Breathing for Singing

The Anatomy Of Respiration

The respiratory system—or pulmonary system—is the power source and actuator of
the vocal instrument. In this capacity, the lungs serve a function similar to the bellows
of a pipe organ or the air bladder of bagpipes; in essence, they function as a storage
depot for air. This is not, of course, the primary biological function of the respiratory
system, which must perpetually oxygenate the blood and cleanse it of excess carbon
dioxide to maintain life.

Respiratory Anatomy
The respiratory system is housed within the axial
skeleton. This portion of the human skeleton
consists of the spine and thorax (ribcage). The
remainder of the skeleton, including the skull,
pelvis, arms and legs is called the appendicular
skeleton. Posture is largely a function of the rela-
tive positions and balance between these skele-
tal regions. As such, the appendicular skeleton
will become more important later in this Chapter
when breathing methods are discussed.

Spine
Discussion of the respiratory framework must
begin with the spine itself, which consists of
twenty-four individual segments called vertebrae.
Stacked together to form a gentle “S” curve in
the anterior/posterior plane, the vertebrae gradu-
ally become narrower and thinner from the bot-
Figure 8-1. Axial Skeleton tom to the top of the spinal column. The bottom
five are called the lumbar vertebrae. These are
the largest and thickest bones in the spine and
are responsible for carrying most of the weight of the upper body. Curvature in this
region acts as a shock absorber, helping to prevent injury during heavy lifting. Tho-
racic vertebrae make up the next twelve segments of the spine. These bones are
somewhat smaller than the lumbar vertebrae and possess flat areas called facets for
the attachment and articulation of the ribs.

The seven cervical vertebrae complete the top of the spine. The topmost cervical
vertebra is called the atlas and is specially shaped to fit snugly into the base of the
skull and carry the weight of the head. The second cervical vertebra, called the axis,
features a projection from its anterior segment called the dens or odontoid process
that inserts into the atlas. Together, these two vertebrae provide a pivot around
which the skull can be tilted and rotated.

All of the vertebrae—except the atlas—have a small projection from their posterior
called a spinous process that serves as an attachment point for muscles of the back.
In the lumbar region, these projections are robust and somewhat stubby, extending
at nearly a right angle to the spine. In the thoracic region, the spinous processes are
longer and extend obliquely away from the spine. The spinous process of the sev-
enth cervical vertebrae is particularly large and can be easily seen or felt in most
people, especially while bending over. This provides a landmark for the division be-
tween the cervical and thoracic regions and can be useful in establishing correct pos-
ture. Two transverse processes also extend laterally from each vertebra.

At the base of the spine, five sacral vertebrae are found, which are fused together to
form the sacrum. An additional five, very small vertebrae, which are also fused to-
gether, extend beyond the sacrum to form the coccyx or
tailbone. The sacrum joins with a group of bones called
the ilium, pubis and ischium to create the pelvis, a very
strong structure that serves as the attachment points for
the lower extremities and as a girdle for the contents of
the abdomen.

Knowledge of the structure, shape and attachments of

the spine has significant pedagogical consequences. It
must be remembered that the spine has a natural, s-
shaped curve. While this curve should not be exagger-
ated, as seen in severe cases of lordosis (swayback), it
should also not be artificially removed and straightened.
At least one prominent text on singing technique in-
structs that correct posture can be established by lean-
ing against a wall with the knees bent and the feet
placed several inches forward. The singer then presses
the small of his back into the wall, making it as straight
as possible. Finally, he is to stand up while maintaining
the same vertebral posture—and sing (McKinney,
1994). While this technique might be somewhat benefi-
cial for the correction of lordosis, the impact on normal
bodies is contrived and unnatural.

When the entire skeleton is considered, another signifi-

cant pedagogical implication becomes clear. The central
pivot-point for bending forward and back is not at the
waist but at the joint between the pelvis and the hips. Figure 8-2. Spine
Many singers and teachers use breathing exercises that
include bending over to increase awareness of abdominal motion during respiration.
If the instruction or intent is to bend from the waist, this exercise compresses the ab-
dominal area and may actually inhibit free breathing. If, however, the singer bends
forward from the hips, the spine and abdomen are lengthened and released, making
the exercise much more effective.
 Thorax (ribcage)
The thorax or ribcage houses the lungs and heart. It consists of twelve pairs of ribs
(in spite of what is implied in Genesis, men and women have the same number of
ribs), which are attached to the thoracic vertebrae through flexible joints that permit
movement up and down. Limited movement is also possible in the anterior/posterior
plane. The highest four pairs of ribs attach individually to the breastbone or sternum
through the flexible connection of the costal cartilage. Ribs five through ten share a
common cartilaginous connection to the sternum. The bottom two ribs are free-
floating, with no connection to the sternum.
The sternum itself consists of two bony
plates called the manubrium and the corpus
(body). At the base of the corpus, a small
projection called the xiphoid process is
found, to which some of the abdominal
muscles attach.

The flexible connections of the ribs to the

spine and sternum allow for a significant
range of motion. Through contraction of
respiratory muscles, the entire thorax can
be raised and depressed, and made larger
or smaller in diameter. All of these changes
in dimension result in either inhalation or
exhalation.

Lungs
Why do dimensional changes of the thorax
result in breathing? The answer lies in an
old axiom you might remember from your
Figure 8-3. Thoracic Skeleton school days: nature abhors a vacuum. The
lungs, which lie within the thorax, are or-
gans, not muscles, and therefore do not
have the ability to move of their own accord.
However, they still must be enlarged for in-
halation and made smaller for exhalation.
This can occur because the lungs are cou-
pled to the interior wall of the thorax by ac-
tion of the pleurae, or pleural sac. The pleu-
rae is a serous (water permeable) mem-
brane that causes the thorax and lungs to
adhere to each other much in the same way
a wet plastic bag will adhere to a window.
Because of the pleurae, dimensional
changes in the thorax are directly trans-
Figure 8-4. Pulmonary Organs ferred to the lungs; if it gets bigger or
smaller, the lungs do the same.

To better understand how a vacuum is created in the lungs, we must take a brief
foray into the realm of physics. Robert Boyle, a 17th-century British scientist, discov-
ered that when a gas, such as air, is contained in a soft-walled enclosure, its pres-
sure and volume will be inversely proportional (if one goes up, the other goes down).
This is easily visualized through a balloon. If a balloon is squeezed, its volume be-
comes smaller and the pressure of the air within it increases; conversely, if the bal-
loon could be made larger without the addition of extra air, the pressure within it
would decrease.

To inhale, the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs must be increased. This, ac-
cording to Boyle’s Law, results in a decrease in air pressure. In fact, the air pressure
in the expanded lungs is now actually lower than atmospheric pressure—a vacuum
has been created. Air rushes in to fill this vacuum and create equilibrium between the
pressures inside and outside the lungs. Exhalation reverses this process. The thorax
and lungs are made smaller, decreasing their volume and thereby increasing air
pressure. Air in the lungs now rushes out to equalize lung and atmospheric pres-
sures. Because of Boyle’s Law, anytime the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs
is increased, inhalation occurs; anytime it is decreased, exhalation occurs. It is ex-
tremely important to remember the cause-and-effect relationship of expansion and
contraction during breathing. Expansion of the chest and/or abdomen upon inhala-
tion is not the result of air rushing in to fill the lungs; rather, muscles are contracted to
expand thoracic capacity, resulting in a partial vacuum and inhalation.

The lungs themselves are made of porous, spongy material. The right lung is com-
posed of three separate sections, called lobes; the left lung must compete for space
with the heart and is therefore slightly smaller, having but two lobes. Air comes into
the lungs through the trachea (windpipe), which divides into two separate bronchial
tubes. These further divide into the lobar bronchi, which insert into the separate
lobes of each lung. Once inside the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller and smaller
segments, eventually arriving at the alveoli or alveolar sacs, which is where the ac-
tual exchange of blood gasses occurs. The alveoli are highly compressible and are
responsible for much of the elasticity of lung tissue. Healthy, mature lungs contain
vast numbers of individual alveoli with enough surface area to cover a tennis court!
Different sources cite widely varying numbers of total alveoli. According to Zemlin,
there are about seven million (Zemlin, 1998); Raymond Kent, however, places the
number closer three hundred million, a number also cited by J. Anthony Seikel, et al
(Kent, 1997; Seikel, 2000).

How much air do the lungs actually hold? Physiologists employ several different
measurements of lung capacity. Total lung capacity (TLC), the maximum amount of
air the lungs can contain, typically ranges between four and seven liters, varying ac-
cording to body size, gender and age. Not all of this air, however, is accessible dur-
ing respiration. Vital capacity (VC) measures the amount of air that can actually be
expelled following a maximal inhalation, averaging three to five liters. Vital capacity
represents the “capital” with which a singer must work. Those three to five liters must
be carefully meted out to extend over the longest phrase and to control the entire
range of musical expression. The difference between the total lung capacity and the
vital capacity is the residual volume (RV). Varying over a range of one to two liters,
residual volume represents the quantity of air that normally cannot be expelled from
the lungs, regardless of the expiratory force applied by the various breathing muscles
(the lungs never fully deflate in a living person unless they lose their pleural connec-
tion and collapse due to injury). The quantity of air that is moved during breathing is
called tidal volume. Under exertion—and particularly during singing—this may ap-
proach 100% of vital capacity. At rest, however, tidal volume is likely to be only about
a half-liter (Baldwin, 1948; Hoit, 1987).
Inspiratory muscles (primary)
We now know that the thorax must be made larger to induce inhalation. We also
know that muscles are capable of only one motion: contraction. How is it, then, that
something is made larger through contracting—isn’t this a paradoxical contradiction?

The most important muscle of inhalation is the diaphragm. This is the second largest
muscle in the human body—in most people, only the gluteus maximus muscles are
larger. Shaped like a dome or parachute with two small humps, the diaphragm bi-
sects the body, separating the contents of the thorax from the abdomen. In this loca-
tion, it serves as the floor to the thorax. Once again with the help of the pleurae, mo-
tion of the diaphragm is transferred directly to the lungs. On contraction, the dia-
phragm lowers and becomes somewhat flatter. It therefore increases the volume ca-
pacity of the thorax (and therefore, lungs) much like withdrawing the plunger of a sy-
ringe.

Figure 8-5. Location of Diaphragm in Thorax/Torso

Many people have misconceptions about the location and size of the diaphragm.
Since it lies deep within the abdominal/thoracic cavity and cannot be directly felt, it is
often believed to be smaller in diameter and lower in placement than is correct. Often
these misconceptions arise from the best intentions of voice teachers or choir direc-
tors who teach breathing by placing a hand on the tummy and telling the student to
“breathe from the diaphragm.” The student naturally assumes the outward movement
of the abdominal wall is the actual diaphragm. Even well educated singers often be-
lieve the diaphragm lies lower in the torso than it actually does. CD Example 8/7 pre-
sents a view of an entire torso; the diaphragm can be seen to reside at a position
about one-third the distance from the clavicles to the pubis (Figure 8-5).

The diaphragm attaches in the front to the sternum, at the sides to the costal carti-
lages and ribs seven through twelve, and at the back to the upper lumbar vertebrae
through the pillars of the diaphragm. The pillars (or crura) are two, long and thick
muscle bands that run vertically from the spine to the posterior of the diaphragm.
Muscle fibers in the diaphragm originate from all these attachment points and insert
into the central tendon, a strong, fibrous portion of the muscle that is shaped some-
what like a boomerang (Figure 8-6).

Figure 8-6. Inferior view of diaphragm

Since this muscle completely bisects the body, openings must be provided for the
passage of blood and food. Fresh blood is carried to the lower body by the aorta, the
largest artery in the body. The aorta passes through the diaphragm at the aortic hia-
tus, which is located in the center, posterior of the muscle, quite close to the spinal
column. Diaphragmatic movement during respiration is minimal at this location. Oxy-
gen-depleted blood returns from the lower body to the lungs and heart through the
vena cava. This passes through the diaphragm at the foramen vena cava, which is
located in the left-center portion of the central tendon (in superior aspect). The
esophagus, which transports food to the stomach, passes through the diaphragm at
the esophageal hiatus. It is not uncommon for people to experience problems with
the esophageal hiatus. Many will develop a condition known as a hiatal hernia, in
which the esophagus or upper stomach painfully bulges through the hiatus to the
wrong side of the diaphragm. Severe cases of hiatal hernia can be successfully
treated surgically.

While the diaphragm is one of only two unpaired muscles in the human body, it does
possess some aspects of duality. For example, it is provided with two separate blood
supplies. Signals from the brain are sent to it through the two phrenic nerves, which
are branches of the vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve). The nerves that innervate the
larynx are also branches of the vagus.

As previously stated, on contraction, the diaphragm lowers and becomes somewhat

flatter. The range of motion is about one-and-a-half centimeters during quiet breath-
ing to as much as six or seven centimeters (a little less than three inches) during
deep breathing. In an average-sized adult, about 350 cubic centimeters of air will be
inhaled for every centimeter the diaphragm lowers (Zemlin, 1998). Therefore, during
deep breathing, diaphragmatic movement alone should draw nearly two-and-a-half
liters of air into the lungs (7cm multiplied by 350cc).

Strictly speaking, the diaphragm is a voluntary muscle. It is not, however, a muscle

over which most people have direct, conscious control. Singers learn to control its
movement through sensations in the abdomen and ribcage. When it contracts, the
diaphragm lowers into the abdomen, pressing down against its contents, which are
called the abdominal viscera. Unlike the spongy, elastic lungs, the viscera are mostly
incompressible—like water in a water balloon or hot water bottle. When something
presses against it, it cannot be squished into a smaller space but must be displaced.
The result of this displacement is the bulging abdomen (or back) often seen during
inhalation in trained singers. We are not directly aware of the action or location of the
diaphragm during this process; we are only aware of what it has done to something
else.

Biologically, the diaphragm is exclusively a muscle of inspiration. In the vast majority

of people, it is entirely passive during exhalation. Its normal action is to contract for
inhalation and relax during exhalation, quickly returning to its resting position. The
return to resting position occurs without force and does not significantly contribute to
expiratory effort. Some singers, however, seek to maintain diaphragmatic contraction
during exhalation to use as a muscular antagonist in breath support. Fluoroscopic
(video x-ray) studies by Richard Miller and others have shown that while some peo-
ple can indeed control their diaphragms in this manner, many cannot. Regardless, it
is pedagogically incorrect (and physiologically impossible) to say that the diaphragm
pushes air out of the body during singing.

The diaphragm, as important as it is, is not the only significant inspiratory muscle. It
is strongly assisted by a group of muscles called the external intercostal muscles.
They are called external muscles not because they are on the exterior of the thorax,
but because they are the outermost layer of muscles on the inside the thorax. Each
external intercostal originates from the rib above and inserts into the rib below. On
contraction, the lower rib is drawn upward and outward in a swinging motion. As a
result, the entire thorax is lifted and expanded somewhat in diameter.

The external intercostals run in an oblique direction down toward the midline of the
body. You can approximate their direction of travel by placing your right hand on the
right side of your chest with your fingers pointing toward your navel. Your fingers will
now be at a diagonal angle to your body in about the same orientation as the exter-
nal intercostals.

As can be seen in CD Example 8/13,

the external intercostals cover a sub-
stantial surface area within the thorax.
Viewing the thorax in horizontal cross
section with the spine in the 12:00 posi-
tion (as on the face of a clock), external
intercostals extend throughout the re-
gions between 12:00 and 4:00 on the
right side and 8:00 through 12:00 on the
left.

The external intercostals, and indeed

almost all the remaining respiratory
muscles, are strongly voluntary. Most
people are quickly able to learn their
direct control independent of the breath-
ing process simply by deliberately ex-
panding the circumference of the rib
cage.

Expiratory Muscles (primary)

Figure 8-7. External Intercostal Muscles
During everyday living, expiration is
generally a passive activity. Ordinary
people—those who are not trained as pulmonary athletes the way singers are—
inhale by gently contracting the diaphragm while simultaneously lifting the entire tho-
rax. This technique is often called clavicular breathing, since it is accompanied by a
lifting of the clavicles and shoulders. In this breath, the natural elastic recoil of the
lungs and the weight of gravity pressing down upon the thorax are sufficient to gen-
erate respiratory force. As physical exertion increases, however, additional means
are required to induce and control the expul-
sion of air from the lungs. This is particularly
true in breathing for singing. Six different
sets of muscles can be considered primary
for exhalation; not all, however, are used by
every singer or for every variation in breath-
ing technique.

The internal intercostal muscles are found on

the inside of the ribcage underneath the ex-
ternal intercostals. Their fibers run obliquely
away from the midline of the body, criss-
crossing their external neighbors and
thereby acting as direct antagonists. You can
also use your hand to approximate the orien-
tation of the internal intercostals in the body;
this time, however, cross your right hand
over and place it on the left side of your rib-
Figure 8-8. Internal Intercostals
 cage with the fingers pointing down toward your hip. Your fingers will now point in the
general direction of the internal intercostals.

Each internal intercostal muscle originates from the lower rib and inserts into the rib
above it. Upon contraction, the higher rib is pulled down and inward toward the lower
rib, depressing the ribcage and decreasing its circumference. This, as we know, in-
duces exhalation.

Compared with the external intercostals, the internal muscles lie in a more anterior
orientation within the thorax. If their location is again compared with the face of a
clock, they occupy the space between approximately 2:00 to 5:00 in the right hemi-
sphere and 7:00 to 10:00 in the left.

Internal Intercostals are voluntary muscles whose control can be learned through the
deliberate squeezing of the thorax. In most singing pedagogies, however, their con-
traction is delayed as long as possible, only becoming significant at the ends of very
long or extremely loud phrases. This is because a strong initial contraction in these
muscles will over-pressurize the breath, leading to a pressed, strident sound quality.

For many singers, the more important muscles for expiration are found in the abdo-
men. Five significant pairs of muscles are located in this region: the external oblique,
internal oblique, rectus, and transverse abdominis (or abdominal) muscles, which are
found in the anterior abdomen; and the quadratus lumborum, which lies in the poste-
rior. These muscles all contribute to expiration either by depressing the thorax, or by
compressing the abdominal viscera and thrusting it upward against the underside of
the diaphragm to help deflate the lungs.

The four sets of anterior abdominal

muscles form a complex, interlaced
structure of great strength and flexibil-
ity. At its center lies the paired rectus
abdominis. These long muscles have
fibers that run longitudinally (in the rec-
tus orientation as discussed in the pre-
vious Chapter), originating from ten-
dons attached to the pubic bones and
inserting into the cartilaginous portions
of the fifth through seventh ribs and the
xiphoid process at the base of the
sternum. Each rectus is divided into
four sections, called bellies, which can
be contracted simultaneously or inde-
pendently—the classic example of in-
dependent contraction is seen in the
middle-eastern “belly dancer.” When
the rectus is contracted, the rib cage is
pulled toward the pelvis, arching the
Figure 8-9. Rectus and Transverse Abdominals back forward. Many people use exer-
cises such as sit-ups, crunches and
leg-lifts to strengthen the rectus. Carried to the extreme, these exercises result in the
“ripped” abdomen or “six-pack” sometimes associated with body builders. Strenuous
exercise of the rectus probably has little positive effect for singers beyond the im-
provement of physical appearance. Since its action is to shorten the distance from
the pubis to the thorax, contraction of the rectus does little to compress the viscera
when appropriate singing posture is maintained.

Surrounding the rectus muscles is a tendinous

sheath formed by the division of the abdominal
aponeurosis, which extends from the sternum to
the pubis. The remaining anterior abdominal
muscles all attach at some point to the aponeu-
rosis at the lateral edges of the paired rectus.

The three remaining pairs of anterior abdominals

encircle the lower torso from the spine to the rec-
tus. Beginning with the outermost layer, we find
the external oblique abdominis muscles. Like the
external intercostals, these muscles have
oblique fibers that run downward toward the mid-
line of the body. They originate in the exterior
thorax, attaching to ribs five through twelve, and
insert into the iliac crest of the pelvis and the ab-
dominal aponeurosis adjacent to the rectus
muscles. Because they cover the largest surface
area of any of the abdominal muscles, the exter-
nal obliques are particularly important expiratory
muscles for singers. Figure 8-10. External Oblique

Continuing more deeply into the torso, we find

the internal oblique abdominis muscles, whose
fibers run approximately perpendicular to those
of the external obliques. They originate from the
iliac crest and the inguinal ligament—a ligament
that runs from the pubic bone to the iliac crest,
also called the groin ligament—and insert into
the aponeurosis and the thorax at ribs nine
through twelve. The deepest layer of abdominal
muscle is the transverse, whose fibers run hori-
zontally from the rectus muscles to the spine.
Like the internal obliques, the transverse mus-
cles have attachments to the inguinal ligament,
the iliac crest and the aponeurosis; at the top,
however, they are located in the interior of the
thorax where they attach to ribs six through
twelve and interlace with portions of the dia-
phragm.

According to Zemlin, the expiratory functions of Figure 8-11. Internal Oblique

the various abdominal muscles are not uniform:

“Because of their attachments and courses, the abdominal muscles probably

do not all contribute to expiratory activity to the same degree. On mechanical
grounds, the oblique muscles are probably the more effective in depressing
 the ribs, while the transverse abdominis muscles are more effective in com-
pressing abdominal contents” (Zemlin, 1998).

This is not necessarily bad news for singers. To maintain effective breath support,
possibilities must exist for antagonism between the muscles of inspiration and expi-
ration. This can occur between the external intercostals, which elevate the ribs, and
the oblique abdominals—both internal and external—which depress the ribs. Addi-
tional applications of muscular antagonism in breathing will be discussed later in this
Chapter.

The final primary expiratory muscle

pair is located in the posterior abdo-
men, the quadratus lumborum.
Named for their rectangular shape
(i.e., quadratus) and location in the
lumbar region (i.e., lumborum), these
muscles originate at the crest of the
iliac and insert into the lowermost rib
and the transverse processes of the
lumbar vertebrae. Two respiratory
functions are possible. Through their
attachment to the base of the thorax,
they may help stabilize that structure
against the downward pull of the dia-
phragm. More importantly for sing-
ers, they act somewhat like a girdle
Figure 8-12. Quadratus Lumborum
around the lower back, helping to
direct the viscera upward toward the
diaphragm during contraction of the anterior abdominal muscles. The quadratus
lumborum also serve an important postural function, stabilizing the lower back.

Breathing Techniques
Having explored the primary respiratory muscles, we are now equipped to examine
the manner in which they are used during breathing for singing. Almost all voice
pedagogues agree that four principal methods of breath management can be de-
scribed: clavicular (upper chest), thoracic (lower chest), abdominal (belly breathing)
and a balanced breath, often now called appoggio, which is a combination of the lat-
ter two. Each of these methods can be used to provide breath support for singing
and to aid in breath control.

What is the difference between support and control in breathing? According to

James McKinney, author of The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, they are
independent, yet related functions. Breath support is best described as the dynamic
relationship between the muscles of inspiration and expiration that are used to con-
trol pressure in the air supplied to the larynx. Support, therefore, is primarily a pul-
monary function. Breath control, however, relates to the efficiency with which the
glottis uses air. The amount of air taken in during inhalation and its pressure during
exhalation is support; the rate at which air escapes the glottis—and therefore the
maximum phrase duration that can be sung—is control (McKinney,1994).