Photoelectric effect

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Light–matter interaction

Low-energy phenomena:

Photoelectric effect

Mid-energy phenomena:

Thomson scattering

Compton scattering

High-energy phenomena:

Pair production

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The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light hits a material.
Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photoelectrons. This phenomenon is commonly
studied in electronic physics and in fields of chemistry such as quantum
chemistry and electrochemistry.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the
transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of
light induces changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. According to this
theory, a sufficiently dim light is expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light
and the subsequent emission of an electron.
 But the experimental results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical
theory. Instead, experiments showed that electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of light
when it reached or exceeded a threshold frequency. Below that threshold, no electrons are emitted
from the material, regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light.
Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity could not build up the energy required to produce
photoelectrons like it would have if light's energy were continuous like a wave, Einstein proposed
that a beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave
packets (photons).
Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts,
corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. Emissions can be induced with photons
with energies approaching zero (in the case of negative electron affinity) to over 1 MeV for core
electrons in elements with a high atomic number. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important
steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the
concept of wave–particle duality.[1] Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric
charges include the photoconductive effect (also known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity),
the photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical effect.

Schematic of experimental apparatus to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. The filter passes light of certain
wavelengths from the lamp at left. The light strikes the curved electrode, and electrons are emitted. The
adjustable voltage can be increased until the current stops flowing. This "stopping voltage" is a function only of
the electrode material and the frequency of the incident light, and is not affected by the intensity of the light.

Contents

 1Emission mechanism
o 1.1Experimental observations of photoelectric emission
o 1.2Mathematical description
o 1.3Stopping potential
o 1.4Three-step model
 2History
o 2.119th century
o 2.220th century
 3Uses and effects
o 3.1Photomultipliers
o 3.2Image sensors
o 3.3Gold-leaf electroscope
o 3.4Photoelectron spectroscopy
 o 3.5Spacecraft
o 3.6Moon dust
o 3.7Night vision devices
 4Cross section
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

Emission mechanism[edit]
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the frequency of
the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of
one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the
material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material.
Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy
photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon
with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not
depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the
individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the innermost electrons. The
movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then result in the emission of a photon.
Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually follow an "all or nothing"
principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from
atomic binding, or else the energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the
energy liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic
energy as a free particle.[2][3][4]
Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily observable from metals or other
conductors because the process produces a charge imbalance, and if this charge imbalance is not
neutralized by current flow (enabled by conductivity), the potential barrier to emission increases until
the emission current ceases. It is also usual to have the emitting surface in a vacuum, since gases
impede the flow of photoelectrons and make them difficult to observe. Additionally, the energy
barrier to photoemission is usually increased by thin oxide layers on metal surfaces if the metal has
been exposed to oxygen, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric
effect use clean metal surfaces in a vacuum.
When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the term internal
photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum distinguished as external photoemission.
Experimental observations of photoelectric emission[edit]
The theory of the source of photoelectric effect must explain the experimental observations of the
emission of electrons from an illuminated metal surface.
For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below
which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency. Increasing
the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the number of incident photons fixed (this would result
in a proportionate increase in energy) increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
emitted. Thus the stopping voltage increases (see the experimental setup in the figure). The number
of electrons also changes because of the probability that each photon results in an emitted electron
are a function of photon energy. If the intensity of the incident radiation of a given frequency is
increased, there is no effect on the kinetic energy of each photoelectron.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends
on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent of the intensity of the incident light so long
as the latter is not too high.[5]
For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is
directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. An increase in the intensity of the incident
beam (keeping the frequency fixed) increases the magnitude of the photoelectric current, although
the stopping voltage remains the same.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small,
less than 10−9 second.
The direction of distribution of emitted electrons peaks in the direction of polarization (the direction of
the electric field) of the incident light, if it is linearly polarized.[6]
Mathematical description[edit]
In 1905, Einstein proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect using a concept first put
forward by Max Planck that light waves consist of tiny bundles or packets of energy known
as photons or quanta.

Diagram of the maximum kinetic energy as a function of the frequency of light on zinc

The maximum kinetic energy of an ejected electron is given by

where is the Planck constant and is the frequency of the incident photon. The

term is the work function (sometimes denoted , or [7]

), which gives the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the metal. The work function satisfies

where is the threshold frequency for the metal. The maximum kinetic energy of an
ejected electron is then

Kinetic energy is positive, so we must have for the photoelectric effect to occur.[8]
Stopping potential[edit]
The relation between current and applied voltage illustrates the nature of the
photoelectric effect. For discussion, a light source illuminates a plate P, and another
plate electrode Q collects any emitted electrons. We vary the potential between P and Q
and measure the current flowing in the external circuit between the two plates.
If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric
current increases gradually with an increase in the positive potential on the collector
electrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are collected. The photoelectric current
attains a saturation value and does not increase further for any increase in the positive
potential. The saturation current increases with the increase of the light intensity. It also
increases with greater frequencies due to a greater probability of electron emission
when collisions happen with higher energy photons.
If we apply a negative potential to the collector plate Q with respect to the plate P and
gradually increase it, the photoelectric current decreases, becoming zero at a certain
negative potential. The negative potential on the collector at which the photoelectric
current becomes zero is called the stopping potential or cut off potential[9]
i. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its
intensity.
ii. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is determined by the

maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons that are emitted. If qe is the charge

on the electron and is the stopping potential, then the work done by the retarding

potential in stopping the electron is , so we have

Recalling

we see that the stopping voltage varies linearly with frequency of light, but
depends on the type of material. For any particular material, there is a threshold
frequency that must be exceeded, independent of light intensity, to observe any
electron emission.
Three-step model[edit]
In the X-ray regime, the photoelectric effect in crystalline material is often
decomposed into three steps:[10]:50–51

1. Inner photoelectric effect (see photo diode below[clarification needed]). The hole
left behind can give rise to the Auger effect, which is visible even when
the electron does not leave the material. In molecular
solids phonons are excited in this step and may be visible as lines in
the final electron energy. The inner photoeffect has to be dipole
allowed.[clarification needed] The transition rules for atoms translate via the tight-
binding model onto the crystal.[clarification needed] They are similar in geometry
to plasma oscillations in that they have to be transversed.
2. Ballistic transport[clarification needed] of half of the electrons to the surface.
Some electrons are scattered.
3. Electrons escape from the material at the surface.
In the three-step model, an electron can take multiple paths through these three
steps. All paths can interfere in the sense of the path integral formulation.
For surface states and molecules the three-step model does still make some
sense as even most atoms have multiple electrons which can scatter the one
electron leaving.[citation needed]

History[edit]
When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain
threshold frequency (typically visible light for alkali metals, near ultraviolet for
other metals, and extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the radiation is absorbed
and electrons are emitted. Light, and especially ultra-violet light, discharges
negatively electrified bodies with the production of rays of the same nature
as cathode rays.[11] Under certain circumstances it can directly ionize
gases.[11] The first of these phenomena was discovered by Heinrich
Hertz and Wilhelm Hallwachs in 1887.[11] The second was announced first
by Philipp Lenard in 1900.[11]
The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an arc lamp,
or by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil between zinc or
cadmium terminals, the light from which is very rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight
is not rich in ultra-violet rays, as these have been absorbed by the atmosphere,
and it does not produce nearly so large an effect as the arc-light. Many
substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of
ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will be found in papers by G. C.
Schmidt[12] and O. Knoblauch.[13]
19th century[edit]
In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while
studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells.[14] Though not equivalent to the
photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a
strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In
1873, Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity in selenium while testing
the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving
submarine telegraph cables.[15]
Johann Elster (1854–1920) and Hans Geitel (1855–1923), students
in Heidelberg, developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used
to measure the intensity of light.[16][17]:458 Elster and Geitel had investigated with
great success the effects produced by light on electrified bodies.[18]
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric effect and the production
and reception of electromagnetic waves.[11] He published these observations in
the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark
gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves.
He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However,
he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A
glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the
receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping
across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed
no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz,
as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of
investigation and reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue the
investigation of this effect.
The discovery by Hertz [19] in 1887 that the incidence of ultra-violet light on a
spark gap facilitated the passage of the spark, led immediately to a series of
investigations by Hallwachs,[20] Hoor,[21] Righi[22] and Stoletow[23][24][25][26][27][28][29] on
the effect of light, and especially of ultra-violet light, on charged bodies. It was
proved by these investigations that a newly cleaned surface of zinc, if charged
with negative electricity, rapidly loses this charge however small it may be when
ultra-violet light falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to begin
with, it acquires a positive charge when exposed to the light, the negative
electrification going out into the gas by which the metal is surrounded; this
positive electrification can be much increased by directing a strong airblast
against the surface. If however the zinc surface is positively electrified it suffers
no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this result has been questioned,
but a very careful examination of the phenomenon by Elster and Geitel [30] has
shown that the loss observed under certain circumstances is due to the
discharge by the light reflected from the zinc surface of negative electrification
on neighbouring conductors induced by the positive charge, the negative
electricity under the influence of the electric field moving up to the positively
electrified surface.[31]
With regard to the Hertz effect, the researchers from the start showed a great
complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue — that is, the
progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces.
According to an important research by Wilhelm Hallwachs, ozone played an
important part in the phenomenon.[32] However, other elements enter such as
oxidation, the humidity, the mode of polish of the surface, etc. It was at the time
not even sure that the fatigue is absent in a vacuum.
In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis of photo
effect was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results published in 6
works;[33][34][35][36][37][38] four of them in Comptes Rendus, one review
in Physikalische Revue (translated from Russian), and the last work in Journal
de Physique. First, in these works Stoletov invented a new experimental setup
which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photo effect. Using this
setup, he discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and
the induced photo electric current (the first law of photo effect or Stoletov's law).
One of his other findings resulted from measurements of the dependence of the
intensity of the electric photo current on the gas pressure, where he found the
existence of an optimal gas pressure Pm corresponding to a
maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of solar cells.[citation
needed]

In 1899, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes

tubes.[39] Thomson deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those
previously found in the cathode ray, later called electrons, which he called
"corpuscles". In the research, Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a
vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.[40] It was thought that
the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and,
after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic "corpuscle" to be
emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the
intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would
produce more current.[citation needed]
During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp
Lenard investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail.
Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an electroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light
to fall on the zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if
initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more
positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he
concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate
when exposed to ultraviolet light. A few years later, Lenard observed that when
ultraviolet radiation is allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass
tube enclosing two electrodes, a current flows in the circuit. As soon
as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the
concept of photoelectric emission.
In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max
Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only
be released in "packets" of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper
advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized
packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This was a
key step in the development of quantum mechanics. In 1914, Millikan's
experiment supported Einstein's model of the photoelectric effect. Einstein was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric effect",[41] and Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the
photoelectric effect".[42]

20th century[edit]
The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made by Philipp
Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air
and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to
interpret the phenomenon, as did J. J. Thomson, as a Hertz effect upon the
solid or liquid particles present in the gas.[11]
In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted electrons
increased with the frequency (which is related to the color) of the light.[2]
This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell's wave theory of light, which
predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity of the
radiation.
Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a
powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in
intensity, and that had sufficient power to enable him to investigate the variation
of potential with light frequency. His experiment directly measured potentials,
not electron kinetic energy: he found the electron energy by relating it to the
maximum stopping potential (voltage) in a phototube. He found that the
calculated maximum electron kinetic energy is determined by the frequency of
the light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an increase in the
maximum kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation – ultraviolet
radiation would require a higher applied stopping potential to stop current in a
phototube than blue light. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than
quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the
experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was
observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he
used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity,
or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons
emitted from the surface.
The researches of Langevin and those of Eugene Bloch[43] have shown that the
greater part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this 'Hertz effect'. The Lenard
effect upon the gas[clarification needed] itself nevertheless does exist. Refound by J. J.
Thomson[44] and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer, Jr.,[45][46] it was studied
and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by
Lenard.[11]
In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this apparent paradox by describing light as
composed of discrete quanta, now called photons, rather than continuous
waves. Based upon Max Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Einstein
theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency
multiplied by a constant, later called Planck's constant. A photon above a
threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating
the observed effect. This discovery led to the quantum revolution in physics and
earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.[47] By wave-particle duality
the effect can be analyzed purely in terms of waves though not as
conveniently.[48]
Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was
caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his 1905 papers, named
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of
Light". This paper proposed the simple description of "light quanta", or photons,
and showed how they explained such phenomena as the photoelectric effect.
His simple explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light
explained the features of the phenomenon and the characteristic frequency.
The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck's published law of black-body
radiation ("On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum"[49]) by
assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies E proportional to
the frequency f of the oscillator by E = hf, where h is Planck's constant. By
assuming that light actually consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote
an equation for the photoelectric effect that agreed with experimental results. It
explained why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only on
the frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity: at low-intensity, the
high-frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-
intensity, the low-frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient
individual energy to dislodge any electrons. This was an enormous theoretical
leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the
wave theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's
equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption
of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments
showed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were
accurate, resistance to the idea of photons continued since it appeared to
contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well understood and verified.
Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons
increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly, the
precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that
the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing frequency of incident
light and is independent of the intensity of the light. However, the manner of the
increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Robert Andrews
Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct.[3]
The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–
particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the
characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to
the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the
classical wave description of light,[50][51][52] as the energy of the emitted electrons
did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory
predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and
then be emitted.[51][53]

Uses and effects[edit]

Photomultipliers[edit]
Main article: Photomultiplier
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a photocathode coated
onto part (an end or side) of the inside of the envelope. The photo cathode
contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony
specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by
very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means
of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are
accelerated and substantially increased in number through secondary
emission to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still
commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.[54]
Image sensors[edit]
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect,
for example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen charged by
the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic
signal.[55]
Gold-leaf electroscope[edit]

The gold leaf electroscope

Gold-leaf electroscopes are designed to detect static electricity. Charge placed

on the metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf of the electroscope.
Because they then have the same charge, the stem and leaf repel each other.
This will cause the leaf to bend away from the stem.
An electroscope is an important tool in illustrating the photoelectric effect. For
example, if the electroscope is negatively charged throughout, there is an
excess of electrons and the leaf is separated from the stem. If high-frequency
light shines on the cap, the electroscope discharges, and the leaf will fall limp.
This is because the frequency of the light shining on the cap is above the cap's
threshold frequency. The photons in the light have enough energy to liberate
electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge. This will discharge a
negatively charged electroscope and further charge a positive electroscope.
However, if the electromagnetic radiation hitting the metal cap does not have a
high enough frequency (its frequency is below the threshold value for the cap),
then the leaf will never discharge, no matter how long one shines the low-
frequency light at the cap.[56]:389–390
Photoelectron spectroscopy[edit]
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the
incident photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the work
function of a sample can be determined by bombarding it with
a monochromatic X-ray source or UV source, and measuring the kinetic energy
distribution of the electrons emitted.[10]:14–20
Photoelectron spectroscopy is usually done in a high-vacuum environment,
since the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present.
However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in
air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron
radiation source.[57]
The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer and
uses an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons, depending
on their kinetic energies. For every element and core (atomic orbital) there will
be a different binding energy. The many electrons created from each of these
combinations will show up as spikes in the analyzer output, and these can be
used to determine the elemental composition of the sample.
Spacecraft[edit]
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a
positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft
are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge
from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical
components. The static charge created by the photoelectric effect is self-
limiting, because a higher charged object doesn't give up its electrons as easily
as a lower charged object does.[58][59]
Moon dust[edit]
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from
the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the
surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation.[60][61] This manifests itself almost
like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant
features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first
photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought that
the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the
particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.
Night vision devices[edit]
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of
photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by
an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated screen, converting the
electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either
through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons
through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate. Sometimes a
combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to
move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is
known as the electron affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to
photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by the band gap model.
Some materials such as Gallium Arsenide have an effective electron affinity that
is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that
 move to the conduction band are all of the sufficient energy to be emitted from
the material and as such, the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick.
These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.

Cross section[edit]
The photoelectric effect is an interaction mechanism between photons and
atoms.[62]
At the high photon energies comparable to the electron rest energy
of 511 keV, Compton scattering, another process, may take place. Above twice
this (1.022 MeV) pair production may take place.[63] Compton scattering and pair
production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.
Indeed, even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular
single-photon bound-electron interaction, the result is also subject to statistical
processes and is not guaranteed, even if the photon has certainly disappeared
and a bound electron has been excited (usually K or L shell electrons at gamma
ray energies). The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured
by the cross-section of interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of
the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. A crude
approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy,
which is given by:[64]

Here Z is atomic number and n is a number which varies between 4 and 5.

(At lower photon energies a characteristic structure with edges appears, K
edge, L edges, M edges, etc.) The obvious interpretation follows that the
photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance, in the gamma-ray
region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy, and that
photoelectric effect increases steeply with atomic number. The corollary is
that high-Z materials make good gamma-ray shields, which is the principal
reason that lead (Z = 82) is a preferred and ubiquitous gamma radiation
shield.[65]

Einstein field equations

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Part of a series of articles about

General relativity
 
o Introduction
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
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Fundamental concepts[show]

Phenomena[show]

 Equations

 Formalisms

[hide]

Equations
 Linearized gravity
 Einstein field equations
 Friedmann
 Geodesics
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 Curvature invariant (general relativity)
 Lorentzian manifold

Formalisms
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Advanced theory
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Solutions[show]

Scientists[show]
  v
 t
 e

In general theory of relativity the Einstein field equations (EFE; also known as Einstein's
equations) relate the geometry of space-time with the distribution of matter within it.[1]
The equations were first published by Einstein in 1915 in the form of a tensor equation[2] which
related the local spacetime curvature (expressed by the Einstein tensor) with the local energy
and momentum within that spacetime (expressed by the stress–energy tensor).[3]
Similar to the way that electromagnetic fields are determined
using charges and currents via Maxwell's equations, the EFE are used to determine the spacetime
geometry resulting from the presence of mass–energy and linear momentum, that is, they determine
the metric tensor of spacetime for a given arrangement of stress–energy in the spacetime. The
relationship between the metric tensor and the Einstein tensor allows the EFE to be written as a set
of non-linear partial differential equations when used in this way. The solutions of the EFE are the
components of the metric tensor. The inertial trajectories of particles and radiation (geodesics) in the
resulting geometry are then calculated using the geodesic equation.
As well as obeying local energy–momentum conservation, the EFE reduce to Newton's law of
gravitation where the gravitational field is weak and velocities are much less than the speed of light.[4]
Exact solutions for the EFE can only be found under simplifying assumptions such as symmetry.
Special classes of exact solutions are most often studied as they model many gravitational
phenomena, such as rotating black holes and the expanding universe. Further simplification is
achieved in approximating the actual spacetime as flat spacetime with a small deviation, leading to
the linearized EFE. These equations are used to study phenomena such as gravitational waves.

Contents

 1Mathematical form
o 1.1Sign convention
o 1.2Equivalent formulations
 2The cosmological constant
 3Features
o 3.1Conservation of energy and momentum
o 3.2Nonlinearity
o 3.3The correspondence principle
 4Vacuum field equations
 5Einstein–Maxwell equations
 6Solutions
 7The linearized EFE
 8Polynomial form
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
 12External links
Mathematical form[edit]
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The Einstein field equations (EFE) may be written in the form:[5][1]

EFE on a wall in Leiden

where Rμν is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar curvature, gμν is the metric tensor, Λ is
the cosmological constant, G is Newton's gravitational constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum,
and Tμν is the stress–energy tensor.
The EFE is a tensor equation relating a set of symmetric 4 × 4 tensors. Each tensor has 10
independent components. The four Bianchi identities reduce the number of independent equations
from 10 to 6, leaving the metric with four gauge fixing degrees of freedom, which correspond to the
freedom to choose a coordinate system.
Although the Einstein field equations were initially formulated in the context of a four-dimensional
theory, some theorists have explored their consequences in n dimensions.[6] The equations in
contexts outside of general relativity are still referred to as the Einstein field equations. The vacuum
field equations (obtained when T is identically zero) define Einstein manifolds.
Despite the simple appearance of the equations they are actually quite complicated. Given a
specified distribution of matter and energy in the form of a stress–energy tensor, the EFE are
understood to be equations for the metric tensor gμν, as both the Ricci tensor and scalar curvature
depend on the metric in a complicated nonlinear manner. In fact, when fully written out, the EFE are
a system of ten coupled, nonlinear, hyperbolic-elliptic partial differential equations.[7]
One can write the EFE in a more compact form by defining the Einstein tensor

which is a symmetric second-rank tensor that is a function of the metric. The EFE can then be
written as

In standard units, each term on the left has units of 1/length2. With this choice of Einstein
constant as 8πG/c4, then the stress-energy tensor on the right side of the equation must be
written with each component in units of energy-density (i.e., energy per volume = pressure).
Using geometrized units where G = c = 1, this can be rewritten as
The expression on the left represents the curvature of spacetime as determined by the
metric; the expression on the right represents the matter/energy content of spacetime.
The EFE can then be interpreted as a set of equations dictating how matter/energy
determines the curvature of spacetime.
These equations, together with the geodesic equation,[8] which dictates how freely-falling
matter moves through space-time, form the core of the mathematical
formulation of general relativity.
Sign convention[edit]
The above form of the EFE is the standard established by Misner, Thorne, and
Wheeler.[9] The authors analyzed all conventions that exist and classified according to
the following three signs (S1, S2, S3):

The third sign above is related to the choice of convention for the Ricci tensor:

With these definitions Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler classify themselves as (+ +

+), whereas Weinberg (1972)[10] and Peacock (1994)[11] are (+ − −), Peebles
(1980)[12] and Efstathiou et al. (1990)[13] are (− + +), Rindler (1977)[citation needed],
Atwater (1974)[citation needed], Collins Martin & Squires (1989)[14] are (− + −).
Authors including Einstein have used a different sign in their definition for the
Ricci tensor which results in the sign of the constant on the right side being
negative

The sign of the (very small) cosmological term would change in both these
versions, if the (+ − − −) metric sign convention is used rather than the
MTW (− + + +) metric sign convention adopted here.
Equivalent formulations[edit]
Taking the trace with respect to the metric of both sides of the EFE one
gets

where D is the spacetime dimension. This expression can be rewritten

as

If one adds −1/2gμν times this to the EFE, one gets the following
equivalent "trace-reversed" form

For example, in D = 4 dimensions this reduces to

Reversing the trace again would restore the original EFE.
The trace-reversed form may be more convenient in some
cases (for example, when one is interested in weak-field
limit and can replace gμν in the expression on the right with
the Minkowski metric without significant loss of accuracy).

The cosmological constant[edit]

Main article: Cosmological constant
Einstein modified his original field equations to include
a cosmological constant term Λ proportional to the metric

Since Λ is constant, the energy conservation law is

unaffected.
The cosmological constant term was originally
introduced by Einstein to allow for a universe that is
not expanding or contracting. This effort was
unsuccessful because:

 the universe described by this theory was

unstable, and
 observations by Edwin Hubble confirmed that our
universe is expanding.
So, Einstein abandoned Λ, calling it the "biggest
blunder [he] ever made".[15]
Despite Einstein's motivation for introducing the
cosmological constant term, there is nothing
inconsistent with the presence of such a term in the
equations. For many years the cosmological constant
was almost universally considered to be 0. However,
recent improved astronomical techniques have found
that a positive value of Λ is needed to explain
the accelerating universe.[16][17] However, the
cosmological constant is negligible at the scale of a
galaxy or smaller.
Einstein thought of the cosmological constant as an
independent parameter, but its term in the field
equation can also be moved algebraically to the other
side, written as part of the stress–energy tensor:

The resulting vacuum energy density is constant

and given by
The existence of a cosmological constant is
thus equivalent to the existence of a non-zero
vacuum energy. Thus, the terms "cosmological
constant" and "vacuum energy" are now used
interchangeably in general relativity.