Cell Cycle

SCIENCE 8
CELL DIVISION
Your body is made up of trillions of cells that come from just one cell - a
fertilized egg cell. Rudolf Virchow formulated an important biological principle
in 1858. It states that all cells come from other cells. It is simple yet profound. It
tells us that life is self-perpetuating. This process of cellular reproduction is
referred to as cell division.
Cell reproduction or cell division has two crucial functions in perpetuation

of life. First, it makes possible for a fertilized egg to develop into an adult
organism. Second, it ensures continuity of life through asexual or sexual
reproduction.
ORGANELLES INVOLVED IN CELL DIVISION
Cell Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound

structure of the cell that contains the DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the hereditary material of
cells. It is the most prominent and highly
specialized organelle of the cell. Only the cells of
more complex organisms, known as eukaryotes,
have nuclei. Generally, there is one nucleus per
cell. However, some are multinucleate (with two or
more nuclei) like the slime molds. The cell of a
simple organism like a bacterium or
cyanobacterium does not have a nucleus. These
organisms are referred to as prokaryotes.
Structure of the Cell Nucleus
Nuclear Membrane
The spherical nucleus typically accounts for about 10% of the cell's volume. It is
separated from the rest of the cellular cytoplasm (cellular content) by a double-layered
membrane, the nuclear membrane. This nuclear envelope is riddled with holes called
nuclear pores that regulate the passage of specific types and sizes of molecules between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Chromatin and Chromosomes
The chromatin inside the nucleus is a combination of DNA and histones (protein
molecules) and organized into a dense string-like fiber, which condenses even further
into chromosomes during cell division.
Nucleolus
Under the microscope, a nucleolus looks like a dark spot within the nucleus. A
nucleus may contain up to four nucleoli, but each species has a fixed number of
nucleoli. The nucleolus has an indirect role in protein synthesis by producing the
protein-producing organelles of the cell called ribosomes. The nucleolus disappears
when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after cell division is completed.
Functions of the Nucleus
The nucleus acts as storage of genetic information and - nucleolus transfers such
information during cell division to the resulting daughter cells. Thus, traits are
transmitted from one generation to the next. It also directs and coordinates cellular
activities, which include growth, protein synthesis, metabolism, and reproduction (cell
division). Because of these functions, the nucleus is oftentimes referred to as the -
control center of the cell.
Cell Nucleus Activity Sheet
Draw the nucleus, color and label its parts. Below your drawing, write a short
essay explaining why the nucleus is considered as the command center of the cell.
THE CELL CYCLE AND INTRODUCTION TO
MENDELIAN GENETICS
Cell Cycle
Cell division is an essential aspect of life. It enables a multicellular organism to

grow and reach adult size. It makes possible the replacement of worn-out or damaged
cells, and keeps the total number of cells in an adult organism relatively constant.
A typical cell goes through cell division in stages. The series of stages in the life of a cell
is referred to as the cell cycle. It consists of a preparatory phase (interphase), the actual
cell division (mitosis), and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).
Interphase
Interphase is the longest phase in the cell cycle for most cells. Typically, it lasts
for at least 90 percent of the total time required for the cell cycle. A cell at interphase
may appear resting under the microscope, but it actually goes through a period of very
high metabolic activity. Chromosomes duplicate, many cell parts are made, and the cell
does most of its growing during this phase. Interphase is a phase referred to as the
preparatory stage.
Figure 3. The cell cycle

As shown in Figure 3, the interphase consists of subphases. The first subphase is
designated as G₁, G stands for gap, referring to the gap between cell division and DNA
synthesis. G₁, the period before DNA synthesis begins, is characterized by an increase
in the supply of proteins, in the number of cellular organelles (particularly of
mitochondria and ribosomes), and in the size of the cell.
After the cell has grown to its mature size in G₁, the next subphase is called the
S phase (synthetic phase). The cell makes a copy of the DNA in its nucleus in a process
called replication. The DNA is a nucleic acid found in the chromatin inside the
nucleus. It holds all the information for the cell to carry out its functions. Thus, DNA
replication is very important since each daughter cell must have a complete set of DNA
to survive. At the end of the S phase, the cell contains two identical sets of DNA, to be
distributed to each daughter cell.
Once the cell has replicated its DNA, the third phase called G₂ (Gap 2) begins. It
spans from the completion of DNA synthesis to the start of actual cell division. The cell
produces structures that it will use to divide. At the end of G₂, the cell is ready to divide.
Subphases of Interphase
Gap 1 (G₁) The cell doubles in size and produces all the structures needed to
carry out its functions. It matures to its full size and structure.
Synthesis (S) The cell makes a copy of the DNA; also referred to as DNA
replication.
Gap 2 (G₂) The cell continues to grow. It ensures that everything is ready for
cell division.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two

daughter cells from a single parent cell. The daughter cells are identical to one another
and to the original parent cell.
There are four phases of mitosis-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase-

followed by cytokinesis.
Cells divide in two basic stages. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus into two
identical nuclei. It is usually followed by the division of the cell, and thus, the term
mitosis is often used synonymously with cell division. Cytokinesis is the division of the
cytoplasm into two identical daughter cells. The combination of mitosis and cytokinesis
makes up the mitotic phase (M phase) of the cell cycle.
Mitosis is divided into four phases-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and

telophase. In an actual dividing cell, the process is continuous. Each phase smoothly
flows into the next phase. Mitosis is described as a dynamic continuum.
Prophase: Formation of the Mitotic Spindle
During prophase, significant changes in

both the nucleus and cytoplasm occur. The
duplicated chromosomes, which initially appear
thin and threadlike, becóme more tightly coiled
and folded, thus appearing as short, thick, and
discrete structures under the microscope. The
nucleoli disappear. In the cytoplasm, the mitotic
spindle, which is composed of microtubules, begins
to form from the centrioles, which at the same time
begin to move away from each other, toward
opposite sides of the cell (called spindle poles).
Later in the prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks
into fragments. With the nuclear envelope gone, some of the microtubules emerging
from the centrioles reach the highly condensed chromosomes and attach to the protein
structure called kinetochore at the centromere region. Other spindle microtubules make
contact with the other microtubules coming from the opposite pole.
Metaphase: Alignment of Chromosomes
As the cell enters into metaphase, the chromatids

begin moving toward the center of the cell and align
midway between the spindle poles or along the spindle
equator. The spindle microtubules attached to the
individual kinetochores pull the sister chromatids toward
the center of the cell, with each centromere equidistant
spindle equator from each pole of the cell.
Anaphase: Movement of the Daughter Chromosomes
Of the four phases of mitosis, anaphase is the shortest. The centromere of each
chromosome divides and the two sister chromatids detach from each other. As this
happens, the spindle microtubules shorten, pulling the detached sister chromatids
toward their respective poles. Each sister chromatid is now considered a full-fledged
chromosome, called daughter chromosome. Anaphase ends when all the daughter
chromosomes have moved to their respective poles. Each pole has a complete set of
chromosomes.
Telophase: Formation of Two Daughter Nuclei
Telophase begins as soon as the daughter chromosomes reach the opposite end
of the poles. This stage is characterized by the formation of a nuclear envelope around
each set of the chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil, and once again appear
threadlike under the microscope. Nucleoli reappear. At the end of telophase, the mitotic
spindles disappear and the equal division of one nucleus into two identical daughter
nuclei is completed.

Cell Cycle

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SCIENCE 8

Cell reproduction or cell division has two crucial functions in perpetuation

The nucleus is a membrane-bound

Structure of the Cell Nucleus

Chromatin and Chromosomes

Functions of the Nucleus

Cell division is an essential aspect of life. It enables a multicellular organism to

Figure 3. The cell cycle

Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two

There are four phases of mitosis-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase-

Mitosis is divided into four phases-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and

Prophase: Formation of the Mitotic Spindle

During prophase, significant changes in

Metaphase: Alignment of Chromosomes

As the cell enters into metaphase, the chromatids

Anaphase: Movement of the Daughter Chromosomes

Telophase: Formation of Two Daughter Nuclei

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