Biology

Appreciating the Contribution of

Science and Technology to Human
Reproduction

Name: Nadhirah bt Mohd Hasan

Class: 5 Ibnu Haitham

Teacher’s Name: Pn Umimaznom Hj Abdul Wahab

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO HUMAN
REPRODUCTION

1. FAMILY PLANNING
 Family planning is done by preventing fertilization or development of a
fertilized egg when they occur at an inconvenient time.
 Family planning enables married couples to choose when to or when not to
have children.
 Married couples who have already had enough children should practice
family planning to ensure that the health of the mother is not affected by too
many pregnancies.
 Preventing pregnancy or contraception is part of family planning. The method
used should involve one of the following concepts:
i. Stop the ovum from being formed
ii. Stop the sperm from reaching the ovum
iii. Stop the fertilized ovum from developing in the uterus

NATURAL CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

 Natural contraceptive methods depend on an understanding of the female

body’s menstrual cycle.
 One example is the rhythm method.
 Married couples who use this method do not engage in copulation during the
fertile period, that is, the period when the woman is most likely to have an
ovum in her fallopian tube. Instead, they calculate when the woman is most
likely to have an ovum in her fallopian tube.
 This period of time is called the safe period. It is the time when copulation,
theoretically, will not lead to pregnancy.
FEMALE CONTRAPTIVE METHODS

 The methods that women use to prevent pregnancy are contraceptive

implants, intrauterine devices (IUD), female sterilization, he contraceptive
pill, spermicides, the female condom, the diaphragm and the Depo-Provena
injection.

MAIN METHODS OF FEMALE CONTRACEPTION

i. INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

What is IUD?

 This is a plastic-coated copper coil which can be left in the uterus for months.
 String attached to the lower end enable the coil to be removed through the
vagina,

How do IUDs work?

They sit in women’s womb and prevent them from getting pregnant. They do
this in three main ways:
 they prevent men’s sperm from getting through their wife’s womb
and into their tubes.
 they alter the secretions (mucus) in women’s cervix, creating a
further barrier for sperm.
 they affect women’s womb lining – making it less likely to 'accept' an
egg.
 The advantages of an IUD

 It's very effective in preventing pregnancy (and once inserted, you are
protected from pregnancy until the IUD is removed).
 It can prevent pregnancy for up to 5 to 12 years
 It's inexpensive.
 It's convenient (there is nothing to remember to do, such as taking the birth
control pill every day).
 An IUD can be removed by the doctor at any time.
 It starts working right away.
 There's a low risk of side effects.
 Mothers who use an IUD can breastfeed safely.

ii. THE CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

What is the contraceptive pill?

 The pill contains progestogen (synthetic progesterone) and oestrogen

which shut down the pituitary’s production of FSH so that no follicle
develops in the ovary.
 Hence, ovulation does not occur

How effective is the pill?

It is very effective indeed, which is why so many millions of women

rely on it. If the consumer takes it exactly as prescribed, its effectiveness is
 likely 100 per cent. Put it another way, let’s say that 100 women use the pill
for a year and that all of them not forget to take a tablet, it’s likely not a
single of them will get pregnant. In contrast, if they were all relying on the
condom instead, probably about two to five of them would become
pregnant. So the Pill is just about the most effective method of contraception
there is, apart from sterilization.

Is the pill safe?

Basically, yes. But very occasionally, it can have serious side-effects. However,
recent news about Pill safety has been remarkably good. The Royal College of
General Practitioners has produced (2010) an important report, which revealed the
fact that Pill-users have a 12 per cent reduction in their risk of developing cancer.
The researchers studied 46,000 women over a period of 40 years and found
that those who had taken the Pill were less likely to die of cancer, heart disease or
stroke. The report also found that breast cancer rates appeared to be same in
women who have used the Pill, and women who haven’t. This finding goes some way
towards diminishing previous fears about the Pill and breast carcinoma.

Good points about this pill

 it usually abolishes period pains
 it makes periods shorter
 it makes them lighter.

The pill’s side effects

During the first few packs of the Pill, many women get minor, passing side-
effects, such as: headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, slight weight gain, slight
'spotting' of blood between the periods.
iii. THE CONTRACEPTIVE IMPLANTS

What is the contraceptive implant?

Contraceptive implants work in a similar way to contraceptive pills. They
contain one of the hormones in contraceptive pills. This hormone prevents
pregnancy. But instead of being in a pill, this hormone is in a small, thin
flexible rod. It is 4cm long and made of plastic. It is inserted just under the
skin on the inside of a woman's arm. This must be done by a doctor who is
familiar with the technique.

The implant steadily releases a small amount of hormone. This prevents

pregnancy for three years. The implant must be removed at the end of three
years. However, it can be taken out at any time by a doctor familiar with the
removal technique.

How does the implant work?

The implant prevents pregnancy by:

 stopping a woman's ovaries from making an egg each month.

 thickening the mucus that women have in their cervix (entrance to the
womb). This makes it hard for sperm to get through and fertilise an
egg.

How effective is it?

The contraceptive implant is more than 99% effective in preventing
pregnancy. But, remember that no contraceptive is 100 per cent reliable.

What are the implant's advantages?

 Effective contraception for three years.

 The consumer don't have to remember to use contraception every day.

 Doesn't interfere with sexual intercourse.

 Low cost.
 What are the disadvantages?
 Women using implants have changes to their periods. Most women
have less bleeding than before the implant, but some have more
frequent or longer periods.

 Some women have side effects that may include headaches and acne.

 Doesn't protect against sexually transmitted infections, HIV/AIDS or

Hepatitis B.

iv. DEPO-PROVERA INJECTION

What is Depo Provera Injection?

This is an injection of synthetic progesterone given every three months. It can
causes changes to the lining of the lining of the lining of the uterus that make
implantation of a zygote difficult.

How Depo Provera works?

When a woman has Depo Provera, her body senses the presence of the
hormone so that her own hormone production is 'switched off'. Because of
this, her ovaries will not release an egg and this is how pregnancy is
prevented. This is very similar to how 'the Pill' works. Depo Provera is also
sometimes used in the treatment of endometriosis

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Depo

Provera?
I. Advantages
 Depo Provera is highly effective with a very low failure rate.

 For many women the loss of periods is an advantage with relief of

symptoms such as premenstrual tension and period pain.

 Depo Provera is also likely to cause some reduction in risk of ovarian

cancer, endometrial (uterine) cancer, endometriosis and possibly pelvic
infection.

 An injection is given every 12 weeks and no other effort or

remembering is required.

II. Disadvantages

 Some women do not wish to see their doctor every three

months for an injection.

 Some women experience side effects as already described,

which may be uncomfortable or unpleasant.

 Once the injection has been given, the hormone cannot be

removed. If a woman wants to stop the Depo Provera she has
to wait for it to wear off. In some women, periods can be slow
to return after the injections are stopped; sometimes it takes
up to 6 or 12 months. However, more than half will fall
pregnant within 12 months and over 90 percent within two
years.
v. DIAPHRAGM

What exactly are diaphragms?

A dome-shaped rubber cup with a thick rim inserted into the vagina to cover
the cervix before copulation.

What types of diaphragms are there?

In the UK, there are five brands:
 Refexions flat spring.
 Arcing silicone.
 Omniflex coil spring silicone.
 Ortho coil spring.
 Ortho All-Flex.

Who can use the diaphragm?

Diaphragms can be used by most women without any kind of
inconvenience or discomfort. So this is a good option for a woman who
dislike condoms, or who cannot take the Pill for some reason or another, or
for women who can’t use IUDs.

Is the diaphragm an effective type of contraception?

Yes, a diaphragm is indeed an effective form of contraception - if
spermicidal cream is always applied before sexual intercourse, and if the
device is left in the vagina for six to eight hours after the intercourse has
finished.
vi. FEMALE CONDOM

What is female condom?

A thin polyurethane sheath fitted inside the vagina. Blocks entrance of
sperms to the uterus and prevents sexually transmitted diseases.

How effective are female condoms in preventing

pregnancy?
 The female condom is pretty effective, as long as it is correctly
inserted into the vagina – and provided the man doesn't put his penis
outside it.
 One trial gave a ‘success rate’ of 95 per cent over a year, but a couple
who know what they’re doing and who use the device really carefully
will run only a very low risk of pregnancy.
 The woman (or her partner) puts the female condom inside her
vagina before sex. You are not adequately protected if you only put it
in halfway through sex. The man should take great care to ‘aim’ his
penis inside the female condom, and not outside it.
vii. SPERMICIDE

What is spermicide?

 Spermicide is a birth control method that contains chemicals that stop

sperm from moving. Spermicides are available in different forms,
including creams, film, foams, gels, and suppositories.
 Spermicide can be used alone, or it can be used with other birth
control methods to make them more effective. It is always used with
the diaphragm and cervical cap.

How Does Spermicide Work?

Spermicides prevent pregnancy by keeping sperm from joining with
an egg. Spermicides are inserted deep into the vagina shortly before.
intercourse They

 block the cervix, so sperm cannot reach an egg

 keep sperm from moving, so they cannot join with an egg

How Effective Is Spermicide?

 If women always use spermicide as directed, 15 out of 100 will
become pregnant each year.
 If women don't always use spermicide as directed, 29 out of 100 will
become pregnant each year.
What Are the Benefits of Spermicide?
 It can be carried in your pocket or purse.
 It can be inserted by a partner as part of sex play.
 It does not have an effect on a woman's natural hormones.
 It is very easy to get — in drugstores and some supermarkets.
 It does not require a prescription.
 It can be used during breastfeeding.

What Are the Disadvantages of Spermicide?

 If not used exactly as directed, spermicides may not form a good
barrier over the cervix. This may make the spermicide less effective.
 Some women complain that spermicides are messy or that they leak
from their vaginas.
 Spermicide may irritate the penis or vagina. Switching brands may
solve this problem.

How Safe Is Spermicide?

Most women can use spermicide safely. Some people are allergic to
spermicides or get skin irritations from them. If a spermicide irritates
your vagina or your partner's penis, you might try changing brands.
viii. FEMALE STRELISATION

What is female sterilisation?

Sterilisation is the only permanent method of contraception for women and
is suitable for those who are sure they never want children or do not want
more children. 

How does it work? 

It involves blocking, cutting or sealing the fallopian tubes that carry eggs from
the ovary to the uterus. This stops the egg and sperm meeting. 
Doctors use a method called laparoscopy to perform the sterilisation. This
involves two small cuts being made to the lower abdomen, one just below
the navel and the other around two - three inches below that. This is to allow
a narrow instrument to be inserted to seal off the fallopian tubes, using small
clips. The cuts are made very carefully in such a way that any scarring will be
virtually invisible. 

How effective is sterilisation? 

Sterilisation is one of the most effective methods of contraception but is not
100% guaranteed. 

How safe is it? 

As with all clinical procedures there is a small risk of complications, which
are detailed as follows:
Injuries to bowel, bladder or blood vessels can occur during laparoscopy. 
2 in 1000 women will need a laparotomy (opening the abdomen). 
The risk of death from laparoscopy is about 1 in 12000. 
MALE CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

MAIN METHODS OF MALE CONTRACEPTION

1) THE CONDOM

What is the condom?

This is a thin rubber sheath fitted over an erect penis before
copulation. It stops sperms from entering the woman’s body. It also
protects against sexually transmitted diseases. It is most commonly
used, and is easy to obtain and use.

Types of condoms

 Polyurethane. In rare cases, condoms can cause an allergic reaction.

Polyurethane condoms are made from a form of plastic. This makes
an effective alternative and offers the same level of protection as latex
condoms.
 Lubricated. Some condoms are coated in slippery stuff called
lubricant. Some people also like to use extra lubricant. This can help
make sex more pleasurable and reduce the risk of splitting. Just be
sure if you are using extra lubricant with a latex condom, that it is a
water based version, as oil based lubricants can damage the condom.
 Textured. Condoms can also have different textures, such as 'ribbed'.
These have a textured or ribbed area on the outside which can
increase sensation and make sex more fun for women as they
stimulate the vagina.
 Flavoured. Condoms can also be flavoured so that they smell and
taste of something (like strawberry, chocolate or even curry!). This is
usually to make oral sex safer and more fun, because there is a risk
of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) from unprotected oral sex.
 Sensitive. A thinner form of latex condom for greater sensation for
both partners.
 Size. Condoms are made longer, shorter, wider and thinner to suit
different penis sizes. They can also have different shapes, such as
wider at the top.
 Specialist condoms. Some condoms contain local anaesthetic in the
tip "Performer condoms". This can help to slightly numb the penis if a
man finds that he ejaculates quicker than he wants to, as it can make
sex last longer.