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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
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Electric current (I)

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⎯ Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge |Scalar quantity | SI Unit- ampere (A)
⎯ Direction of current through a cross section is the direction of flow of positive charge.
⎯ If the net charge that flows through a cross-section is negative, it implies a current in the backward direction.

Instantaneous current Average current

Iinst = dq/dt Iavg = ∆q/∆t
⇐

Electric current in conductors

"
Conductors: Materials which allow current to pass through them easily. The charge carriers inside metallic conductors
are free electrons. When an electric field is applied, the free electrons experience a force and an electric current is setup
inside the conductor.

Note: Charge carriers in various conductors-

Metals- free electrons | Electrolytes- +ve and –ve ions | semiconductors- free electrons and holes.

Inside a conductor-
A) In absence of electric field – In the absence of electric field, the free electrons move due to thermal energy. During
this thermal motion the electrons collide with each other and the fixed positive ions. After a collision with a +ve ion,
the electron emerges with the same speed as before. However, the direction of its velocity will be completely
random. Thus, on average, the number of electrons moving in a particular direction will be equal to the number of
electrons moving in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net electric current in the conductor in the absence
of an electric field.
B) In presence of electric field- When a constant electric field is applied to the ends of a conductor, the free electrons
experience a force in a direction opposite to that of electric field and hence start moving in and therefore a net
electric current is setup in the direction of electric field (flow of positive charge). This electric current will remain as
long as the field is applied.

Ohm’s Law
"
Ohm’s law states that at constant physical conditions (temp etc), the current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends.

Where R is a constant of proportionality and is called the Resistance of the conductor | SI Unit- ohm (Ω)
R is dependent on both the material and dimensions of the conductor.
Also,

I
Where ρ is called the resistivity of the material
.

Current density (j)

Current density is defined as the current per unit area (taken normal to the current) | SI Unit = A/m2

Consider an electric field E in a conductor of length l, then potential difference across it, V = E.l. Then from ohm’s law-

Where σ is called the conductivity of the material and σ = 1/ ρ|σ depends on nature of the material and not dimensions.

Vector form of current density-

According to definition,

Where is the angle between direction of current and normal to the area.
Note: j is directed along I(current) and is also parallel to E
.

Drift velocity (vd) (PYQ 2016, 2012)

It is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons move towards the +ve end of a conductor under the
influence of applied electric field.
Let electric field be E, the force F on each electron and hence its acceleration a will be-

(Where m is mass of each electron)

→

Let initial velocity of electron be u and velocity after time τ be v. From Newton’s first equation of motion-

to

,
(The average initial velocity is zero as before
electric field is applied, there is no specified
direction in which electrons move.)

(The -ve sign indicates that Velocity is opp to field)

 Note: Average relaxation time (τavg)- It is the average time interval between b/w two successive collisions of a free e-

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Relation between drift velocity and current
D
In a conductor of cross-sectional area, A, let number of free
Electrons per unit volume be n. Consider a potion of length x #

t¥÷÷¥¥÷÷÷
The total number of electrons (N) in it can be written as- -

←
V

Now, we can also relate current density with drift velocity-

(it is negative because direction of flow

Of electrons is opposite to that of current)

' Vector form of ohm’s law (PYQ 2016)

D
We know,

Where is a constant is called conductivity σ. Similarly, we know ρ=1/σ therefore ρ =

Note: - In Electrodynamic condition (charges are moving) Electric field inside conductor is not zero.

- Thermal speed of electron = (root mean squared speed) (NCERT eg 3.1)

(Kb is Boltzmann’s constant)
 ⇐

Mobility (μ) (PYQ 2019, 2014)

" Mobility of free electrons in a conductor is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field| SI unit- m2/Vs

"
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Limitations of ohm’s law
There are certain materials used in electric circuits where the proportionality
between V and I does not hold-

1. V ceases to be proportional to I

2. The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V i.e. If I is the current
For a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude same,
does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the opposite direction.
For e.g. diode
(i)
3. The relation between V and I is not unique i.e. there is more than one value of V for the same current I, e.g. GaAs
(Gallium Arsenide)

⇐ (ii) (iii)
"
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Commercial resistors
1. Alloys (PYQ 2017, 2015)- Alloys like constantan, manganin, nichrome etc are used to make wire bound resistors.
This is because their resistivities remain almost constant even with change in temperature.

2. Carbon resistors- They are compact and inexpensive. Their values are given by a color code which is explained as
follows-

Fun mnemonic to remember the colors:

BB ROY of Great Britain has Very Good Wife

 The resistors have a set of co-axial colored rings. The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant
figures of the resistance in ohms. The third band represents the decimal multiplier. Sometimes we even have a fourth
band which represents the tolerance/ percentage error in the calculation of resistance.
For e.g.

a.
¥1 !¥ .

..

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Temperature dependence of resistivity
1. Metals- For metals, the resistivity increases with increase in temperature. This is because the resistivity ρ ∝ 1/τ
And with the increase in temperature the average relaxation time decreases (as collisions become more frequent)

(graph PYQ 2014)

Over a narrow range of temperatures, the resistivity of metallic conductors is approximately given by-

ΡT = ρ˳ [ 1 + α (T - T˳)]

Where ΡT is the resistivity at temperature T and ρ˳ is same at a reference temperature T˳. α is called as the temperature
coefficient of resistivity. For some metals, α is positive.
2. Semiconductors (PYQ 2015)- For semiconductors, resistivity decreases with increase in temperature this is because
ρ is directly proportional to number of free electrons per unit volume (n) and with the increase in temperature, for a
semiconductor, n increases greatly with increase in temperature and more than compensate for the decrease in τ.
But for metals, n remains almost constant with the change in temperature therefore the resistivity increases with
the decrease in τ, when temperature increases.

Important PYQs

Ques: How does mobility of an electron change when the potential difference across the conductor is doubled keeping
the length and the temperature constant (PYQ 2019)

Ans: We know, E= V/r

E’ = 2V/r; E’ = 2E
µ = vd/ E
µ’ = µ/2 i.e. the mobility of electrons will be halved.

Ques:

(PYQ 2015)

Ans: i) DE
ii) AB

Ques: Why are alloys like constantan and manganin used to make standard resistors? (PYQ 2016)

Ans: Alloys like constantan and manganin are used to make standard resistors because their resistivities remain almost
constant with increase in temperature.

Similar PYQ

Ques: When electrons drift in a metal from lower potential to higher potential does it mean that “all” free electrons of
the metal are moving in the same direction? (PYQ 2012)

Ans: No, all e-s don’t move in the same direcn, but the net movement of charge is towards the +ve end of the conductor.

Electrical energy, Power (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2017, 2011)

We have seen that when an external field is applied, electrons in the conductor experience a force and move. But
according to this, electrons should accelerate but that is not the case as electrons move with a steady drift velocity. This
 is because as electrons move, they collide with each other and with the fixed ions and atoms. The energy gained is
shared with the fixed atoms and the atoms start vibrating more vigorously i.e. the conductor heats up. So, a part of the
energy is dissipated as heat.
Consider a conductor with a potential difference of V across its ends and current I. The heat dissipated in time t can be
written as-

The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated (P)

Using Ohm’s law-

Important PYQs ¥:÷÷E⇐7

⇐
Ques:
(PYQ 2020)

Ans: P = V2/R; since they are connected in parallel, V is same therefore, P1/P2 = R2/R1
P1:P2 = 3:2 (B)

¥ Ques: The potential difference applied across a given resistor is altered such that the heat produced increases by a
.

factor of 9. By what factor did the potential difference change? (PYQ 2017)

Ans: ATQ, P’ = 9P and we know, P= V2/R

V = √RP
V’ = √RP’
V’ = √9RP = 3 √RP
V’ = 3V

Ques: Two bulbs are rated (P1, V) and (P2, V) are connected in i) series and then in ii) parallel. Calculate the power
dissipated in both cases in terms of P1 and P2 (PYQ 2019, 2011)

Ans: we know P= V2/R, therefore resistance of each bulb can be written as –

I) In series

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 II) In parallel

Combination of resistors
1. Series combination
Consider two resistors R1 and R2, connected in series. The current through both will be the same. The sum of
potential difference across R1 and that across R2 will give the total potential drop across the combination.

If the two resistors are replaced by a single resistor of resistance equal to that of the combination (Req) then,

2. Parallel combination
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel. The sum of the current through both resistors will be equal to
the total current through the circuit.

The 2 resistors can be replaced by a single resistor of resistance equal to that of the combination (Req)-
 Ques: A wire of resistance 8R is bent in the form of a circle as shown. What is the resistance between the ends of
diameter AB? (PYQ 2010)

Ans: The part of the wire above and below AB can be imagined
As two resistors of resistance 4R each connected in parallel.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance between AB is –

Req = 4R × 4R/ 4R + 4R = 2R
⇐

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Cells, EMF, and internal resistance (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015, 2013, 2012)
D An electrolytic cell is a device which maintains a steady current in an electric circuit.

t.li#.-mE
EMF (ε)
The potential difference across the electrodes of a cell when no current is drawn from it is called the EMF (ε) of the cell
OR
The work done in complete circulation of a unit positive charge| SI Unit- Volt (V) or JC-1
Note: EMF ε is potential difference and not a force.

Internal resistance (r)

The electrolyte through which current flows has a finite resistance which is called the internal resistance of the cell (r)

Terminal voltage (V)

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when current is drawn from it is called the terminal voltage.

*Now let us calculate the terminal voltage in the following cases

1. No load condition (load is any device to which energy is supplied like bulb etc)
i.e. current (I) in circuit is zero

There will be no potential drop across r since .

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the current in the circuit is 0

.
Terminal voltage = EMF

2. Discharging (providing energy to load)

R
.
-
un

I ;
I
 Also,
(Since r and R are in series)
Also,

=>

Note: For ideal cell, terminal voltage = ε, always. (r=0)

Cells in Series and Parallel

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1. In Series
Consider two cells of EMF ε1 and ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 connected in series as shown in the fig.

I
Potential diff across AB- We want- →

From 1,2
Potential diff across BC-

Potential diff across AC-

-
①

Thus, we can say that

1) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual emfs
2) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual internal
resistances

2. In Parallel (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016)

Consider two cells of EMF ε1 and ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 connected in parallel as shown in the fig.
 I
For the first cell The net current= sum of current through the cells

For the second cell

On rearranging, we get value of potential V

Replacing the two cells by a single cell of emf εeq and internal resistance req, we get-

I
OR

For n cells,

Important PYQs ¥?÷sE3

. Ques: a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across variable load resistor R. Draw plots of i) terminal
voltage V ii) current I as a function of R
It is found that when R= 4Ω, I= 1 A and when R is increased to 9Ω current reduces to 0.5 A. Find E and r. (PYQ 2015)
Geoff

Ans: i) We know, ii) We know,

(Compare with y=mx+c)

V^

→ Slope= -r
From1,2

>
I

iii) ATQ,
✓ n

A.
②
Ma

①
B.
>R

There will be two portions of the graph

1. When R<<<r ,V will be very small -

2. When R>>>r ,V will be almost constant

On solving 1,2 we get-
 Ques: The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage explain why? (PYQ 2013)
Ans: The emf of a cell is always greater than the terminal voltage because the cell has an internal resistance due to
which there is a potential drop so the terminal voltage is always less than the emf of the cell. This can be illustrated from
the following diagram-

i .

hi
.

2-

¥ Ques: A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected to two external resistances R1 and R2 and a perfect ammeter.
.

The current in the circuit is measured in four different situations:

(i) Without any external resistance in the circuit
(ii) With resistance R1 only
(iii) With R1 and R2 in series combination
(iv) With R1 and R2 in parallel combination

The currents measured in the four cases are 0.42 A, 1.05A, 1.4A, and 4.2A, but not necessarily in that order. Identify
the currents corresponding to the four cases mentioned above. (PYQ 2012)

Ans: First let us calculate the net resistances in each condition-

1) Req = r since there is no other resistance in the circuit
2) r and R1 are connected in series so, Req = r + R1
3) r, R1, and R2 are all in series so Req = r + R1 + R2
4) R1 and R2 are connected in parallel so their net resistance will be R1R2/R1+R2 and this net is in series with r so,
Req = r + R1R2/R1+R2

Now let us calculate the current in each case-

1) I = E/r We know that in a series combination, the net resistance is greater
2) I = E/r+R1 than the net resistance for the same resistors in a parallel combination
3) I = E/r+R1+R2 and that the net resistance in parallel is less than each individual R.
4) I = E/ (r + R1R2/R1+R2) So, the order of current will be- 1 > 4 > 2 > 3

So in case 1) I = 4.2 A
2) I = 1.4 A
3) I = 1.05 A
4) I = 0.42 A

Kirchhoff’s laws (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011)
A) Junction law (PYQ 2014)
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is
equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. This is based
on the law of conservation of charge because when currents are steady,
there is no accumulation of charges at any junction or at any point in the wire
Thus, total current flowing in must be equal to the total current flowing out.
 B) Loop law (PYQ 2014)
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and the cells in the lop is zero.
This is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Some conventions:
1. Potential across a resistor is -ve in the direction | Potential across a resistor is +ve in the direction opposite
of current to current
R R
B A B

-74:# -3
I
:#
I t
-

2. Potential is gained on crossing a battery from -ve | Potential drops on crossing a battery from +ve to – ve
to +ve terminal terminal
E E

le est
I
I
-

A -

B A -

t t

Important PYQs ¥÷÷.E3

o
.
Ques: A 10V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected across a 200V battery and resistance of 38Ω as shown
in the figure. Find the value of current in the circuit. (PYQ 2013)
lov

382 200W

Ans: Let current in circuit be I, using Kirchhoff’s loop law in loop ABCD,

'
Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules calculate the potential difference between B and D
In the circuit diagram as shown in the figure. (PYQ 2018)

Ans: In loop DCBD In loop BADB

y
On solving, we get
 Potential difference Between B and D

Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules calculate the current through the 40Ω and 20Ω
Resistors in the following circuit. (PYQ 2019)

Ans: In loop ABCD

In loop CFED

On solving

Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules determine the value of the unknown resistance R
In the circuit such that no current flows through the 4Ω resistance. Also find the
Potential difference between A and D. (PYQ 2011)

Ans: Let current in the branch EB be zero and apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop CBEDC

-
①

Now, apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop BAFEB

-
②

From 1,2

2. Potential difference between A and D-

Shorting wire (short)

Note: 1. Potential across a short circuit is zero

-

n-
I
 R
LIF of
2.Potential across an open circuit is infinite.
LHP
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Wheatstone Bridge (PYQ 2015, 2013)
H
It is an application of Kirchhoff’s rules

Balanced bridge (PYQ 2013, 2015)

When the resistors are such that the current through the galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0), it is called a balanced Wheatstone
Let us derive the relation for this condition using Kirchhoff’s rules.
Since Ig = 0, using junction law, I2 = I4 and I1 = I3

Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop ABDA From 1,2 we obtain

Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop BCDB Hence,

Application of Wheatstone bridge

It can be used to find the value of an unknown resistance R4 keeping R1 and R2 constant while varying R3 till
galvanometer shows null deflection (also known as Meter Bridge)

Meter Bridge (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2017, 2013, 2011, 2010)

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 Construction
It consists of a wire of 1m and uniform cross section stretched taught and clamped between two thick metallic strips
bent at right angles. The metallic strip has two gaps across which resistors can be connected. The end points where the
wire is clamped are connected to the cell through a key. One end of a galvanometer is connected to the metallic strip
midway b/w the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey. The jockey is essentially a
metallic rod whose one end has a knife edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical connection.

Working (PYQ 2020, 2017)

In the fig, the arms AB, BC, DA, CD, with resistances R, S, λ.l and λ(100-l) where λ is the resistance per unit cm of the
wire, form a Wheatstone bridge. If the jockey is moved along the wire, then there will be one position where the
galvanometer will show no current. Let the distance of the jockey from the end A at the balance point be l = l1. The four
resistances forming the bridge will be R, S, λl1, λ(100-l1). The balance condition gives-

Note: The percentage error in R can be minimized by adjusting balance point near the middle of the bridge i.e. when l1 is
close to 50cm

Important PYQs
¥E:÷7
c
Ques:

geB8BgBoq
gigolos
(PYQ 2019)

Ans: As we use thick metallic strips in between the gaps, the resistance of which is unknown some errors arise in the
observations. This error is known as end error. It can be overcome by taking multiple observations and then taking the
mean.

I
We know,

"

Since S is shunted (parallel) with

another resistance of the same value
Substituting in 1

So new eqn will be

-
②
.

o
Ques: In the meter bridge experimental setup shown in the figure, the null point D is obtained at distance of 40cm from
end A of the meter bridge. If a resistance of 10Ω is connected in series with R1, the null point is obtained at AD= 60cm.
calculate the value R1 and R2. (PYQ 2013)

Ans: We know, Substituting 1in 2

ATQ,
-

z
①

-
O
I
Ques:

(PYQ 2011)

/
Comparing numerator and denominator of 1,2
Ans: i) We know,

- ①

ATQ, ii) If the galvanometer and the battery is

exchanged, the balance point will not
be affected.

- ②

¥ Ques:
.

(PYQ 2010)
 I
Ans: We know, Now,

ATQ,

Potentiometer (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2010)

"
It is a device which used to measure the potential difference/ EMF without drawing any current from the voltage
source.

Principle
it works on the principle that when steady current flows through a uniform wire, the potential drop across a segment is
directly proportional to the length of the segment i.e.

where ɸ is the potential drop per unit length of the wire

Applications
1. Comparing EMFs of two cells
Consider two cells of emf ε1 and ε2. First, we close the key of ε1 and then move the jockey along the potentiometer wire.
There will be a point(N1) on the wire where if the jockey is kept, the current in the galvanometer becomes zero (balance
condition). Let the distance of the balance point from A be l1. Using Kirchhoff’s law in the loop AN1G31A,

Now closing the key for ε2 we get a balance point N2 at a distance l2 from A. using Kirchhoff’s rule in loop AN2

Dividing both the equations we get,

-This way we can compare emf of two cells and even calculate the emf of one cell if emf of the other is known
2. Calculating internal resistance of a cell (PYQ 2010)
Consider a cell with emf E and internal resistance r, connected across a resistance box through a key K2.
Keeping K2 open we obtain the balance point at a length l1; so, we can write

Now K2 is closed then balance point is obtained at a length l2,

We also know that if I is current, Dividing 1,2

Advantage
Advantage of potentiometer is that it gives the actual value of potential as it draws no current from the voltage source
that is being measured

Important PYQs
¥E÷÷7
.

Ques:

(PYQ 2020) (Ans- C)

Ques:

(PYQ 2016)

r e

R
Ans: To calculate the pot. Drop- To calculate the balancing length-

Ques: A potentiometer wire of length 1m has a resistance of 10Ω. It is connected to a 6V battery in series with a
resistance of 5Ω. Determine the emf of the primary cell which gives a balance point at 40cm. (PYQ 2014)

Ans: To calculate emf we have to first calculate the potential gradient

Ques: Write two possible causes for one sided deflection in a potentiometer (PYQ 2013)

Ans: 1. The emf of the cell whose emf is to be calculated is greater than the total potential drop across the
potentiometer wire

2. The +ve and -ve terminals of the cell (whose emf is to be calculated) and the source battery may not be connected to
the same terminal of the potentiometer wire

Ques: In the figure, a long uniform potentiometer wire AB having a constant potential gradient along its length. The null
points of two primary cells of emfs ε1 and ε2 connected in manner shown are obtained at a distance of 120cm and 300
cm from the end A. Find (i) ε1/ ε2 and (ii) position of null point for cell ε1
How is the sensitivity of a potentiometer increased? (PYQ 2010)
Ans: We can increase the sensitivity of a potentiometer by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
I) we know that,
•
(ii)
• •
I

If, (Componendo and dividendo)

Let,

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