6.

AC Generator :
A device which converts Mechanical ⃗ .B
φ = N(A ⃗ ) = NAB cos θ ε = ε0 sin ωt
energy into Electrical energy. = NAB cos ωt
Principle: It is based on Electro ε = ε0 sin 2 𝝅ν t,
Magnetic Induction. When a coil ε= --
dΦ d
= - (NAB cos ωt)
rotates continuously in magnetic dt 𝑑t ν- frequency of
field, then variation of magnetic flux rotation of
ε =ω NAB sin ωt
with time results in production of an generator coil
alternating emf in the coil.
Q1. An alternating voltage of 220 V is applied across a device X, a current of 0.25 A flows, which lag behind the applied voltage in
phase by π/2 radian. If the same voltage is applied across another device Y, the same current flows but now it is in phase with the
applied voltage. (i) Name the devices X and Y. (ii) Calculate the current flowing in the circuit when the same voltage is applied
across the series combination of X and Y. (5 marks , CBSE 18,19)
Q2. (a) State the principle of working of a transformer. (b) Define efficiency of a transformer. (c) State any two factors that
reduce the efficiency of a transformer. (d) Calculate the current drawn by the primary of a 90% efficient transformer which steps
down 220 V to 22 V, if the output resistance is 440 Ω. (5 marks 18, 19, 20)
Q3. In a series LCR circuit connected across an ac source of variable frequency, obtain the expression for its impedance and draw
a plot showing its variation with frequency of the ac source. (b) What is the phase difference between the voltages across
inductor and the capacitor at resonance in the LCR circuit ? (c) When an inductor is connected to a 200 V dc voltage, a current of
1A flows through it. When the same inductor is connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz ac source, only 0.5 A current flows. Explain, why ?
Also, calculate the self inductance of the inductor . (5 marks) CBSE 2019
Q4. Draw a labelled diagram of an AC generator. Obtain the expression for the emf induced in the rotating coil of N turns each of
cross-sectional area A, in the presence of a magnetic field B 3 marks (2019)
Q5. A device ‘X’ is connected to an ac source V = V0sinω t. The
variation of voltage, current and power in one cycle is shown
in the following graph
(a) Identify the device ‘X’. (b) Which of the curves A, B and C
represent the voltage, current and the power consumed in
the circuit ? Justify your answer. (c) How does its
impedance vary with frequency of the ac source ? Show
graphically. (d) Obtain an expression for the current in the
circuit and its phase relation with ac voltage.
5Marks (2017)

Chapter- 8 Electromagnetic waves

Characteristics of EM waves:
1.Waves propagating in space through electric and magnetic fields varying in space
and time simultaneously.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ are perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of
2. E and B
propagation of wave. So, EM waves are transverse waves.
EM waves are produced by accelerating charged particles.
3. Speed of EM waves is given by
E 1
a) = c = = 3 X 108 m/s (in free space)
B √𝜇0 𝜀0
1 𝑐 𝑐
b) b) v = = = , n is refractive index of medium ( in medium)
𝜇𝜀 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 𝑛 Equations of Electric and magnetic
4. EM waves are neutral so , they are not deflected by Electric and field:
Magnetic fields. ⃗ = E0 sin (ωt- kz) î
E
5. The average value of electric energy density and magnetic energy density ⃗B = B0 sin (ωt –kz) ĵ
are equal
1 1 𝐵2
( ε0 E2)a v = ( )a v
2 2 𝜇0
ℎ𝑐
EM waves carry Energy and momentum. E= , P= mc
𝜆
 Spectrum of EM waves Uses of EM Waves
Waves Production Uses
1. Gamma Radio active decay of Treatment of cancer, finds flaws
Rays nucleus in metals, sterilize equipment’s

2. X- Rays Transition of electrons Diagnostic tool in medicine, to

from higher energy level study crystal structure, to find
to lower energy level. fracture in bones.

3.Ultra violet Moving electrons from Used in water purifier, burglar

Rays higher energy level to alarms, finger prints, detect
lower forgery, LASIK
4. Visible light Accelerated charged Photosynthesis and plant
particle growth, LASER and optical
fibers, to see objects
5. Infra red Vibrations of atoms and Photography through haze fog,
molecules of hot bodies weather forecasting,
Physiotherapy, green house
effect
6. Micro Produced in Klystron Valve RADAR system, microwave
waves or Magnetron valve oven, Communication

7.Radio Accelerated charged Radio communication, Radio

Waves Particle Astronomy

Q1. How are EM waves produced by oscillating charges ? Draw a sketch of linearly polarized EM waves propagating in the Z-
direction. Indicate the directions of the oscillating electric and magnetic fields. 3Marks (2016)
Q2. (a) Identify the part of the electromagnetic spectrum used in (i) RADAR and (ii) LASIK eye surgery. Write their frequency
range.. 3Marks (2019)
Q3. Give one use of electromagnetic radiations produced in nuclear disintegrations. 1 Marks (2018)
Q4. How are infra red waves produced? Write their 1 important use. 2 Marks( 2016,19)
Q5. How are infra red waves produced? Write their 1 important use. 2 Marks( 2016,19)

Chapter 9 Ray Optics and optical Instruments

1.Total internal reflection. The phenomenon . Relation between refractive index
of reflection of light that takes place when a and critical angle for a given pair of
ray of light traveling in a denser medium gets media
incident at the interface of the two media at Relation At i=iC and r=900
an angle greater than the critical angle for According to snell’s law
that pair of media Conditions : (a) Ray should µ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
µ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = µ1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟, µ = 2 =
µ1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
travel from denser medium to rarer medium. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝐶
the critical angle for the pair of media (i>iC) 1
µ=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝐶

2. Deviation of ray through right isosceles prism (Condition : the critical angle ic the prism must be less than 45o.

(i) A ray deviates through 90o (ii) A ray deviates through 180o (iii) invert an image without deviation using totally
reflecting prism
5. A compound microscope, when the final 6. A refracting telescope at Normal adjustment. 7. A Reflecting type telescope.
image is formed at LDDV Objective lens: very large focal length, large Objective: large concave
objective lens: very small focal length, small aperture, eye piece: small focal length and small parabolic mirror
aperture, eye piece: large focal length and aperture eye piece: placed on the axis of
large aperture the telescope
𝑳 𝑫 Magnifying power in normal adjustment,
Magnifying power M= - (𝟏 + )
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆 𝒇 𝒇𝒐
M=- 𝒐 Magnifying power: M = -
𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝒆

8. Power of a lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens .Its S.I. unit is Dioptre (D)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(i) P = ; (ii) P= (µ − 𝟏) [ − ]
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
9. Refraction through spherical surface 10.Lens maker’s formula
Assumption (i) Point object lying on principal axis,(ii) small
aperture,(iii) small angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
When object is situated in the rarer medium

By refraction through first surface

−µ𝟏 µ µ −µ
+ 𝟐′ = 𝟐 𝟏 …………….(1)
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹𝟏
−µ𝟐 µ𝟏 µ𝟏 −µ𝟐
+ = ………….(2)
𝒗′ 𝒗 𝑹𝟐
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑴𝑵 𝑴𝑵
i = ∠1+∠2 = + , r =∠2-∠3 = = − Adding (1) and (2)
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑴𝑪 𝑴𝑰
−µ1 µ 1 1
By Snell’s law µ1 sin i = µ2 sin r or for small angles µ1 i = µ2r + 1 = (µ𝟐 − µ𝟏 ) [ − ]
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
Substituting i and r and using sign convention
Dividing by µ1 ,we get
OM = –u, MI = +v, MC = +R −1 1 1 1 µ2
−µ𝟏 µ µ −µ
+ 𝟐= 𝟐 𝟏 + = (µ − 1) [ − ] (where µ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2 µ1
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹 1 1 1
(ii) When object is situated in the denser medium = (µ − 1) [ − ]
−µ𝟐 µ µ −µ 𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
+ 𝟏= 𝟏 𝟐 ( obtained by interchanging µ1 and µ2)
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹

11. Combination of thin lenses in contact

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇𝟏 𝒗′ 𝒖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇𝟐 𝒗 𝒗′
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = +
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
P = P1 + P 2

questions Q1. Draw a schematic ray diagram of reflecting telescope showing how rays coming from a distant object are
received at the eye-piece. Write its two important advantages over a refracting telescope (2016,17)
Q2.Draw a ray diagram depicting the formation of the image by an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment
Q3. Under what conditions is the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light observed ? Obtain the relation between the
critical angle of incidence and the refractive index of the medium (2019)
Q4. There are three lenses. Which two lenses will you use as an eyepiece and as objective to construct a compound microscope?

Lenses Power (D) Aperture (cm)

(2017)

L1 3 8

L2 6 1

L3 10 1

Q5 .A triangular prism of refracting angle 60 o is made of a transparent material of refractive index 2/√3.A ray of light is incident
normally on the one of its face. Trace the path of the ray as it passes through the prism and calculate the angle of emergence
and angle of deviation. ( 2019)

Chapter 10 WAVE OPTICS

1. Wavefront. The locus of the points in the medium, which at any instant are vibrating in the same phase.

Types of wave fronts (i) spherical (ii) cylindrical (iii) plane (iv) Diverging (iv) converging wave front

2. Huygens’ principle
a. Each point on a given wave front acts as a source of
secondary wavelets, sending out disturbance in all directions
in a similar manner as the original source of light does.
b. The new position of the wave front at any instant is the
forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at that instant.

3. Laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens’s principle.

AB = EC =ct, ∠1 =∠2 = 90o and AC is common
ΔAEC ≅ΔCBA
therefore ∠i= ∠r
 4. Laws of refraction on the basis of (i) Rarer to denser (ii) Denser to rarer
Huygens’s principle
sin i = v1 t/AC
sin r= v2 t/AC
sini v1 t v1
= = =
sinr v2 t v2
µ1 =c/v1, µ2 =c/v2,
v1 µ sini
= 2= = µ (snell’s law)
v2 µ1 sinr

5. Coherent sources of light: Sources of light emitting waves of same frequency having zero or constant phase difference.
6. Interference of light: Redistribution of the intensity, when two light waves of same frequency having zero or constant phase
difference superimpose on each other. (Resultant intensity: I = I 1 + I2 +2 √ I1 I2cosØ)
Ø
If I1= I2 = Io ; I = 2 (1+ cosØ) = 4 Iocos2
2
Constructive interference Destructive interference
The interference taking place at points of maximum intensity The interference taking place at points of minimum intensity.
Condition : Phase difference, φ = 2nπ Condition : Phase difference, φ = (2n – 1)π
Path difference, Δ = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,… Path difference, Δ = (2n – 1)λ / 2 where, n = 1, 2, 3, …
Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be
maximum minimum
Imax =4I0 Imin =0
7. Sustained interference pattern: Position of maxima and minima of intensity on the screen do not change with time.
Conditions :(i) Sources should be coherent;(ii) amplitude of the interfering waves should be same;(iii) Source should be
monochromatic ;(iv) distance between the sources should be small and large distance between sources and scree

8. Expression of interference fringe width in YDSE Path difference Δ = S2P – S1P

𝑑 2 𝑑 2
S2P2 - S1P2 = [𝐷2 + (𝑦 + ) ] - [𝐷2 + (𝑦 − ) ]
2 2

(S2P – S1P)( S2P + S1P) =2yd

2𝑦𝑑 𝒚𝒅
(S2P – S1P) = Δ= = (as S2P ≈S1P≈D)
2𝐷 𝑫

Position of bright fringe:

𝒚𝒅 𝑛𝜆𝐷
Δ= =nλ 𝑦𝑛 = where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
𝑫 𝑑

𝑦𝑑 (2𝑛−1)𝜆𝐷
Position of dark fringe: Δ= =(2n-1)λ/2 𝑦𝑛 =
𝐷 2𝑑
where, n = 1, 2, 3,…

9.Fringe Width :The distance between the centres 𝝀𝑫

Width of a dark fringe 𝒚𝒏 -𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = β =
𝒅
of two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called
𝝀𝑫 𝝀𝑫
the fringe width. β =
𝒅
Width of a bright fringe 𝒚′ 𝒏 -𝒚′ 𝒏−𝟏 = 𝜷 =
𝒅

𝜷
The angular fringe width is given by θ = =λ / d.
𝑫

𝝎𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝒂𝟐
𝟏
10. Ratio of slit widths in YDSE = =
𝝎𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝒂𝟐
𝟐
2
11. Intensity at maxima Imax α (a1 + a2)
12. Intensity at minima Imin α (a1 - a2)2
 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝒂 +𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 𝒓+𝟏 𝟐 𝒂𝟏
13. Intensity ratio at maxima and minima, = (𝒂𝟏 𝟐 =( ) where r =
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟏 −𝒂𝟐 ) 𝒓−𝟏 𝒂𝟐

14. Single slit diffraction : bending of light at Path difference NP – LP = NQ =LN sinθ = a sinθ
sharp corners
Condition for Minima b sinθ = nλ ,n=1,2,3……

Condition for secondary Maxima b sinθ =(2 n + 1)λ/2 ,n=1,2,3……

Angular width = θ = λ/b

Angular width of Central Maximum = 2θ = 2 λ/b

𝟐𝝀𝑫
Linear width =
𝒃

15. Difference between Diffraction and Interference

Interference Diffraction
It is due to superposition of two distinct waves coming It is due to superposition of the secondary wavelets
from two coherent sources. that emerge from the different parts of the same
wave front.
The intensity of all the points on maxima is of similar Intensity goes on decreasing as diffraction band
intensity increases
The intensity of minima is generally zero. The intensity of minima is never zero.
The widths of the fringes are equal. Width of central maxima is twice the width of other
fringes

1. Derive the expression for the intensity at a point of the interference pattern in YDSE. ( 2018,2019)
2. Define the term wave front. Using Huygens’s wave theory, verify the law of reflection. (2019)
3. Define the term, “refractive index” of a medium. Verify Snell’s law of refraction when a plane wave front is propagating
from a denser to a rarer medium. ( 2017,2019,2020)
4. In the diffraction due to a single slit experiment, the aperture of the slit is 3 mm. If monochromatic light of wavelength
620 nm is incident normally on the slit, calculate the separation between the first order minima and the 3rd order
maxima on one side of the screen. The distance between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m (2019)
5. Describe any two characteristic features which distinguish between interference and diffraction phenomena. Derive
the expression for the intensity at a point of the interference pattern in Young’s double slit experiment. (2019)

Chapter-11 Dual nature of Matter and Radiation

1. Concept of photon—
(i) Light is propagated in terms of bundles of energy called photons. (ii) Rest mass of photon is zero. (iii)Energy of photon
𝑐 𝜈
is E= hν =h (iv)Linear momentum of photon is p = h/λ = h
𝜆 𝑐
2. Photo Electric effect—
Phenomenon of emission of electrons from a photo sensitive metallic surface, when photons of suitable energy
( above threshold frequency) are incident upon it.
3. Laws of Photoelectric Emission—
(i) Photon requires a minimum threshold frequency to eject the electrons from metal surface.
(ii) Number of ejected electrons per unit time is proportional to the intensity of incident photons.
(iii) Kinetic Energy of ejected electrons depends upon frequency of photons and not on intensity of photons.
(iv) It is an instantaneous process.
(v) It is one to one interaction, i.e. one photon can eject maximum one electron.
4. Important Formulae:
(i) Einstein’s Photo Electric Equation: eV0 = hν - φ0 , where φ0(work function) = hν0(ν0 is threshold frequency)
ℎ ℎ ℎ
(ii) de- Broglie Wavelength λ= = = ,
𝑝 √2𝑚 𝐸𝑘 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉
where Ek = Kinetic energy of particle, V = potential associated with charged particles
5. Definitions:
(i) Intensity of Radiation: photon energy incident per m2 per sec. S.I. Unit - W/m2 or J /s m2
(ii) Threshold frequency ( ν0) : Minimum frequency of incident radiation for photo electric emission.
(iii) Stopping potential or cut off Voltage (V0) : Minimum retarding potential of anode for which photocurrent becomes
zero.
(iv) Work function ( φ0 ) : Minimum Energy required to free an electron from metallic surface.

6. Characteristics of Photo Electric Emission :

Effect of intensity: Variation of photo current with Variation of stopping potential Variation of stopping potential
potential (at constant with frequency (at constant with frequency
frequency) current )

Photo electric current With the increase in intensity, (i)With the change in (i) The stopping potential V0
increases with increase saturation current increases frequency, stopping potential varies linearly with the
in intensity of incident but stopping potential remains changes but saturation current frequency of incident radiation
photon. the same. remains same. for a given photosensitive
material. (ii) There exists a
(ii)The stopping potential is certain minimum cut-off
more negative for higher frequency ν0 for which the
frequencies of incident stopping potential is zero.
radiation.

From above graphs, it is observed that,

(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency ν0 , no photoelectric emission is possible
even if the intensity is large.

7.Einstein’s Photo Electric Equation: e V0 slope= h (Planck’s constant)

The equation is based on conservation of energy.
1
hν = φ0 + m v2
2
1
m v2 = eV0 = hν - φ0 ν0 ν
2
ℎ 𝜙0
V0 = ν -- ϕ0
𝑒 𝑒

8. Matter waves:
The waves associated with moving particles is regarded as matter waves. According to de Broglie, the wavelength associated
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
with the moving particle is: λ= , λ= , λ == =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 √2𝑚 𝐸𝑘 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉
12.27
de Broglie wavelength of electron is λe = 𝜆𝑒
√𝑉
9. Questions: 1/ √𝑉
Q1. Write 3 characteristic features of photo Electric Effect, which cannot be explained by wave theory. (13, 15, 16, 17, 19)
Ans: (i) K.E is independent of intensity of incident light (ii) No emission of electrons takes place, if frequency of incident light is
below threshold frequency. (iii) Photo electric Effect is an instantaneous process.
Q2. A proton and an alpha particle are scattered through the same potential. Which of the two has –
(i) greater de Broglie wavelength (ii) less kinetic energy? (CBSE 14, 16, 17, 20)
ℎ 1
Ans: (i) λ = , for same potential, λ α , 𝑚𝛼 = 4 𝑚𝑝 ,𝜆𝑝 :𝜆𝛼 = 2√2 : 1 so 𝜆𝑝 > 𝜆𝛼
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √mq
(ii). Ek = q V0 , for same potential V0 , E (p) : E (α) = q p : q α = 1: 2 so, proton has less KE than alpha particle.
Q3. Draw a graph between the frequency of the incident radiation and maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted from the
surface of photo sensitive metal. Use it to determine, (i)Planck’s constant (ii) work function of metal. (CBSE 16, 18, 19)
Q4. Show the variation of photo current with collector plate potential for different frequencies but same intensity of incident
radiation. (CBSE 12,17)
Q5. Explain Photo Electric effect of current on the basis of Einstein’s Photo Electric Equation. (CBSE 10,15,17)
Chapter 12 Atoms

1. Alpha particle scattering experiment OR Gold- foil experiment OR Geiger Marsden experiment-
(i) Experimental set up:

(ii) Observations of the experiment:

(a)Most of the  particles pass without any deviation and some of them deviate by small angles.
(b)Very small no of -particle scattered through much larger angle (more than 90).
(c)It was found that 1 out 8,000 (approximately) - particles were deflected through 180
(iii) Conclusion (Rutherford’s atomic model):
On the basis of observation of - particles scattering Rutherford proposed an atomic model.
(a)Most of the space in the atom is empty (b) Total positive charge is concentrated at the center within a very small volume ,
that is known as nucleus(c)Electron revolves around the nucleus(d)Size of atom (10 −10 m)and size of nucleus is (10 −15 m) .Size of
nucleus is only 10,0000th part of the size of atom.
2.Drawback of Rutherford atomic model: -
(i)this model could not explain stability of electron.
(ii)this model could not explain line spectrum of hydrogen atom.
3. Distance of nearest approach:- The minimum distance up to which -particle approach towards the nuclei is called distance
of nearest approach. As -particle move towards nucleus, its kinetic energy will convert into electrostatic Potential Energy. At
distance ‘ro’ K.E will complete converted into P.E .
Distance of nearest approach r0=2KZe2/E It is approximately equal to the radius of the nucleus.
4. Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the -particle from the centre of the nucleus
when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact parameter. It is given as
Ze 2 cot( / 2)
b=  b  cot( / 2) 
1 2 b
40  mv  +
Nucleus
2 
For large b,  particles will go un-deviated and for small b the -particle will suffer large scattering. And when b=0 angle of
scattering is 1800
5. Bohr atomic model: - Fundamental postulates of Bohr atom model are following.
(i). Stationary orbit: - Electrons revolve around the nucleus in particular orbits. At the time of revolution in particular orbit there
is no loss or gain of energy of electron.
(ii) Quantization condition: - Electron can move only in those orbits for which angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2
. Angular momentum L = m v r = n h/2 
 Where h is a Planck’s constant, m=mass of electron,
V = velocity of electron, r = radius of permitted orbit n =1,2,3---------
(iii)Transition: - Whenever an electron makes a transition from one orbit to other , it emits or absorbs a photon of energy h,
which is given by Ef – Ei =h. This is called Bohr’s frequency condition.
6. Expression for radius , speed and energy of electron using Bohr's atomic model:−
n2 2 k Z e 2 Z e2  c Z 6 Z
(i) Radius of orbit : rn  (ii) Speed of electron: v n = = = . = 2.2  10 m / sec
Z nh 2  0 n h  137  n n
1 1 ( Ze )e 1 ( Ze )( −e)
(iii) Total energy: kinetic energy K = . Electrostatic potential energy, U =
2 4 0 r 4 0 r

1 1 Ze 2 Z2
Total energy E = − OR E n = −13 .6 eV E1=-13.6eV, E2=-3.46eV, E3=-1.51eV, E4=-0.856eV
2 40 rn n2
Note:− Total energy=-(Kinetic energy), potential energy=2 (total energy)
7. Explanation of line spectrum of hydrogen atom.
When an electron makes transition from higher energy level to a lower energy level then a photon of frequency  and wave
1  1 1 
length λ is emitted. Wave length is given by ν= = R  2 − 2  Where 1
= 911 A0
  n1 n2  𝑅

S. No. Series observed Value of n1 Value of n2 Position in the spectrum

1. Lyman series 1 2, 3, 4, …,  Ultraviolet
2. Balmer series 2 3, 4, 5, …,  Visible
3. Paschen series 3 4, 5, 6, …,  Infra-red
4. Brackett series 4 5, 6, 7, …,  Infra-red
5. Pfund series 5 6, 7, 8, …,  Infra-red

8. Excitation energy =E1-E2 = Energy difference, Excitation potential = excitation energy/e

9. Ionization energy =E(infinity)- En ,Ionization potential = Ionization energy/e
10. Limitation of Bohr’s theory: - (i) Bohr model is applicable only for single electron system.
(ii) It does not explain the fine structure and splitting of spectral lines.
Important questions
1. Write postulates of Bohr atomic model and derive an expression for radius and velocity of electron in n th orbit.
2. Using Bohr atomic model find out expression of energy of electron in n th orbit.
3. Draw labeled diagram of Geiger Marsden Experiment and write its conclusion.
4. State Bohr’s quantization condition of angular momentum. Calculate the shortest wavelength of the Bracket series and state
to which part of the electromagnetic spectrum it belongs. (2019)
5. Calculate the ratio of the frequencies of the radiation emitted due to transition of the electron in a hydrogen atom from its (i)
second permitted energy level to the first level and (ii) highest permitted energy level to the second permitted level. (2018)

Chapter13 Nuclei
1. Atomic Nucleus: -The atomic nucleus was first discovered by Rutherford. Nucleus is a small, central, massive and
positively charged core Nucleus is made of two types of elementary particles proton and neutron which are combined
known as nucleons
 .
Name of particle Proton Neutron
Mass mp=1.6725 10−27 kg =1.007277amu mn =1.674810−27 kg, mn=1.008665amu.

Charge +1.610−19 Coulomb ZERO

Discovered by Goldstein James Chadwick
Deflected by electric and magnetic YES NO
field
Any element X can be represented as ZXA
Where A is mass Number, Z is atomic no and N is number of neutrons. A= Z + N
Isotope Isobar Isotone
Nuclei having same atomic number Nuclei having same mass number Nuclei having same Neutron number
1 2 3 14 14 13 14 15
1H , 1H , 1H 6C , 7N 6C , 7N , 8O

1
2. Atomic mass unit OR amu : It is defined as th mass of carbon 12 atom. 1 amu (or 1 u) = 1.6605402  10–27 kg.
12
3. Nuclear size: -Nucleus is nearly spherical. Volume of nucleus is directly proportional to mass no A.
R = R0 A1 / 3
Ro =10 −15 m, is constant. 1 Fermi (F) =10 −15 m
4. Einstein’s mass energy relation: According to this relation mass can be converted into energy .Energy equivalent to 1 amu
mass is given by E = m c2 = 931.5 MeV
5. Nuclear density: - Volume of nucleus = 4/3r3 =4/33.14 (10−15)3 mass of H2 atom M=1.672310−27kg.
m 1.6  10 − 27
So density of lightest nucleus hydrogen d = = = 10 17 Kg / m3
V 4 22 −15 3
  (10 )
3 7
Hence density of nucleus is of order of 1017 kg/m3and it is same for all nuclei. Hence nuclear density is independent of mass
number and it is extremely high.
6. Mass defect :If M is mass of the nucleus than it is found that total mass of the nucleus is always less than the total mass of the
constituent nucleons in free state .Difference between the mass of the constituent nucleons and the mass of nucleus is known
as mass defect. m =[Z Mp + (A−Z)  Mn ] − M
7. Nuclear force: - There is a force inside the nucleus, which is attractive and strong enough to overcome the repulsive force
called nuclear force.
Properties of nuclear force -
(i) It is a short-range force. (ii) It is spin independent (iii) It is the strongest force in nature Fg : Felec : Fnucl = 1 : 1036 : 1038
(iv) Nuclear force is charge independent and act between p-p , p-n and n-n with same magnitude (v)It is attractive force
(vi) Nuclear forces are non-central force. (vii) Nuclear forces are exchange forces: Nuclear force between the two nucleons is
the result of the exchange of particles called mesons between the nucleons.
(viii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a few femtometres. The
potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger than
0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission

Two lighter nuclei combines to form a heavier nucleus Splitting of a Heavy nuclei like uranium into two nuclei when
with release of tremendous amount of energy bombarded with neutrons.
2 2 4 𝟏 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟏
IH +1H 2He + energy (24 MeV) 𝟎𝒏 + 𝟗𝟐𝑼 = 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 3 𝟎𝒏 + Energy (200MeV)
Reaction takes place at higher temperature (107 K) Reactions take place at normal temp.
therefore this is also known as thermonuclear reaction.
The energy released per nucleon is more as compare to The energy is less as compare to energy released in fusion.
energy released in fission
 Fusionable materials are light particles H2 etc so easily Fissionable material U, Pu etc are limited on earth.
available.
Fusion cannot be controlled and its energy is not utilized. Fission can be controlled. Energy is used in nuclear reactor.

Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion. Atom bomb is based on nuclear fission
Important questions
1. Draw a plot showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Mark the regions
where the nuclear force is (i) Attractive and (ii) repulsive. (2018)
2. From the relation R = R0 A 1/3, where R0 is constant and A is the mass number of the nucleus, show that nuclear matter density
is independent of A. (2015)
3. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Show how in both these processes energy is released. (2015)
4. The nuclear radius of Al (13,27) is 3·6 fermi. Find the nuclear radius of Cu (29, 64). (2020)
Chapter 14: Semiconductor Electronics
1. Energy band diagrams for conductors, insulator and semiconductor with their band gap.

(i) for conductors (ii) For Insulators iii) For semiconductors

2. Energy band diagrams for intrinsic semiconductor at
(i) at zero Kelvin (ii) Greater than zero Kelvin

3. Intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductor

(i)Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. At zero Kelvin they behave like Insulator. But as temperature
increases covalent bond breaks and electron hole pairs are produced and hence its conductivity increases. For intrinsic
semiconductors, number of electrons (ne) =number of holes (nh )
(ii)The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increase by addition of very small amounts of trivalent or pentavalent
impurities. The process of mixing impurities in a pure semiconductor is called doping and such type of semiconductor is known
as is called extrinsic (doped) semiconductor.

4. Energy band diagrams for n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.

(a) In N type semiconductor donner energy level is slightly below the lowest level of conduction band(b) In P type semiconductor
acceptor energy level is slightly above the highest level of valance band
5. Differences between N type and P type semiconductor.

N type semiconductor P type semiconductor

1. It is formed by doping of suitable pentavalent Impurity 1. It is formed by doping of suitable trivalent Impurity like
like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P). Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminum (Al).
2. It Consist of majority electrons, minority holes and 2. It Consist of majority holes, minority electrons and
donner ions. acceptor ions.
3. Number of excess electrons is equal to donner ions so it 3. Number of excess holes is equal to acceptor ions so it is
is electrically neutral. electrically neutral.
6. Formation of p-n junction:
(i)Two Important processes take place during formation of PN Junction
(a)Diffusion: Motion of holes and electron due to the concentration gradient is known as diffusion. Holes diffuse from p-side to
n-side while electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side. The direction of diffusion current is from p-side to n-side.
(b)Drift: The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Holes drift from n-side to p-side while electrons
drift from p-side to n-side. The direction of drift current is from to n-side to p-side.
(ii)Depletion layer: The space-charge region on either side of the junction together which is free from mobile charge carriers and
contains only immobile donner and acceptor ion is known as depletion region or depletion layer. Potential difference across the
depletion layer is known as barrier potential.
(iii)Break down voltage: The value of reverse voltage applied to a PN junction for which junction breakdown and current
increase significantly without increasing voltage and is known break down voltage.
7. Characteristic curve of a p-n Junction diode:

(i) During forward bias width of depletion layer decreases and current flows hence a diode offer very small resistance in forward
bias
(ii) During reverse bias width of depletion layer increases and no current flows hence a diode offer very high resistance in
reverse bias
(iii) In forward bias positive terminal of battery should be connected with P side and negative terminal with N side while in
reverse bias positive terminal of battery should be connected with N side and negative terminal with P side
8. Rectifier: A device which converts ac into dc is known as rectifier. Rectifier is of two types.
A P-N junction diode conducts in forward bias and does not conduct in reverse bias. This property of P-N junction diode is used
in rectifier.
(i)Half wave rectifier : It uses only one P-N junction diode.

(ii) Full wave rectifier: It uses two P-N junction diode.

9. Special purpose junction diode (Optoelectronic junction devices):− Semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by
photons (photo-excitation) are called optoelectronic devices.
(i) Photodiodes (photodetectors):− A junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is called photodiode. It is used for
detecting optical signal.it works when photon of energy greater than band gap of semiconductor is incident on it.
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED):− A diode, which emits visible radiation when forward bias applied, is called LED. It converts
electrical energy into light. It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation.
(iii) Solar cells (Photovoltaic cell) :− A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the
p-n junction. Here light energy can be used to produce current.
 Solar cell

LED

Used in Forward bias Used with no bias Used in reverse bias

Here I1,I2,I3and I4 are different light

intensities
Important questions
Q1. Draw the diagram of full wave rectifier. Draw the input and output waveforms.2015, 2017, 2019)
Q2. Draw the energy band diagrams for conductors, insulator and semiconductor, also write their band gap.
Q3. Draw the circuit diagram for the characteristic curve of a p-n Junction diode. Draw the characteristic curve also.
Q4. Draw I –V Characteristics and biasing of LED, solar cell and Photo diode and in which bias they are used?
Q5. Why Si and GaAs are preferred materials for solar cells?