CBSE GRADE 12

PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL

Name of the Student : Section :

CHAPTER 03 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current : The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of
charges through a given cross-sectional area A

If a net charge Q passes through any cross section of a conductor in time t, then
𝐐
the current is defined as I = , but charge flow is not always constant. Hence current
𝐭
∆𝐐
can more generally be defined as Iavg =
∆𝐭
Where ∆Q is the amount of charge that passes through the conductor at any cross
section during the time interval ∆t. If the rate at which charge flows changes with time,
DRIFT VELOCITY & RELAXATION TIME
the current also changes. The instantaneous current I is defined as the limit of the Drift velocity is the average velocity acquired by the free electrons that get
average current drifted to the positive side of the conductor when an electric field is applied.
 The average time between two successive collisions is called the mean free
time (or) relaxation time denoted by τ.
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A)
Newton’s II Law F = ma ---> (1)
One Ampere : If 1 coulomb of charge flows in one second of time perpendicular to the
Electric Force F = qE = - eE ---> (2)
cross section of the conductor, then the current is said to be One Ampere.
Combining Equ (1) & (2)

ELECTRIC CURRENT IS A SCALAR QUANTITY, JUSTIFY ?

Although Electric current has magnitude and direction, it is treated as Acceleration = Velocity / time , Therefore Velocity
scalar because it obeys only the law of scalar addition and not vector
law of addition.

Page : 1 Page : 2
 The above expression is valid only if the direction of the current is
perpendicular to the area.

Mobility : Mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
field.
I = (J cosθ ) A = J.A

Class work Numerical

1. A copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2carries a current of 0.2 A. If

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT & DRIFT VELOCITY the free electron density of copper is 8.4 × 1028 m–3then compute the drift
velocity of free electrons [ Ans : 0.03 × 10–3 m s–1 ]
Consider a conductor with length l and area of cross section A with electric field
applied. Let us assume that all the electrons move with the same drift velocity ( Vd) 2. Two metallic wires of the same material have the same length but cross
sectional area is in the ratio 1 : 2. They are connected (i) in series and (ii) in
parallel. Compare the drift velocities of electrons in the two wires in both
the cases (i) and (ii) [ Ans : case (i) 2:1, case (ii) 1:1 ]

Do you Know…..?
Why there is no current in a conductor, when there is no potential difference is
 The number of free electrons per unit volume = n maintained ?
In a conductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers. They move in a
 The total number of free electrons in the entire volume = n(volume) = nAvdt
random direction due to the thermal energy of the surrounding. On an average, the
 Hence the total charge present in the conductor ( Q = ne ) Q = nAvdte number of electrons travelling in any direction will be equal to the number of
electrons travelling in the opposite direction. As a result, there is no net flow of
 Therefore the current in the conductor ( I = Q/t ) I = nAevd
electrons in any direction and hence there will not be any current.
When a potential difference is set across the conductor by connecting a battery, an
I = nAevd
electric field is created in the conductor. This electric field exerts a force on the
electrons ( moving in a zig-zag direction ) producing a current.
CURRENT DENSITY ( J )

 The current density ( J ) is defined as the current per unit area of cross section
of the conductor.
 Current density is a vector quantity and its direction is taken as the direction of
Electric field.
 Its SI unit is A/m2

= nevd

Page : 3 Page : 4
 OHM’S LAW

At constant Temperature, the potential difference across the ends of the

conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

 The value of the resistance depends on nature and dimension of the material.

Relation between Resistivity and Relaxation time for a conductor

According to Ohm’s Law V = IR ( We know that I = nAevd )

V = ( nAevd )R Drift Velocity

V = ( nAe2 )R Electric field E = V/l

Factors affecting resistance :
 Resistance is directly proportional to length
Resistivity
 Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area
 Resistance also depends on nature and temperature of the material

where ρ is called the resistivity of the material.

Electrical Resistivity (ρ) : If l = 1 m and A = 1 m2, then the resistance R = ρ.

The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to
current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section.
 The SI unit of ρ is ohm-metre (Ω m)

Page : 5 Page : 6
  Why α is positive for conductors :
RELATION BETWEEN J , σ and E In case of conductors, as the temperature increases,
 the average kinetic energy of electrons increases , relaxation time decreases
 Hence resistance and resistivity increases. So α is positive
 Why α is negative for semi-conductors :
In case of semi - conductors, as the temperature increases,
 more electrons will be liberated from their atoms
 Hence resistance and resistivity decreases. So α is negative

Do you Know …?
The electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm/s for currents in the range of
a few amperes? How then is current established almost the instant a circuit is closed?

Electric field is established throughout the circuit, almost instantly causing at every
point a local electron drift. Establishment of a current does not have to wait for
electrons from one end of the conductor travelling to the other end. However, it does
take a little while for the current to reach its steady value. Even though, the resistivity of conductors like metals varies linearly with temperature, there
also exists a non-linear region at very low temperatures because resistivity has a finite
TEMPERATURE DEPENDANCE ON RESISTANCE & RESISITIVITY value as the temperature reaches absolute zero

 The resistance and resistivity of a material depends on temperature. Class work Numerical

 The resistivity of a conductor increases with increase in temperature according to 3. At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What
the expression is the temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, given that
the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1
[ Ans : T = 1027 0C ]
where ρT is the resistivity of a conductor at T , ρ0 is the resistivity of the conductor at
some reference temperature T0 ( room temperature ) and α is the temperature 4. A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at
coefficient of resistivity. 100 °C. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver
Hence temperature variation of resistance is given by the expression
[ Ans : α = 0.0039 0C-1 ]

5. A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial

current of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What
Temperature coefficient of resistivity ( α ) : It is defined as the ratio of increase in
is the steady temperature of the heating element if the room temperature is
27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged over the
resistivity per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity at T0
temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1 [ Ans : T2 = 867.5 0C ]

Page : 7 Page : 8
Super Conductivity :

In some metals, the resistance falls to zero when cooled to a critical temperature ELECTRICAL POWER & ELECTRICAL ENERGY
( - 1960C ). These materials are called as Super Conductors.

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW / NON – OHMIC DEVICES

 Devices that do not obey Ohm’s Law are called as Non ohmic devices
 Diode is a non ohmic device that are generally used to convert AC to DC, the V-I graph
is shown below
 Thyristor is a non ohmic device, that has four alternating layers of P type and N type
semiconductors, the current increases as voltage decreases
 The fundamental breakdown of Ohm’s Law occurs in alloys like GaAs at low
temperature

PN junction diode Thyristor

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Page : 9 Page : 10
 EMF, INTERNAL RESISTANCE & POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Do you know….?
To Obtain Maximum Power from a cell : The internal resistance of the cell must be
EMF (E) :
equal to the external resistance in the circuit
 EMF refers to Electro Motive Force
 It is defined as the maximum potential difference between the electrodes of a cell ,
when no current is drawn from the cell ( Open Circuit )
 Electromotive force determines the amount of work a battery or cell has to do move a
certain amount of charge around the circuit. It is denoted by the symbol E

Internal Resistance (r) :

 Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by the electrode and
electrolyte when electric current flows through it.
 An ideal battery has zero internal resistance ( r = 0 )

Factors affecting Internal resistance :

 Distance between the electrodes
 Nature of the electrodes
 Area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte
 Nature and concentration of the electrolyte

Terminal Potential Difference ( V ) :

 It is defined as the potential difference between the electrodes of a cell , when current
is drawn from the cell ( Closed Circuit )
 The terminal potential difference is always less than the EMF, because there is
decrease in potential due to the internal resistance
 During Discharging V = E – I(r)
 During Charging V = E + I®

Page : 11 Page : 12
COMBINATION OF CELLS

Page : 13 Page : 14
 10. A storage battery of emf 8 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is being charged by a 120 V DC supply

Class work Numerical using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging?
What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit? [ Ans : V = 11.5 V ]
6. A battery has an emf of 12 V and connected to a resistor of 3 Ω. The current in the circuit is
3.93A. Calculate (a) terminal voltage and the internal resistance of the battery (b) power Solved Numerical 01 :
delivered by the battery and power delivered to the resistor
[ Ans : V = 11.79 V, r =0.05 Ω, P = 46.3 W, ΔP = 0.8 W ]

7. From the given circuit, Find

i) Equivalent emf of the combination
ii) Equivalent internal resistance
iii) Total current
iv) Potential difference across external resistance
v) Potential difference across each cell

[ Ans : Eeq = 36 V, req =0.4 Ω, I = 3.46 A, V = 34.6 V, ΔV = 8.65 V ]

8. From the given circuit, Find

a. Equivalent emf of the combination
b. Equivalent internal resistance
c.Total current
d. Potential difference across external resistance
e. Current from each cell

[ Ans : Eeq = 5 V, req =0.125 Ω, I = 0.5 A, V = 5 V, ΔI = 0.125 A ]

9. The plot of the variation of potential difference across a combination of three identical cells in
series, versus current is shown alongside. What is the emf and internal resistance of each cell?

[ Ans : E = 2 V, r =2 Ω ]

Page : 15 Page : 16
Solved Numerical 02 : KIRCHHOFF’S CIRCUIT LAWS

Kirchhoff’s I Law [ Current Law (or) Junction Rule (or) Node Rule ]
 The algebraic sum of the current meeting at a junction is zero
 Kirchhoff’s I Law is based on the Law of conservation of charge

Σ I = 0
Sign Convention for I Law :
 Current coming towards the junction is taken as Positive (+)
 Current moving away from the junction is taken as Negative (-)

Kirchhoff’s II Law [ Voltage Law (or) Loop Rule (or) Mesh Rule ]

 The algebraic sum of the potential drops and emf(s) in a closed electric network
is zero
 Kirchhoff’s II Law is based on the Law of conservation of energy

Σ ΔV = 0
Sign Convention for II Law :
For Current :
 The current is taken as positive when we move along the direction of the current
 The current is taken as negative when we move opposite to the direction of the
current flow.

For EMF :

 EMF is taken as positive when we from positive (+) to Negative (-) of a cell.
 EMF is taken as negative when we from negative (-) to positive (+) of a cell.

Page : 17 Page : 18
 Solved Numerical 04 :

Kirchhoff voltage rule has to be applied only when all currents in the circuit reach a
steady state condition (the current in various branches are constant).

Example :

Class work Numerical

Solved Numerical 03 :
11. Using Kirchhoff 's rules determine the value of unknown resistance R in the
circuit so that no current flows through 4 ohm resistance. Also find the potential
difference between A and D.

[ Ans : I = 3/2 A, R = 2 Ω , VA – VD = 2 V ]

12. In the circuit shown, R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = R3 =15 Ω, R4 = 30 Ω and E = 10 V. Work out

the equivalent resistance of the circuit and the current in each resistor.

[ Ans : I1 = 1 A, I2 = I3 = 2/5 A, I4 = 1/5 A ]

Page : 19 Page : 20
 Class work Numerical
WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
13. Calculate the current drawn in the battery from the given network
 An important application of Kirchhoff ’s rules is the Wheatstone’s bridge.
 It is used to compare resistances and in determining the unknown resistance in
electrical network.
 The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S connected as shown in Figure
 A galvanometer G is connected between the points B and D. The battery is connected
between the points A and C.

[ Ans : I = 2 A ]
HOME WORK NUMERICAL

Question 01 : [ Mar 2024 ]

 On pressing the key K2 , If the galvanometer does not show any deflection ( null
deflection ) then the bridge is said to be balanced.
 It means no current has flown through the galvanometer [ VB = VD ]

Apply KVL rule for loop ADBA I2 R – I1P = 0 (or) I2 R = I1P  (1) 2. The network PQRS, shown in the circuit diagram, has the batteries of 4 V and 5 V and negligible internal resistance. A
milliammeter of 20 Ω resistance is connected between P and R. Calculate the reading in the milliammeter.
Apply KVL rule for loop BCDB I1 Q – I2S = 0 (or) I1 Q = I2S  (2)

Dividing equation (1) & (2)

𝑷 𝑹
We get
𝑸
= 𝑺
[ Equation for a Balanced Wheatstone’s Bridge ]

3. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to determine the value of the current I1 flowing in the circuit shown in the figure.

What happens when we change the position of the Cell and Galvanometer in a Wheatstone’s Bridge ?
Ans : Remains Unchanged, even though the position of the cell and galvanometer are interchanged, there is
no change in the balancing point.

Page : 21 Page : 22