isolation of Relays etc.
 When is CT required ?

Electrical systems in which large amount of current
(to the tune of 1000 amps or more) flows. Direct
measurement of that current is not possible as devices used
for measurement of current are not designed to handle such
huge amount of current.

Metering of energy sourced or consumed.

protection of the electrical system from faults and
disturbances.
 How is CT connected?

CT has a primary and one or more secondary windings.
secondary winding is wound around the magnetic core.

primary of ct is connected to the point where current is to be
measured.

metering and protection devices are connected to the
secondary's of the CT.
HOW IS CT CONNECTED?

Is
S1
PRIMARY

Ip M/R
P1 Ψ

P2

S2
 Where is CT connected?

for metering and protection of a feeder current, CT is
connected at the beginning of the feeder.
What is the Difference between a power transformer and an
instrument transformer

Power transformer Instrument transformer

Efiiciency Transformation ratio

Losses linearity

Regulation saturation
functional range
 Basic classification of cts

Measuring suitable for

meters - accurate upto
200% of rating.

Protection suitable for realys

accurate upto 2000% of
rating

Special (class ps) for special protections (differential)
equipment/ feeder specific
Classification s of cts based on different parameters:
parameters:

(a) Based on the function,

Measuring C.T.

Protective C.T.

Special protection cts

(b) Based on insulating medium used.

Oil filled C.T.

SF6 gas filled C.T.
c) Classification of CTS based on construction

Dead tank Type / or Bottom Head type:

In this type of C.T. the core and secondary windings are housed
in a Tank which is at ground potential. Therefore it is called
a Dead Tank Type C.T. or Bottom Head type .C.T.

Live Tank type or Inverted type C.T. (Top Head):

In this type of C.T. the primary and the secondary winding
assembly of C.T. is enclosed in a metallic tank situated at the
top ,only secondary terminals are brought down through the
porcelain bushing to the terminal box located at the bottom.
Live tank type Current Transformers (Paper/Oil
(Paper/Oil)
/Oil) up to 765 kV

1. Top cover
2. Oil level indicator
3. Oil expansion device
4. Metal box LV screen
and cores
5. Bar-
Bar-type or wound type
primary
6. Paper-
Paper-oil insulation
7. Porcelain insulator
8. LV screens
9. Secondary terminal box
10. Base
Dead tank type Current Transformers (Paper/Oil
(Paper/Oil)
/Oil) up to 245 kV

1. Oil filling plug

2.Dome
3. Nitrogen filling valve
4. Collar
5. Primary terminal
6. Porcelain insulator
7. Insulated primary
8. Cover plate for tank
9. Tank
10. Secondary cores
Eye bolt design
d) Classification based on primary winding arrangement.

Bar type/Ring Type C.T.: in which the C.T. secondary is

wound on a toroidal core through which a Bar type primary
winding (terminal) passes & hence the name.

Wound type C.T. in this case the C.T. Primary has more than
1 turns & upto 5 turns wound on the same toroidal core.
 Hair-
Hair-Pin design

Current Transformers (Paper/Oil

(Paper/Oil)
/Oil) up to 420 kV
1. Dome
2.Nitrogen filling valve
3. Primary terminal
4. Collar
5. Porcelain insulator
6. Primary conductor with
insulation
7. Adaptor cylinder
8. Secondary cores
9. Base
10. Oil drain plug
Wound type CT Eye Bolt Design

Primary conductor (1,2 or

4 turns)
Primary steel pipe

Paper insulation

Secondary cores

IT range
Description of main components of instrument transformers
(CTS and PTS)

1.Primary winding : It is the winding to which the current or

Voltage to be measured is applied.
2. Secondary Winding : Is the winding to which the measuring
instruments, protective relays etc. are connected.
3.Core Is a toroidal or rectangular shaped structure made of low
loss, Silicon Steel material on which the primary & secondary
windings are wound.
4.Bar type or window type C.T.: Is a C.T. in which the primary
winding takes the shape of a single conductor (EX : Bus - bar).
5.Tank or Housing : Metal, Epoxy resin, or wooden etc.
Enclosure in which the core & windings are located.
Continued….
6.Terminal head : Is that part in which the primary terminal(s)
are located.
7.Bellows : Bellows are provided to take care of the Expansion
& Contraction of insulating oil with increase & decrease of
temperature.
8.Porcelain body : Is the insulating body made of porcelain
which connects the Terminal head with the tank. It isolates
the high voltage primary terminal from Earthed metal Tank.
9.Terminal box : Is that part of the instrument transformer in
which the secondary winding terminals are located.
10.Main Insulation : Is the oil impregnated paper insulation
used to insulate the H.V. Winding

specifications of cts
1)Burdens of a ct

load on the secondary side of ct is expressed in va

major influence on the performance of the protection scheme

sum total of the internal impedance, Impedance of
connected relays and the connecting leads

all errors are at a specified burden within the specified
burden rating,

lower the burden - higher the accuracy.

loading the ct beyond the rated burden will result in
saturation of the ct and hence higher errors.

size and cost of ct are directly proportional to burden
rating
2)Knee point voltage in a ct

Relates to the voltage developed across ct secondary under
max fault conditions

defined as that point in the excitation curve of ct, when a
10% voltage increase needs 50% increase in excitation
current

for practical purposes kpv is taken as 2 x vs, where vs is the
ct secondary voltage during a fault

knee point voltage

plays a major role in differential protections

kpv should be specified when ordering ps class cts for
differential protection

kpv should be known, to calculate stabilising resistor in ref
protection

3)Effect of saturation in cts

if a ct saturates , it will not develop adequate voltage at the
secondary side to operate a connected relay.

it is necessary to ensure that ct does not saturate at max
fault currents (by choosing proper core material & adequate
cross sectional area)

CTS can saturate if the burden offered by the relay is higher
than the rated burden of ct (use low burden relays)
4)Effect of dc component in cts

results due to inductive nature of cts

will cause saturation in cts during first few cycles of fault

ratio error will increase in first few cycles

5)Effect of remnant flux in cts

results due to inductive nature of cts
will cause saturation in cts during first few cycles of fault
 rated burden:
burden: depending on the load (va) connected to
the ct, rated va burden (at 0.8pf) is defined.
 remanence factor fixed to 10%.
 protection class cts have low remanence. as high
remanence cts will saturate faster.
 Operation of cts during fault
During fault condition, value of primary current
may be 10 to 20 times the rated primary current.
protective relay burden is connected to the ct
secondary at such high level of primary current, if ct
is not properly designed, it may saturate and relay
will receive very less current and, therefore, does not
take right decision.
In Protection class CTs main requirement is ability
of CT to faithfully transform the primary current
during fault condition.

operating range of a ct

measurement protection
20 to 200% 50 to 1000%
or
50 to 2000%
Errors in a ct

Ratio error

Phase angle error

Composite error
Chief contributors for errors in a ct

core quality

core cross section

both of above influence the excitation current & the linearity of the
transformer
Ratio error in a ct
ctr * (i2 - i1 )

e = …………………… * 100
i1

Where :

e = ratio error %

i1 = primary current

i2 = secondary current

ctr = transformation ratio

Ratio error

ratio error is considered positive when actual secondary current is
higher than the calculated secondary current

Phase angle error in a ct

is caused by the quadrature component of the magnetising current

influenced by the core material

order of error is in minutes
Composite error of a ct

Defined as the rms value of the difference between the
ideal secondary current and actal secondary current (this
includes the ratio & phase angle errors plus the harmonics
in excitation current)

usually expressed as the % of primary current
IEC60044-1 HAS LAID DOWN STANDARDS ON THIS:
 Accuracy class:
class tells about %age composite error limit at salf
,rated frequency and rated burden connected (at 0.8 pf).
standard values are 5,10.
How cts are specified?
for normal protections:
5p10, 15 va suitable for burdens upto 15va
5% accuracy class ,
10 times rated current
5p20, 5 va suitable for burdens upto 5va
5% accuracy class ,
20 times rated current

for special protections (diff prot )

ps class va
knee point voltage
magntising current
rct

for unit type protection:
protection

Here requirements are rather stringent as we compare
current of two or more cts and rely on the their mutual
faithfull-ness.

moreover, our aim is that the protection must be stable
for even worst through fault and fast acting for internal
faults.

if two cts have different magnetizing current and high
leakage reactance, it will introduce high current as well
as phase error thus resultant current of these cts
secondary's may lead to high spill (differential) current
during through fault.

this may lead to protection operation during through
fault.
 for non-unit type protection such as o/c type of protection,
class pr type cts are used.

 the parameters that are defined for the ct are:

standard accuracy limit factor(salf):

= rated acc. limit of primary current
rated current

Where, rated accuracy limit of primary current is the value

of the primary current upto which ct will comply with the
requirement of composite error.

Standard values of salf are 5,10,15,20,30

How CT is selected?

If we are interested to measure current for metering purpose that
should be very accurate as the metered data may be used for
tariff purpose i.e. money exchange.

The secondary current which we get is not true reflection of its

primary current.

For example, for a ct with ct ratio of 1000/1amps, if we get

0.99 amps in secondary leading primary current by 15 minutes
for primary current of 1000amps, so the CT has ratio error of
(0.99-1)/1 x 100=-1% and phase error of 15 minutes.
 The instrument connected to the secondary especially
analog indicating meter should not get damaged during
primary fault condition.

 For this instrument security factor (fs) is defined which is

ratio of minimum primary current at which composite error
of the CT (at rated burden) is equal to or greater than 10%
of rated primary current.

 The typical values are 5,10 etc.

 For achieving above, a CT is chosen having very high

permeability and high remanence
Current Transformers Causes of Failure/monitoring/Maintenance

Generally failures can happen due to the following reasons
Opening of CT terminal (used for tan delta and capacitance
measurement) when CTs are in energisation. This leads to very
high voltages resulting in failure.

Remedial actions in CT at site to avoid failures
• Tangent delta and Capacitance measurement from the C T
terminal at periodic intervals every years or during shutdown.
• Dissolved gas analysis of oil taken out from CT atleast once in
ten years.
• Thermo vision scanning of CTs of rating 132kV ( or above).

Application of 100 chopped impulses of negative polarity

on CTs of ratings above 300kV.

These impulses will be applied at the rate of one impulse per
minute.

The test Voltage shall be 60% of the rated lightning impulse
voltage

Before the test and three days after the test the dissolved gas
analysis of oil taken from CT will be carried out.

Analysis procedure and fault diagnosis shall be as per IEC
60599.

Thermal Stability test :

This involves simultaneous application of rated voltage
(1.1Um/Sqrt3) and rated simultaneous current (1.2,1.5 etc)
by using a synthetic test circuit.

Capacitance, tangent delta,secondary resistance and temperature
of primary terminal are recorded until stable values are acquired.

This test demonstrates the insulation capacity (healthiness) under
energised conditions.

Temperature coefficient test:
test

The CT is heated in a oven to approximately 90Deg C.

The tan delta is measured at ambient, 80 and 90 deg C at
voltages of 0.3,0.7,1.0 and 1.1Um/Sqrt3.

This test demonstrates the healthiness at high extreme
temperature conditions.
Current Transformers
Type Tests

a) short-time current tests

b) temperature rise test
c) lightning impulse test
d) switching impulse test
e) wet test for outdoor type transformers
f) determination of errors
g)power-frequency withstand test on primary winding
CEI 600 44-1
CEI 60-1 Current Transformer Routine tests
Routine tests
The following tests apply to each individual transformers:
a) verification of terminal markings
b) inter-
inter-turn overvoltage test
c) partial discharge measurement
d) power-
power-frequency withstand test on secondary windings
e) power-
power-frequency withstand tests, between sections
f)Determination of errors
The order of the tests is not standardized, but determination of errors shall be
performed after the other tests.

WHAT IS VT?

WHEN IS VT REQUIRED ?

WHY IS VT REQUIRED?

HOW IS VT CONNECTED?

WHERE IS VT CONNECTED?

WHICH VT IS CONNECTED?
Voltage Transformers :
Function:Stepping
Function down the voltage from the rated system voltage to a
value suitable for measurement & Protection purposes.Electrical
isolation of instruments & relays from H.V. Side.
Types
Electro Magnetic voltage Transformer: It is just similar to a power
transformer in construction, with primary and secondary windings
wound on a magnetic core. But the major difference between a power
transformer & V.T. is that, in the latter case the burden (Load)
Connected to it on the secondary side is much less (It is only a few Volt
Amapres)
Capacitive Voltage Transformer (C.V.T.): It consists of a Capacitor
Voltage Divider & A medium voltage Transformer with
compensations, reactor, & surge protection device, The additional
function performed by a C.V.T. is that it can be used as a coupling
capacitor for carrier communication.

What is VT?

it’s an instrument transformer which transforms voltage
from one level to another level such as
400kv/√3:110v/√3 (vt ratio) i.e. transforms voltage of
the level of 400kv/√3 into voltage of 110v/√3 level.

When VT is required?

electrical system which has high level of voltage
( to the tune of 3.3kv or more) , direct
measurement of that voltage is not possible as
devices used for measurement of voltage are not
designed to handle such high level of voltage.

Any system which carries voltage and current
has two basic requirements:

metering of energy sourced or consumed.

metering

protection of the electrical system from faults and

protection
disturbances
why is vt required?

faults can be of many kinds some faults such as o/c can be
detected solely on current measurement, but current does not
provide discretion about nature and location of the fault.
for highly interconnected electrical system carrying huge
amount of power, sub-system isolation selectivity is
immensely desirable.

• therefore, voltage is also measured along with current during

fault, we can in a way compute power or impedance of
system along with its direction.
• moreover, o/v,u/v, o/f and u/f protections are also
configured from vts.

WHY WE NEED VT?

metering:
metering: voltage measurement, energy, power measurement.
metering

protection:
protection: for distance protection, o/v,u/v, o/f and u/f
protection
protections, field failure, over-fluxing,etc.

for metering vts we need high accuracy in the voltage

measurement during stable conditions i.e 80% to 120% of
nominal system voltage with burdens from 25% to 100% of rated
burden at power factor of 0.8. in vts also as in cts, ratio as well
as phase errors are there.
How is vt connected?
VT has a primary and one or more secondary windings.
metering and protection devices are connected to the
secondaries of the vt
vt..

INDUCTIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

HOW IS VT CONNECTED?

M
P
P

CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

WHERE IS VT CONNECTED?
FOR METERING AND PROTECTION OF A FEEDER, VT IS CONNECTED AT THE
BEGINING OF THE FEEDER

power station to be protected

Capacitor Voltage Transformers (Paper/Film/Oil) up to 765 kV

1 1. Oil level indicator (optional)

2 2. Expansion device
3
3. Capacitor units
4
4. Insulating oil
5
5. Porcelain insulator
6 6. Sealing
7. Electromagnetic unit
8. Low voltage terminals box
7 9. Series inductance
10. Medium voltage transformer
8 11. Damping circuit against
9 ferroresonance effects
10
11
capacitor voltage transformer definitions

element pack
(or pack)

pile of elements : ± 10 to 25 kv
Capacitor Voltage Transformer Definitions
 HV Power line

capacitor unit
(or unit)

Assembly of elements in an insulating

container: ± 245 kV.
Can be connected to a HV line

Ground
Capacitor Voltage Transformer Definitions
 HV Power line

Capacitor STACK
(or stack)

Assembly of elements to reach higher

voltage levels : ± 800 kV

In general, the term CAPACITOR

stands for a capacitor element
as well as a capacitor stack.

Ground
Capacitor Voltage Transformer Definitions

 HV Power line

Capacitor Voltage Divider

( or CVT )

Connecting an MV inductive voltage

transformer to a tap.

Ground
Capacitor Voltage Transformer Basics

P1 Intermediate
Voltage :
10 to 20 kV/√3
C1
S1

C2

P2 S2
Capacitor stack

Inductive VT
 CVT 72.5 to 765 kV

Oil expansion device

Capacitor elements

Capacitor column

Insulating oil

Insulator flange

Secondary terminal box

Inductance

MV Transformer

Damping circuit
Capacitor Voltage TransformerCapacitor Elements
All Paper Dielectric design Mixed dielectric design

Paper PPR film + paper

Aluminum foil
Copper tabs for folded for contact
connection with next element
which vt is connected?

IEC 60044-2 AND 60044-5 DEFINES THIS AS :

 WHICH VT IS CONNECTED?
contd protection

IEC 60044-2 AND 60044-5 DEFINES THIS AS :

Capacitive voltage transformer failures/maintenance/monitering
failures/maintenance/monitering
Causes of Failure
1) Due to Ferroresonance caused by primary/secondary
2)Oil leak at sealing points leading to ingress of moisture and
degradation of capacitor
Monitoring
1) Capacitance and tangent delta measurement using the tan
delta kit at periodic intervals or whenever there is a shut down
2) Using thermovision camera especially for 220kV to detect
any high temperature abnormalities
3) IR check on secondary
4) To check the resistance of the damping wdg externally and
also the condition of the Lightning arrester in the sec terminal
box
Capacitor Voltage Transformers
Type tests (IEC 60044-
60044-5)
a) Temperature-rise test

b) Short-circuit withstand capability test

c) Lightning impulse test

d) Switching impulse test

e) Wet test for outdoor type transformers

f) Determination of errors.
Capacitor Voltage Transformers
Routine tests (IEC 60044-
60044-5)
Routine tests
The following tests apply to each individual transformer:
a) Verification of terminal markings
b) Power-frequency withstand tests on primary windings
c) Partial discharge measurement
d) Power-frequency withstand tests on secondary windings
e) Power-frequency withstand tests between sections
f) Determination of errors.
G) Ferroresonance test
h) Sealing test
ISOLATORS :
Functions:

To provide isolation from live parts for the
purpose of maintenance.
Types:

Horizontal central break type.

Center rotating, Horizontal break type.

Pantograph type.
Location:

On either side of a circuit breaker
400kV Isolator

152
 Lightening Arrestor

 Purpose :
- To discharge the high voltage surges in the
power
system due to lightning to the ground.
 Apparatus to be protected :
* Overhead lines………Earth/Ground wires
* HV equipment………LAs
* Substation…………...Lightning Masts, Earth
wires

155
 Types of Lightning Arresters

Gap Type LAs :

• Basic material silicon carbide - consists of
gap & discs in series.
• Disadvantages
• High power follow-up current – power loss.
• Un-reliable performance.
• Not suitable for polluted conditions.
 Types of Lightning Arresters

Gapless Type LAs :

• Basic material Zinc Oxide - consists of
ZnO discs in series.
• Advantages
• No power follow-up current – power loss.
• Highly non-linear
• Consistent performance.
• Suitable for polluted conditions.
• Compact design,less height & weight.
Arrestor

159
 Types :
Rod gap LA :
* Gap length is such that
the break-down occurs at
80% of the spark voltage Insulator
Rod gap
* After the surge, the arc
in the gap is maintained
by the normal supply Equipment
voltage. So, only used as body
a back-up.

160
400kV Surge Arrester

161
Metal Oxide surge arrestor

The gapless arresters are
based on metal oxide (MO)
resistors, which have an
extremely non-linear V/I
characteristic and a high
energy-absorption capability.

They are known as metal
oxide surge arresters, MO
arresters for short.

162
 RATING OF LA (400KV)
Rated arrester voltage (KVrms ) 360
Arrester class Station class
Rated frequency (Hz) 50
Maximum continuous operating 292
voltage (MCOV) (KVrms)
Max leakage current (ma)
 At MCOV 1.5
At 110% MCOV 3.0
At 150% MCOV 30

Partial discharge (pc) at 1.05 MCOV 50 pc (max)

Impulse withstand voltage (1.2/50 us 1425
wave) KVp
Switching impulse withstand voltage 1050
KVp

163
 RATING OF LA (400KV) CONTD.
Power frequency withstand
voltage(KVrms)
•One minute dry 630
•One minute wet 630

Nominal discharge current (8/20 us 10KA

wave shape), kAp

No. of series unit in complete arrester 4

(400 KV)

No. of ZnO discs per unit 21(approx)

Pressure relief device provided YES
Pressure relief class A

Method of sealing the complete arrester Vacuum decay method

unit
164
POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION
(PLCC)
Power line Carrier
Communication : is a modern
device used in power system for
communication with load
dispatch centers, distance
protection of equipments
through inter tripping signals by
sending and receiving high
frequency carrier signals
superimposed on transmission
line conductors
Function:

Used for communication signaling protection singling
etc. between different substations & main control room.

The main components of carrier communication equipment

are :
1) Coupling Capacitor:

The coupling capacitor connects the carrier equipment to
the Transmission line.
2)Line Trap:

Line trap is inserted between bus-bars & connection of
coupling capacitor to the line.

This unit prevents high frequency carrier signals from
entering the neighboring lines.
3) Transmitter & Receiver units:

Carrier frequencies are generated in H.F. Generator. The
frequency range will be from 30-500kHz.

The H.F. carrier generator can be a crystal oscillator, the
out put signal voltage of the oscillator is held constant by
a voltage stabilizer.

The signal is fed in to an Amplifier to over come losses in
the line between transmitter & receiver units.

The receiver unit receives the signals sent by the
transmitter. The signal thus received is first attenuated to
a safe value. Then it is passed through a band pass filter
to restrict the unwanted signals.

A matching transformer is provided to match the
impedances of line & receiving unit. Then these signal fed
to a detector to get back the information,

Fiber Optic Communication:

Recent development in communication systems is
the use of fiber optics for communication
purposes.

Light is utilized for communication this has
major advantages because it can be modulated at
a significant higher frequencies than electrical
signals can.

The fiber optic cable has lower energy loss, wider
bandwidth capabilities when compared to
conventional carrier communication systems.
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF PLCC

1) Modem
2) Speech Interface Module
3) Data Interface Module
4) Programmable Transmit Band Filter
5) Power Supply Unit
6) Amplifier
7) Programmable Line Filter.
8) Metering, Monitoring Module
9) Synchroniser
10) Remote Subscriber Interface Module

169
WAVE TRAPS

Wave Traps are fixed in the outgoing
transmission lines and are used to filter
out i.e. trap the high frequencies (40-
500KHz) used in PLC Communication, so
that it doesn’t overlap with our normal
system frequency (50Hz) thus by
protecting our system from collapsing.

Wave Trap is basically a high frequency

filter circuit (combination of Inductor &
Capacitor) blocking the higher
frequencies and noises.
 Transmission Line S/S-2
S/S-1

Wave Wave
Trap Trap

To control room
To control room
of S/S-2
of S/S-1
* Wave trap is used for Protection of the transmission line and
communication between the Substations.
* VHF signal is transmitted from one end to the another through the
same power line.
* Sends inter-trip signal to the other end CBs so that fault can be isolated
at the earliest time.
171
Wave Trap

Rated Inductance(0.5/1.0 mH).

Rated current.

Band Width.

Coupling (Phase to Phase).

172
173
 PLCC: Purpose

Protection:-
-Direct Trip, Carrier signals for Distance relays

TeleOperation:-
-Remote Operation, Status monitoring

Communication:-
-Hot link between End Stations
-Dialing telephone network of Utility

Data Transfer:-
-Sub station data, Energy Metering, Real time monitoring
of power flow, Bus voltage and frequency

174
 POWER FREQ -50 KHZ
LINE

WAVE TRAP >500KHZ NOISE PICKUP

2 πFL <30KHZ-HARMONIC
C=1/2πFC LIGHTENING,CORONA

30KHZ TO 500KHZ
STATION BUS
IMPEDENCE 75 OHMS
LMU

BASIC ARRANGEMENT OF
WAVE TRAP AND COUPLING
PLCC
CAPACITOR

175
TRANSMISSION

VOLTAGE STANDARDISED IN INDIA

66, 132, 220, 400 KV
The optimun power and distance over which
these voltages are adopted are:
MW Km.
66 KV 10-13 50-60
132 KV 40-50 100-120
220 KV 120-150 200-250
400 KV 500-600 500-650

176
Earth Switch
Functions:
Functions

Discharge the voltage on the circuit to earth for
safety.
Location :

Mounted on the frame of the isolator.
Generally used for each incoming / out going
feeder.

Insulators :

Function:

To insulate the live parts from earthed parts.

Types:

Porcelain / glass insulations can be used as

Post insulators

Tension Insulators

Suspension Insulators

Locations:

To support all live Electrical parts.