Republic of the Philippines

ZAMBOANGA STATE COLLEGE OF MARINE SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Fort Pilar, Zamboanga City
Tel No. 992-3092/Tel No: (062) 991-0643 Telefax: (062) 991-0777
website:http:www.zscmstedu.ph

Instructional Materials and Development Office (IMDO)

Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs

Module for
Ichthyology (Fish 1)

KATHLEEN J. DALOPE / ANGELO C. MACARIO / JAKE B. DEALA

Instructor (Collaborators)
College of Fisheries and Marine Sciences
Fisheries Program
August 2020
1
 Republic of the Philippines
ZAMBOANGA STATE COLLEGE OF MARINE SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY
Fort Pilar, Zamboanga City
Tel No. 992-3092/Tel No: (062) 991-0643 Telefax: (062) 991-0777
website:http:www.zscmstedu.ph

MODULE II
IN
ICHTHYOLOGY
Osteology and Soft Anatomy of
Fishes
Module Title

Student Name and Section

KATHLEEN J. DALOPE / ANGELO C. MACARIO / JAKE D. DEALA

Instructor (Collaborators)
College of Fisheries and Marine Sciences
Fisheries Program
August 2020

2
 Module 2: Osteology and Soft Anatomy of Fishes

This module will cover Chapters 3 and 4 of the book of Helfman S. et al. (2009) entitled as
“Osteology and Soft Anatomy of Fishes”. These two chapters specifically discusses the skeleton,
skin and scales and the soft anatomy of the fish that is found on pages 23-56 of the above-
mentioned book.

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)

At the end of this module you are to:

For Unit 1….
1. Describe the neurocranium, branchiocranium, postcranial skeleton and appendicular
skeleton of the fish.
2. Discuss the integumentary skeleton of the fish such as epidermis and scales.
3. Explain the scale morphology in taxonomy and life history.
For Unit 2 …
1. Identify the muscles, alimentary canal, gas bladder, kidneys and gonads of the fish.
2. Demonstrated the cardiovascular system of the fish.
3. Illustrated the nervous system of the fish.

Timing

You are given a total of 18 hrs (9 hrs/week), spread into two weeks to accomplish this
module. Assignments/assessments given per unit will be submitted on the seventh and
fourteenth day after receiving this module.

Unit 1: Skeleton, Skin and Scales

Readings/Instructional Materials/Resources:

Helfman, G.S., Collette, B.B., Facey, D.E. & Bowen, B.W. 2009. The Diversity of
Fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology. 2nd edition. A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
Publication. ISBN 978-1-4051-2494-2. Pages 23-40.

Lecture Proper

Skeleton

The osteology (study of bones) of fishes is more complicated than in other vertebrates
because fish skeletons are made up of many more bones. For example, humans (sarcopterygian)
have 28 skull bones, a primitive reptile (sarcopterygian has 72, and a fossil chondrostean
(actinopterygian) fish more than 150 skull bones. The general evolutionary trend from primitive
actinopterygians to more advanced teleosts and from aquatic sarcopterygians to tetrapods has
been toward fusion and reduction in number of bony elements.

3
 Knowledge of the skeleton is necessary to understand the relationships of fishes and much
of classification is based on osteology. Identification of bones is also important in paleontology,
in identifying food of predatory fishes, and in zooarcheology for learning about human food
habits from kitchen midden material.

The skull, or cranium (Fig. 3.2), is the part of the axial endoskeleton that encloses and
protects the brain and most of the sense organs. It is a complex structure derived from several
sources. Homologies of some fish skull bones are still debated (e.g., the origin and composition
of the vomer in the roof of the mouth). The skull has two major components: the neurocranium
and the branchiocranium. The neurocranium is composed of the chondrocranium and the
dermatocranium. The chondrocranium derives from the embryonic cartilaginous braincase. Its
bones ossify (harden) during ontogeny as cartilage is replaced by bone. Cartilage replacement
(or endochondral) bones and dermal bones have similar histological structure but differ in that
cartilage bones are preformed in cartilage before they ossify. Some bones, however, are of
complex origin coming from both sources. The dermatocranium consists of dermal bones. It is
believed that the bones of the dermatocranium evolved from scales that became attached to the
chondrocranium.

4
 The branchiocranium, or visceral cranium, consists of a series of endoskeletal arches
that formed as gill arch supports. The branchiocranium is also known as the splanchnocranium
because it is derived from splanchnic mesoderm. The circumorbital, opercular, and
branchiostegal bones overlie the branchiocranium, which abuts the neurocranium and pectoral
girdle.

Neurocranium

The chondrocranium of bony fishes is derived from cartilaginous capsules that formed around the
sense organs. To clarify spatial relationships among the large number of bones in the skull, it
helps to divide the skull into four regions associated with major centers of ossification. From
anterior to posterior, these regions are the ethmoid, orbital, otic, and basicranial. For each
region, the cartilage bones will be discussed fi rst, followed by the dermal bones, which tend to
roof over, and often fuse with the underlying cartilage bones.

Ethmoid region

The ethmoid region remains variably cartilaginous even in adults of most teleosts but there are
also dermal elements fused to some of these bones. Two main sets of cartilage bones form the
ethmoid region. Paired lateral ethmoids (or parethmoids) form the posterolateral wall of the
ethmoid region and the anterior wall of the orbit (Figs 3.3–3.5). The median chondral ethmoid
(or supraethmoid) is the most anterodorsal skull bone. It often has a dermal element fused to it,
in which case it is usually termed the mesethmoid. There are also two sets of dermal bones in this
region. The median often dentigerous (toothbearing) vomer, which may be absent in a few
teleosts, lies ventral to the mesethmoid, whereas the paired dermal nasals are lateral to the
ethmoid region, associated with theolfactory nasal capsule. The vomer is usually considered,
phylogenetically, to be compound (chondral median ventral ethmoid + dermal vomer).

5
6
Orbital region

The region that surrounds the orbit is composed of three sets of cartilage bones and two
sets of dermal bones. Cartilage bone components include paired pterosphenoids (alisphenoids in
earlier literature), which meet along the ventral median line of the skull. The median
basisphenoid extends from the pterosphenoids down to the parasphenoid and may divide the
orbit into left and right halves.

Sclerotic cartilages or bones protect and support the eyeball itself. Two sets of dermal
bones are the paired frontals, which cover most of the dorsal surface of the cranium, and the
circumorbitals. The circumorbitals form a ring around the eye in primitive bony fi shes.
However, this ring is reduced to a chain of small infraorbital bones under and behind the eye in
advanced bony fi shes. Advanced teleosts usually have infraorbital 1; the lachrymal, or
preorbital; IO2, or jugal; IO3, or true suborbital, which may bear a suborbital shelf that supports
the eye; and the dermosphenotic bones, or postorbitals, which bear the infraorbital or suborbital
lateral line canal (Fig. 3.6).

Otic region

Five cartilage bones enclose each bilateral otic (ear) chamber inside the skull (see Figs
3.3–3.5). Paired sphenotics form the most posterior dorsolateral part of the orbit roof. Paired
pterotics form the posterior outer corners of the neurocranium and enclose the horizontal
semicircular canal. Paired prootics form the fl oor of the neurocranium and enclose the utriculus
of the inner ear. Paired epiotics, more recently called epioccipitals, lie posterior to the parietals
and lateral to the supraoccipital and contain the posterior vertical semicircular canal.

Basicranial region
Three sets of cartilage bones, one pair plus two median bones, form the cranial base. Paired
lateral exoccipitals form the sides of the foramen magnum (Fig. 3.7), which is the passageway
for the spinal cord. The median basioccipital is the most posteroventral neurocranium bone and
articulates with the first vertebra. The dorsal median supraoccipital bone usually bears a
posteriorly directed.

7
Branchiocranium

The branchiocranium is divisible into five parts: the mandibular, palatine, hyoid, opercular,
and branchial.

Mandibular arch

The mandibular arch forms the upper jaw and is known as the palatoquadrate cartilage in
Chondrichthyes. It is composed entirely of dermal bones in bony fishes. The mandibular arch
may have three sets of bones. The dentigerous (tooth-bearing) premaxillae are the anterior most
elements. The maxillae are dentigerous in some soft-rayed fishes, but the maxilla is excluded
from the gape in more advanced spiny-rayed fishes. The third bone that may be present is the
supramaxilla.

The lower jaw consists of Meckel‟s cartilage in Chondrichthyes. In bony fishes, the
dermal, dentigerous dentary bone (Fig. 3.8). A dorsoposterior ossification of Meckel‟s cartilage
forms an articular. The angular (sometimes called articular) is a large, posterior dermal bone
that fits into the V of the dentary. A ventroposterior dermalossification forms the retroarticular
(sometimes called angular), a small bone attached to the posteroventral corner of the angular.

8
Teeth

The oral jaws and many pharyngeal bones may bear teeth. Many different terms have
been applied to the different sizes and shapes of teeth. Although the different kinds form a
continuum, they can be divided into several types:

1. Canine: large conical teeth frequently located at the corners of the mouth.
2. Villiform: small, fine teeth.
3. Molariform: pavement like crushing teeth, as in cow nose rays in which they form
plates, or as individual molars in fishes such as the wolf fishes.
4. Cardiform: fi ne, pointed teeth arranged as in a wool card.
5. Incisor: large teeth with flattened cutting surfaces adapted for feeding on mollusks and
crustaceans.
6. Teeth fused into beaks for scraping algae off corals, as in parrotfishes
7. Flattened triangular cutting teeth, as in sharks and piranhas. Sharp, cutting teeth are
uncommon in bony fishes with the exception of some characins
8. Pharyngeal teeth: many teleosts have well-developed pharyngeal teeth including fishes
like cichlids and parrotfishes, which also have well-developed teeth in their jaws, and
minnows and suckers which lack teeth in their jaws.

Palatine and hyoid arches

The palatine arch consists of four pairs of bones in the roof of the mouth (see Fig. 3.8).
The palatines are cartilage bones that are frequently dentigerous. They have been called
“plowshare” bones because of their characteristic shape. The dermal ectopterygoids are narrow
bones, sometimes T-shaped, sometimes dentigerous. The dermal entopterygoids (or
mesopterygoids) are thin bones that roof the mouth. The metapterygoids are cartilage bones,
quadrangular-shaped and articulating with the quadrate and hyomandibula.

Opercular and branchial series

The opercular apparatus consists of four pairs of wide, flat dermal bones that form the gill
covers, protect the underlying gill arches, and are involved in respiration and feeding. The
branchial complex consists of four pairs of gill arches, gill rakers, pharyngeal tooth patches, and
supporting bones.

Jaw suspension

1. Amphistylic suspension is found in primitive sharks. The upper jaw is attached to the
cranium by ligaments at the orbital and otic processes of the palatoquadrate. The hyoid
arch is attached to the chondrocranium and lower jaw and is involved in suspension of
both jaws.
2. Hyostylic suspension is found in most chondrichthyans and all actinopterygian The otic
contact of the palatoquadrate has been lost, so that both jaws are suspended from the
chondrocranium by way of ligamentous attachments to the hyomandibula, which is
attached to the otic region of the neurocranium. Methyostylic suspension is a variety of
hyostyl present in Actinopterygii.
3. Autostylic suspension is present in lungfishes and tetrapods. The processes of the
palatoquadrate articulate with or fuse to the chondrocranium. The hyoid arch is no longer
involved with jaw suspension. The hyomandibula becomes the columella of the inner ear
in tetrapods.
9
Teeth

The oral jaws and many pharyngeal bones may bear teeth. Many different terms have
been applied to the different sizes and shapes of teeth. Although the different kinds form a
continuum, they can be divided into several types:
1. Canine: large conical teeth frequently located at the corners of the mouth.
2. Villiform: small, fine teeth.
3. Molariform: pavement like crushing teeth, as in cow nose rays in which they form plates,
or as individual molars in fishes such as the wolf fishes.
4. Cardiform: fi ne, pointed teeth arranged as in a wool card.
5. Incisor: large teeth with flattened cutting surfaces adapted for feeding on mollusks and
crustaceans.
6. Teeth fused into beaks for scraping algae off corals, as in parrotfishes.
7. Flattened triangular cutting teeth, as in sharks and piranhas. Sharp, cutting teeth are
uncommon in bony fishes with the exception of some characins.
8. Pharyngeal teeth: many teleosts have well-developed pharyngeal teeth including fishes
like cichlids and parrotfishes, which also have well-developed teeth in their jaws, and
minnows and suckers which lack teeth in their jaws.

Jaw suspension

1. Amphistylic suspension is found in primitive sharks. The upper jaw is attached to the
cranium by ligaments at the orbital and otic processes of the palatoquadrate. The hyoid
arch is attached to the chondrocranium and lower jaw and is involved in suspension of
both jaws.
2. Hyostylic suspension is found in most chondrichthyans and all actinopterygian The otic
contact of the palatoquadrate has been lost, so that both jaws are suspended from the
chondrocranium by way of ligamentous attachments to the hyomandibula, which is
attached to the otic region of the neurocranium. Methyostylic suspension is a variety of
hyostyl present in Actinopterygii.
3. Autostylic suspension is present in lungfishes and tetrapods. The processes of the
palatoquadrate articulate with or fuse to the chondrocranium. The hyoid arch is no longer
involved with jaw suspension. The hyomandibula becomes the columella of the inner ear
in tetrapods.
4. Holostylic suspension is a variety of autostyly found only in the Holocephali,
(chimaeras). The palatoquadrate is fused to the chondrocranium and supports the lower
jaw in the quadrate region. The name Holocephali means “whole head”, in reference to
the upper jaw being a part of the cranium.

10
Palatine and hyoid arches

The palatine arch consists of four pairs of bones in the roof of the mouth (see Fig. 3.8).
The palatines are cartilage bones that are frequently dentigerous. They have been called
“plowshare” bones because of their characteristic shape. The dermal ectopterygoids are narrow
bones, sometimes T-shaped, sometimes dentigerous. The dermal entopterygoids (or
mesopterygoids) are thin bones that roof the mouth. The metapterygoids are cartilage bones,
quadrangular-shaped and articulating with the quadrate and hyomandibula. The dermal bones of
the hyoid arch are the branchiostegal rays, elongate, flattened, riblike structures (Fig. 3.10) that
attach to the ceratohyal and epihyal. They are important in respiration, particularly in bottom-
dwelling species.

Opercular and branchial series

The opercular apparatus consists of four pairs of wide, flat dermal bones that form the
gill covers, protect the underlying gill arches, and are involved in respiration and feeding. The
branchial complex consists of four pairs of gill arches, gill rakers, pharyngeal tooth patches, and
supporting bones. The branchial complex consists of four pairs of gill arches, gill rakers,
pharyngeal tooth patches, and supporting bones (Fig. 3.11).

11
Postcranial skeleton

The notochord is primitively a supporting structure in chordates. It is a simple,

longitudinal rod composed of a group of cells that, when viewed in cross-section, appear to be
arranged as concentric circles. The notochord provides support for an elongate body while
swimming. Notochordal cells inside the notochord are few in number and contain large vacuoles.
Turgor of the notochordal cells provides rigidity.

Vertebral column

Vertebrae arise and form around the notochord where muscular myosepta intersect with
dorsal, ventral, and horizontal septa. Vertebrae form from cartilaginous blocks called arcualia.
Typically, there is one vertebra per body segment, the monospondylous condition. In the
diplospondylous condition, the basidorsal fuses to the basiventral and the interdorsal fuses to the
interventral, producing two vertebrae per body segment. Vertebrae are usually divided into
precaudal (anterior vertebrae extending posteriorly to the end of the body cavity and bearing
ribs) and caudal vertebrae (posterior vertebrae beginning with the first vertebra bearing an
elongate haemal spine surrounding a closed haemal canal through which the caudal artery
enters) (Fig. 3.12).

Vertebrae may have various bony elements projecting from them. Dorsally, there is an
elongate neural spine housing a neural arch through which the spinal cord passes (Fig. 3.13).
Ventrally, there may be parapophyses that extend ventrolaterally and to which the ribs usually
attach. The main artery of the body, the dorsal aorta, passes ventral to the precaudal vertebrae and
enters the closed haemal canal (Fig. 3.13) toward the end of the abdominal cavity, at which
point it is referred to as the caudal artery.

Ribs and intermuscular bones

Pleural ribs form in the peritoneal membrane and attach to the vertebrae, usually from
the third vertebra to the last precaudal vertebra. They are distinct from intermuscular bones and
serve to protect the viscera

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Caudal complex

In primitive teleosts, a number of hypurals (enlarged haemal spines) support most of the
branched principal caudal fi n rays that form the caudal fi n (Fig. 3.14). Epurals (modifi ed
neural spines) and the last haemal spine support the small spinelike procurrent caudal fi n rays.
In many advanced teleosts, the number of hypurals has been reduced to five. In scombrids,
hypurals 3 and 4 are united into the upper part of the plate and hypurals 1 and 2 into the lower
part (Fig. 3.15).

13
Appendicular skeleton

Pectoral and pelvic girdles are primitively absent in the hagfishes and lampreys. Sharks
have a coracoscapular cartilage that hangs more or less freely inside the body wall and has no
attachment to the vertebral column. In rays, the pectoral girdle is attached to the fused anterior
section of the vertebral column (synarchial condition) and also, by way of the propterygium of
the pectoral girdle and antorbital cartilage, to the nasal capsules of the skull.

Pectoral girdle

Unlike the condition in tetrapods, the pectoral girdle (Fig.3.16) in bony fishes usually
has no attachment to the vertebral column and instead attaches to the back of the skull via the
post-temporal bone. Rather than dividing bones into cartilage and dermal, as done for the skull, it
seems more practical to present the bones in sequence from the skull to the girdle bones
themselves. The pectoral girdle is composed of two cartilage and one dermal bone in
acanthopterygians.

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Pelvic girdle

The pelvic girdle, like the pectoral girdle, is usually not attached to the vertebral column
in fishes as it is in tetrapods. In sharks, the pelvic girdle consists of the ischiopubic cartilages
that float freely in the muscles of the posterior region of the body. In primitive bony fishes, there
are paired pelvic bones, basipterygia, and radials to which the pelvic fin rays attach. In advanced
bony fishes, both the pelvic bone itself and the radials are lost or fused so that the fi n rays attach
directly to the single remaining element, the basipterygium.

Median fins

The median or unpaired fi ns consist of the dorsal, anal, and adipose fins along the dorsal
and ventral profiles of the fi sh.
In jawless fishes, cartilaginous rods support the median fins. In Chondrichthyes, the median fi ns
are supported by ceratotrichia, horny fi n rays composed of elastin and supported by dermal
cells. Advanced teleosts usuallyhave two dorsal fins, with the anterior one (first dorsal fin)
composed of spines and the posterior one (second dorsal fin) composed largely of soft rays,
although there may be one spine at the anterior margin of the fin.

The adipose fin, which varies greatly in size among different fishes. “Adipose” is a poor
term for this fi n because it is rarely fatty. The adipose fin usually lacks lepidotrichia and is
supported only by ceratotrichia,

The anal fi n usually lies just posterior to the anus. In soft-rayed fishes, it is composed
entirely of soft rays, as is the single dorsal fin of these fishes. In spiny-rayed fishes, the anal fi n
usually contains one or several anterior spines, followed by soft rays. Fast-swimming fishes that
have dorsal finlets usually also have anal finlets, small individual fi ns following the anal fin.

Integumentary skeleton

The integument is composed of the skin and skin derivatives, and includes scales in
fishes and feathers and hair in birds and mammals. The integument forms an external protective
structure parallel to the internal endoskeleton and serves as the boundary between the fish and the
external environment. The structure of the skin in fishes is similar to that of other vertebrates,
with two main layers: an outer epidermis and an inner dermis.

Epidermis

The epidermis is ectodermal in origin. In lampreys and higher vertebrates, the epidermis
is stratified. The lowest layer is the stratum germinativum, composed of columnar cells (Fig.
3.17). It is the generating layer that gives rise to new cells. In hagfishes, lampreys, and bony
fishes, there is an outer thin fi lm of non-cellular dead. The outer part of the epidermis in
terrestrial vertebrates is the stratum corneum, which is composed of dead, horny, keratinized
squamous cells that form hair and feathers. Breeding tubercles in fishes may also contain keratin.
Dermal layers include an upper, relatively thin layer of loose cells, the stratum laxum (or
stratum spongiosum) and a lower, compact thick layer, the stratum compactum (Fig. 3.17). In
adult fi shes, the dermis is much thicker than the epidermis. The thickness of the integument
depends on the thickness of the dermis.

15
Scales

1. Placoid scales are characteristic of the Chondrichthyes, This type of scale has been called
a “dermal denticle”. Each placoid scale consists of a flattened rectangular basal plate in
the upper part of the dermis, from which a protruding spine projects posteriorly on the
surface.
2. Cosmoid scales were present in fossil coelacanths and fossil lungfishes. Cosmoid scales
are similar to placoid scales and probably arose from the fusion of placoid scales.
3. Ganoid scales were present in primitive fossil actinopterygians and are found in
Chondrostei. They are modified cosmoid scales, with the cosmine replaced by dentine
and the surface vitrodentine replaced by ganoine, an inorganic bone salt secreted by the
dermis.
4. Cycloid and ctenoid scales are almost completely dermal. There is no enamel-like layer
except perhaps the ctenii (teeth on posterior border) and the most posterior and superficial
ridges of the scale. These types of scales evolved from ganoid scales by loss of the
ganoine and thinning of the bony dermal plate.

Scale morphology in taxonomy and life history

Cycloid and ctenoid scales can be divided into four fields (Fig. 3.18): anterior (which is
frequently embedded under the preceding scale), posterior,dorsal, and ventral. The focus is the
area where scale growth begins. The position and shape of the focus may vary, being oval,
circular, rectangular, or triangular. Radially arranged straight lines called radii may extend across
any of the fields.

A primary radius extends from the focus to the margin of the scale. A secondary radius
does not extend all the way out to the margin of the scale. Radii may be present in different
fields: only anterior, as in pickerels (Esox); only posterior, as in shiners (Notropis); anterior and
posterior, as in suckers (Catostomidae); or even in all four fields, as in barbs (Barbus). Ctenii
may occur in a single marginal row or in two or more rows located on the posterior field

16
 Circuli are growth rings around
the scale. Life history studies,
particularly those dealing with age and
growth, utilize such growth rings. This is
especially useful in temperate waters
where pronounced retardation of growth
of body and scales occurs in fall and
winter, causing the spacing between the
circuli to decrease and thus leaving a
band on the scales called an annulus.

However, interpreting such marks

as annuli requires caution because any
retardation in growth may leave a mark.
The stress of spawning, movement from
fresh to salt water, parasitism, injury,
pollution, and sharp and prolonged
change in temperature may all leave
marks on the scales similar to annuli.
Scales grow in a direct relationship with
body growth, making it possible to
measure the distance between annuli and
back calculate the age at different body
sizes. Other hard structures also show
growth and can be used for aging, such
as fin spines, otoliths, and various bones
such as opercles and vertebrae.

Scale morphology can also be

useful in identification of fragments such
as scales found in archeological kitchen
middens or in stomach contents.

Questions to Ponder:
1. Why do we need to know about the osteology of fishes?
2. Why does osteology of fishes is more complicated than in other
vertebrates?
3. What is the function of the integument?

17
Answers to Questions:

1. Why do we need to know about the osteology of fishes?

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2. Why does osteology of fishes is more complicated than in other vertebrates?

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3. What is the function of the integument?

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 B. CROSSWORD PUZZLE
Direction: Complete the crossword puzzle below.

19
Summary and Assessment

Assignment/Assessment:
Draw the osteology of the little tuna (Euthynnus alletteratus) that is found in Figure
3.1, page 24 on the book of Helfman et al. (2009). The following materials are
needed in the drawing: pencil, Oslo paper or short bondpaper, eraser, sharpener and
ruler. This assignment is due on the 7th day after receiving this module. You may
submit your timeline on-line or off-line.

Summary:

1 Actinopterygians have more skull bones than do sarcopterygians. The skull encloses and
protects the brain and is composed of the neurocranium and the branchiocranium. The
neurocranium is derived from the chondrocranium (the original cartilaginous braincase) and
the dermatocranium (dermal bones derived from scales). Actinopterygian skull bones can be
divided into four regions: ethmoid, orbital, otic, and basicranial.

2 The branchiocranium consists of five series of endoskeletal arches (mandibular, palatine,

hyoid, opercular, branchial) derived from gill arch supports.

3 The notochord of primitive chordates is replaced by the vertebral column in lampreys,

Chondrichthyes, and osteichthyans. Vertebrae form around the notochord at intersections of
myosepta with dorsal, ventral, and horizontal septa.

4 Posterior vertebrae support the caudal fin in most fishes. In teleosts, hypurals (enlarged haemal
spines) support the branched principal caudal fin rays. Three basic types of caudal fins are: (i)
protocercal, the primitive undifferentiated caudal fin of adult lancelets, hagfishes, lampreys,
and larvae of more advanced fishes; (ii) heterocercal, or unequal-lobed tail, in Chondrichthyes
and primitive osteichthyans; and (iii) homocercal, or equal-lobed tail, found in most teleosts.

5 Ribs (pleural ribs) attach to the vertebrae and protect the viscera. Intermuscular bones are
segmental, serially homologous ossifications in the myosepta of teleosts.

6 Hagfishes and lampreys lack pectoral and pelvic girdles. Sharks have a coracoscapular
(pectoral) cartilage with no attachment to the vertebral column. In osteichthyans, the pectoral
girdle lacks a vertebral attachment but is connected with the back of the skull by the
posttemporal bone.

7 The dorsal, anal, and adipose fins form the median or unpaired fins. Cartilaginous rods support
the median fins of hagfishes and lampreys, whereas chondrichthyan fins are supported by
ceratotrichia (horny fin rays). In osteichthyans, ceratotrichia are replaced during ontogeny by
lepidotrichia, which are bony supporting elements derived from scales.

8 Primitive teleosts have a single dorsal fin composed of soft rays. Advanced teleosts usually
have two dorsal fins: the anterior fin composed of spines and the posterior fin composed of
soft rays.

9 The skin and its derivatives, such as scales in fishes, provide external protection. The five basic
types of scales are placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, cycloid, and ctenoid.

20
Unit 2: Soft Anatomy

Readings/Instructional Materials/Resources:

Helfman, G.S., Collette, B.B., Facey, D.E. & Bowen, B.W. 2009. The Diversity of
Fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology. 2nd edition. A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
Publication. ISBN 978-1-4051-2494-2. Pages 41-56.

Lecture Proper

Muscles

Fish muscle is structurally similar to that of other vertebrates, and fishes possess the
same three kinds of muscles, but differ in that a greater proportion (40–60%) of the mass of a
fi h‟s muscle is made up of locomotory muscle. Among the three types, skeletal muscle is
striated and comprises most of a fish‟s mass, other than the skeleton. Smooth muscle is non-
skeletal, involuntary, and mostly associated with the gut but is also important in many organs
and in the circulatory system. Cardiac, or heart, muscle is non-skeletal but striated and is
found only in the heart.

Cheek muscles

Seven principal muscles are involved in opening and closing the jaws, suspensorium,
and operculum during feeding and breathing (Fig. 4.1). The major muscles are the adductor
mandibulae, large muscles with several sections that insert on the inner surface of the upper
and lower jaw and originate on the outer face of the suspensorium, the chain of bones that
suspend the jaws from the neurocranium. The adductor mandibulae function to close the
jaws.

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Dorsal gill-arch muscles

The dorsal gill-arch musculature, aspects of the associated gill-arch skeleton, the
Cardiac muscle

Cardiac or heart muscle is dark red involuntary muscle. It is thickest in the walls of
the ventricle.

Ligaments
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Ligaments are non-elastic strands of fibrous connective tissue that serve to attach
bones and/or cartilages to one another. Names of ligaments usually include their initial and
terminal points. Some, however, are named after their shape or after persons. Baudelot’s
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Alimentary canal

As in other vertebrates, the alimentary tract can be divided into anterior and posterior
regions. The anterior part consists of the mouth, buccal cavity, and pharynx. The posterior
part consists of the foregut (esophagus and stomach), midgut or intestine, and hindgut or
rectum. Voluntary striated muscle extends from the buccal cavity into the esophagus,
involuntary smooth muscle from the posterior portion of the esophagus through the large
intestine.

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Kidneys

The kidneys are paired longitudinal structures located retroperitoneally (outside of

the peritoneal cavity), ventral to the vertebral column. Left and right kidneys frequently join
together to form soft black material under the vertebrae from the back of the skull to the end
of the body cavity. The kidneys are one of the primary organs involved in excretion and
osmoregulation .
Gonads

As in tetrapods, the sexes in fi shes are usually separate (dioecious), with males
having testes that produce sperm, and females having ovaries that produce eggs. The testes
are internal, longitudinal, and usually paired. They are suspended by lengthwise mesenteries
known as mesorchia. The testes lie lateral to the gas bladder when one is present. The
ovaries are internal, usually longitudinal, and primitively paired but are often variously fused
and shortened. The ovaries are suspended by a pair of lengthwise mesenteries, the
mesovaria. The ovaries are typically ventral to the gas bladder.

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 The most anterior part is the telencephalon, or forebrain, which becomes the
cerebrum of tetrapods. Its function in fishes is primarily associated with reception and
passage of olfactory stimuli. The diencephalon, or „tween brain, lies between the forebrain
and the midbrain and is also known as the saccus dorsalis. It functions as a correlation center
for incoming and outgoing messages regarding homeostasis and the endocrine system. The
mesencephalon, or midbrain, is important in vision. The optic nerve (cranial nerve II) brings
impulses from the eyes and enters the brain. The metencephalon, or hindbrain, functions in
maintaining muscular tone and equilibrium in swimming. The cerebellum, a large single
lobe, is the largest component of the fish brain.

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Questions to Ponder:

1. What is the composition of the soft anatomy of the fish?

2. What are the functions of the cardiovascular system of the fish?
3. How can you differentiate the white muscle from the red muscle?

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Answers to the Questions:

1. What is the composition of the soft anatomy of the fish?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the functions of the cardiovascular system of the fish?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3. How can you differentiate the white muscle from the red muscle?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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 A. Word Scramble
Direction: Arrange the scrambled words according to the description given.

SCRAMBLED WORD ANSWER

NSUSI SVENOUS
1. It is a thin-walled sac thar is one of the four chambers of fish heart.

EFEETRFN CBLANHAIR ARRSETIE

2. It bring oxygenated blood from the gills to the rest of the body.

OARDLS ATROA
3. It is the main route of transport of oxygenated blood from the gills to the rest of the body.

RCODIHO EETR IAEBMRLI

4. It is a large, discrete organ behind the retina of the eye.

GUOSSPHEA
5. It is a short, thick-walled tube lined with stratified ciliated epithelium, mucous-secreting goblet cells, and,
often, taste buds.

SGA LRBDDEA
6. It is a gas-filled sac located between the alimentary canal and the kidneys.

YNDKSEI
7. These are paired longitudinal structures located retroperitoneally (outside of the peritoneal cavity),
ventral to the vertebral column.

ESTTES
8. These are internal, longitudinal, and usually paired.

RISVAEO
9. These are internal, usually longitudinal, and primitively paired but are often variously fused and
shortened.

EDICNNPLEHAO
10. Also known as ‘tween brain which lies between the forebrain and the midbrain and is also known as
the saccus dorsalis.

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 B. Modified True or False
Direction: Write the word TRUE if the statement is correct and if the statement is wrong
underline the word/s that makes the statement wrong and write the correct
answer on the space provided before each number.

____________________1. Hagfishes and lampreys have a complicated arrangement of striated

skeletal muscles.
____________________2. The dilator operculi occupies the postorbital portion of the cheek.
____________________3. An opposing dorsal adductor muscle pulls the fin dorsally and caudally.
____________________4. Intrinsic eye muscles move the eye within its orbit.
____________________5. The largest, swiftest, widest ranging teleosts are the marlins and
sailfishes (Istiophoridae) and swordfish (Xiphiidae).
____________________6. Fish fin muscles are the fastest muscles in vertebrates.
____________________7. Smooth muscles are associated with the swim bladder and move
products along the ducts of the reproductive and excretory tracts.
____________________8. Ligament is a dark red involuntary muscle.
____________________9. Names of ligaments usually include their initial and terminal points.
____________________10. Lamnid sharks and advanced tunas (tribe Thunnini) have more and
deeper portions of red muscle than other fishes.

Summary and Assessment

Assignment/Assessment:
Draw the main blood vessels of a bony fish that is found in Figure 4.6, page 48 on the
book of Helfman et al. (2009). The following materials are needed in the drawing: pencil,
oslo paper or short bondpaper, eraser, sharpener and ruler. This assignment is due on the
14th day after receiving this module. Submit your work offline together with your module.

Summary:

1 Fishes have three kinds of muscles (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac, or heart, muscle) and have
relatively more skeletal muscle than do other vertebrates.

2 In the locomotory system, white muscle forms most of the postcranial body and is used
anaerobically for burst swimming but fatigues quickly. Red muscle usually forms thin, lateral,
superficial sheets under the skin; it is used in sustained swimming and fatigues slowly.

3 The basic pattern of the cardiovascular system is a single-pump, single-circuit system that goes
from the heart to gills to body and back to the heart. Many fishes have a pseudobranch, a small
structure under the operculum composed of gill-like filaments that may provide oxygenated
blood to the visual system.

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Summary:

4 The anterior region of the alimentary tract consists of the buccal cavity (mouth) and the
pharynx. The posterior region consists of the foregut (esophagus and stomach), midgut or
intestine, and hindgut (rectum). Alimentary tract length and structure differ as a function of
feeding habits.

5 The gas or swim bladder is a gas-filled sac located between the alimentary canal and the
kidneys. It develops from the roof of the foregut. A pneumatic duct connects the gas bladder
and the gut in primitive teleosts (physostomous condition). Physostomous fishes can take gas
in and emit it through the mouth and pneumatic duct. Advanced teleosts are physoclistous,
losing the connection in adults. Physoclistous fishes have a secretory region containing a gas
gland and a rete mirabile to produce gas, and an oval where gas is resorbed.

6 Kidneys, paired longitudinal structures ventral to the vertebral column, are one of the primary
organs involved in excretion and osmoregulation. A pronephros is present in hagfishes and
larval fishes, whereas a mesonephros is the functional kidney in Actinopterygii.

7 The sexes in fishes are usually separate, and the gonads are usually paired. Males have testes
that produce sperm, and females have ovaries that produce eggs. In Chondrichthyes and
primitive osteichthyans, eggs are shed into the body cavity – the gymnovarian condition. In
gars and most teleosts, the lumen of the hollow ovary is continuous with the oviduct – the
cystovarian condition.

8 The fish brain can be divided into five parts, from anterior to posterior: (i) the telencephalon, or
forebrain, primarily associated with smell; (ii) the diencephalon, a correlation center for
messages regarding homeostasis and the endocrine system; (iii) the mesencephalon, or
midbrain, important in vision; (iv) the metencephalon, or hindbrain, which maintains muscle
tone and equilibrium in swimming and has a large median lobe (cerebellum), which is the
largest component of the fish brain; and (v) the myelencephalon, brainstem, or medulla
oblongata, the posterior portion of the brain and enlarged anterior portion of the spinal cord
that relays input for all sensory systems except smell and sight.

9 Fishes have small brains but sharks have larger brains than teleosts. The largest brains occur in
elephantfishes (Mormyridae), which have a large proportion of their brain devoted to
electroreception.

Submit this module to your facilitator and claim the next module.

Submission of the second assignment together with this module will be due on the
15th day of November 2020.

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