UNIT 1 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM AT

THE ADVENT OF BRITISH RULE

1.0 Objectives
'

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mauryan and Gupta Administration
1.3 Major Characteristics of Moghul Administration
1.3.1 Role of the King
1.3.2 Bureaucracy
1.3.3 Army
1.3.4 Police
1.4 Structure of the Moghul Administrative System
1.4.1 Central Administration
1.4.2 Provincial Administration
1.4.3 District and Local Administration
1.5 Revenue Administration
1.5.1 Land Revenue as the Primary Source of Income
1.5.2 Types of Land Tenurial Systems
1.5.3 Administration of Land Revenue
1.5.4 Important Revenue Reforms
1.5.5 Modus Operandi of Revenue Collection
1.6 Administration of Justice
1.6.1 Administration of Civil Justice
1.6.2 Administration of Criminal Justice
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Key Words
1.9 References and Further Readings
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit the overall objective is to examine the political and administrative
environment in India at the advent 6f British rule. After studying this unit, you
should be able to:
Understand the administrative system prior to the Moghuls;
Explain the Moghul administration which was by and large inherited by the
East India Company; and I

Trace the roots of some of the present day adminiktrative practices and
institutions. .
1.1 INTRODUCTION
There are evidences that Indian history originated with the Indus Valley
civilization. The sites at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Lothal are described as
pre-Vedic period and the coming of Aryans as Vedic period. During the Vedic
period, Hinduism first arose (it was during this time when Vedas were \1~ritten).
Large parts of India were united during Ashoka's rule. It was at that time that
Buddhism spread not only in India but in other parts of Asia also. In the
Mauryan reign, Hinduism took the shape. Islam came to light in thi eighth
century and in the subsequent three centuries established as a political force.
Lodhis, Tughalaks and a number of other dynasties were succeeded by the
Moghuls. 1ndian administration in the contemporary period possesses
characteristics of heterogeneity ~ f ; ' ~ o a ideals,
ls, focus and roles. It has reflection
- . . . - -. . .- .- - . . .
Historical Context
f
The main focus o this Unit is on Mauryan and Moghul administration as it was
known in the days of the great emperors, Chandragupta, Ashoka, and Akbar, who
are singled out the most outstanding rulers of India known for their
B"
administrative abi ities of a high order.
This Unit gives a detailed coverage to Mauryan and Moghul adminisetion
because these reflect the significant features of earlier administrative systems.
Before we examine the nature of the British rule, its distinguishing characteristics
and style of functioning, we must examine the administrative environment in
India at that time. In other words, we must examine Mauryan and Moghul
administration at great Length and take peep into post-Moghul developments to
get a comprehensive picture of the administrative system at the advent of British
rule.

1.2 MAURYAN AND GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

As mentioned earlier, Indian administration can be traced to the Indus Valley
Civilisation which is about 5000 years old that forms the basis of our civilisation
and culture. -

In the ancient period we know of the Magadha, Mauryan and the Gupta Ages.
Kautilya's Arthashastra, a political treatise on ancient Indian political
institutions, written sometime from 321 to 296 B.C., examines statecraft, gives
an account of State administration and reflects the rule of the Mauryan kings.
Arthashastra, a treatise by Kautilya, a Brahmin Minister under Chandragupta
Maurya, is written in Sanskrit. It discusses theories and principles for effective
governance.
It comprises fifteen books dealing extensively with the powers and obligations of
the king; major organs of the state including the King, the Ministers, the
Janapada [territory with people settled on it], the Durga, the Treasury, and the
Army; Revenue administration; and personnel administration. A thorough
analysis of the Arthshastra brings to light the following principles of Public
Administration: welfare orientation; unity of command; division of work;
coordination; plarlning, budgeting and accounting; decentralisation; 'recruitment
based on qualificafions laid down for each post; paid civil service; hierarchy; and
delegation of authority.
In the Mauryan administration, the State had to perform two types of functions.
The constituent (component) functions related to maintenance of law and order,
security of person and property and defence against aggression. The ministrant
(welfare) functiods had to do with provision of welfare services. All these
functions were carried out by highly organised and elaborate governmental
machinery. The empire was divided into a Home Province under the direct
control of the central government and 4 to 5 outlying provinces, each under a
Viceroy who was responsible to the Central Government. The provinces had
considerable autonomy in this "feudal-federal type" of organisation. Provinces
were divided into districts and districts into villages with a whole lot of officials
in charge at various levels. There was city government too and two types of
courts corresponding to the modem civil and criminal courts. All the
administrative wark was distributed among a number of departments, a very
important department being the special tax department, managed by an efficient
and highly organised bureaucracy who was supplemented by the army and the
secret police.
The king was all-powerful and everything was done in his name. He was assisted
by the 'parishad' and the 'sabha'. The administrative system was a close
combination of military force and bureaucratic despotism. An outstanding
features of Mauryan administration was that the State, through a new class of
officials, known as 'dharma mahamantras' carried out the policy of moral
regeneration of tbe people. Ashoka, the great Mauryan King, set up a new
A n n a r h n n n t oa1lnA thn M i n i e t r v nf M n r a l c
 ~ h e ' ~ u ~continued
tas the legacy of the Mauryans in many respects. The divine Administrative System at
the Advent of British Rule
character of the king was upheld and the king controlled all the levels of the
administrative machinery. The empire was divided, like the Mauryan, for
administrative purposes into units styled as 'Bhukti', 'Desa', 'Rashtra' and
'Mandala'. Villages had their own headmen and assemblies and towns and cities
had special officers called 'nagarapatis' and even town councils. The king had
the help of various functionaries to share the burden of administration. Apart
from the confidential adviser, there were civil and military officials, feudatories,
district officers and many others.

1.3 MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OP MOGHUL

ADMINISTRATION
The Moghuls upheld the earlier traditions in political and administrative matters.
The Moghul emperor was a perfect autocrat and the administration was 'a
centrajised autarchy'. The king symbolised the state and was the source and centre
of all power agencies. The Moghuls did succeed in building up a 'monolithic
administration'.
When compared to the Mauryas, the Moghuls moved in the direction of greater
1
centralisation. They did not pay much attention to social services of health and
welfare as also morals which were areas of special concern for the Mauryan
i kings. But the Moghuls had an efficient civil service They recognised merit and
I accepted Hindu intelligentsia in the higher civil service. Its only drawback was
ft that it was 'land-based'. It means it was mainly concerned with revenue
functions and was a 'highly urbanised institutions'.
1.3.1 Role of the King
Administration was personalised. It has aptly been described as paternalistic. The
entire administrative machinery revolved around the king who was viewed as a
'father figure' or a 'despot' by his people. Most of the time the king was seen as a
benevolent despot who worked for the welfare of his people. The theory upheld
was that of absolute monarchy based on the divine right to rule. The king was
I everything to his people. He was the source of all authority and the fountain-head
of justice. The administrative system was highly centralised and personalised.
1
Everything, therefore, depended on the character and person of the king. Hence,
!
I
when Aurangzeb showed himself as a religious bigot and indulged in religious
persecution of the worst kind, while indulging in endless wars in the South, central
authority weakened, efficiency suffered and administration collapsed. Rajputs,
I
Marathas, Jats, Sikhs and other local elements sought their independence and thus
I set into motion, forces of disintegration.
1.3.2 Bureaucracy
Organisation of the administrative machinery was unstable. It depended on the
whims and fancies of the king. Recruitment was on the basis of caste, kin, heredity
and personal loyalty to the king. Administration was based on fear of force. In the
name of the king, the officials struck terror in the hearts of people, They wielded
much awe and respect among the people.
Officials were primarily engaged to maintain law and order, safeguard the
interests of the king from internal uprisings and revolts, defend and extend the
boundaries of the empire and collect revenue and other taxes.
Every officer of the State held a mansab or official appointment of rank and
profit and was expected to supply a certain number of tcoops for the military
service of the State. Hence, bureaucracy was essentially military in character.
Officials or mansabdars were classified into 33 grades, ranging from
Commanders of 10 to those of 10,000 soldiers. Each grade carried a definite rate
of pay, out of which its holder had to provide a quota of horses, elephants, etc.
State service was not by hereditary succession, nor was it svecialised.
Historical Context Officers received their salaries either in cash or through jagirs for a temporary
period. The officers did not have ownership of lands in their jagirs, but only the
right to collect the revenue equivalent to his salary. The jagir system provided
scope for exploitation of the masses and gave undue power and independence to
the holders of ja6rs. These evils were difficult to check when the Emperor was
weak.
1.3.3 Army
The army must b;e understood largely in terms of the Mansabdari system. In
addition, there were the supplementary troopers and a special category of
"gentlemen troopep" who were horsemen owing exclusive allegiance to the king.
The army had cavalry which was the most important unit, the infantry, made up of
townsmen and pesants and artillery with guns and navy.
The Moghul army was a mixture of diverse elements. As it grew in numbers it
became too heterdgeneous to be manageable. The soldiers did not owe direct
allegiance to the Emperor but were more attached to their immediate recruiters or
bosses and as such were b ~y with their bitter rivalries and jealousies. Above all,
the pomp and splendour ot the army proved to be its undoing. The army on the
move was like a huge moving city, with all its paraphernalia of elephants,
camels, harem, b w s , workshops, etc. Soon indiscipline set in and the inevitable
deterioration was fully manifest at the tipe of Jahangir. .No longer capable of
swift action, the' Marathas, under Shivaji, could score over the Moghuls in
battles.
1.3.4 Police
In the rural areas, policing was undertaken by the village headman and his
subordinate watchmen. This system continued well into the 19' century. In the
cities and towns police duties were entrusted to Kotwals. Among their many
duties Kotwals had to artest burglars, undertake watch and ward duties, regulate
prices and check weights and measures. They had to employ and supervise work
of spies and make an inventory of property of deceased or missing persons.
However, the Kowal's main job was to preserve peace and public security in
urban areas. In the districts, law and order functions were entrusted to Faujdars.
Check Your Progreis 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
I) Explain the Mmsabdari System.

2) Enumerate the special fc.,tures of Moghul administration.

 Administrative System at
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE MOGHUL; the Advent o f British Rule
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
1.4.1 Central Administration
Central administration, like administration in general, was personal and paternal.
The system operated with a fair degree of efficiency as long as the king was able to
exercise control from above. As soon as his grip loosened, the system fell to
pieces, as seen in the reigns of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
The two highest officials were the 'Vakil' and the 'Wazir'. The Vakil, in fact,
was higher of the two. He functioned as regent of State and was in over all
charge of the State. The 'Wazir' or high diwan was the highest officer of the
revenue department. He was actually known a s 'Wazir' when he acted as Prime
Minister.
The Chief Diwan supervised revenue collection and expenditure. He was head of
the administrative wing of Government. He supervised the work of all the high
officials. He controlled and guided provincial diwans who along with their
subordinates were in touch with him. He signed all kinds of documents and put
his seal authenticating government transactions.
The Moghuls had many diwans. Under the high diwan, that is, diwan-e-ala, there
was the 'diwan-e-tan' in charge of salaries and 'diwan-e-khalsa' in charge of
State (crown) lands. 'At times, the diwans were also successful military
commanders. There was also the 'mustaufi' who audited income and expenditure
and the 'waqia-navis' who kept a record of all important farmers.
Among other officials there was the 'Khan-e-sama' or the high steward in charge
of royal expenditure, the 'diwan-e-buyutat' who was the understudy of the
'Khan-e-sama', the 'Mir-e-Bakshi', the paymaster-general of the empire and the
'Sadr-e-sudur', the head of the ecclesiastical department.
Apart from the major officials of the central government, there were several
others of minor importance who kept the system going. The administrative
pattern was based on regulations, traditions and practices. ..
1.4.2 Provincial Administration
Given the centralised and personalised character of Moghul administration,
provincial authorities were only administrative agencies of the Centre.
The Empire was divided into 'subas' or provinces. At the head of the province
was the tsubedar' or Governor. He was appointed by imperial order and was
given the insignia of office and instrument of instructions which defined his
powers, functions and responsibilities. As executive head, he was in charge of
'
the provincial administrative staff and ensured law and order in the province. He
tackled local civil and intelligence staff with a firm hand and realised tributes
from the local chiefs under him. He also controlled the local Zamindars and
contained their political influence.
The provincial diwan was sc'ccted by the imperial diwan. Though next in
importance to the governor, he functioned independently of him and was
subordinate to the imperial diwan. He was in charge of'the finances of the
province and appointed 'kroris' and 'tehsildars' to induce ryots to pay
.
government dues in time. The diwan also exercised functions of an auditor and
exercised full control over public expenditure. His establishment included the
office superintendent, the head accountant, the treasurer, and clerks.
The provincial 'bakshi' performed a role similar to that of the 'bakshi' at the
Centre. He was responsible for the maintenance and control of troops and kept an
account of the salaries and emoluments of all provincial officers in terms of their
'mansabs'.
Historical Context The 'Sadr' and the 'Qazi' were the two officers at the provincial level which
were sometimes united in the same person though there was a distinction in the
jurisdiction of the two. 'Sadr' was exclusively a civil judge, but did not handle all
civil cases. 'Qazi' was concerned with civil suits in general and also with
criminal cases. .
1.4.3 District and Local Administration
The 'Suba' or province was divided into 'Sarkars' which were of two types. There
were those ruled by officers appointed by the emperor and those under the tributary
rajas. At the head of each sarkar was the Faujdar who was the executive head.
Although Faujdars were subordinate to the provincial governors, they could have
direct communication with the imperial government. On his appointment, a
'Faujdar' received advice regarding policy and conduct. He was also in charge of a
military force and saw to it that rebellions were put down and crimes investigated.
Apart from the 'Faujdar', the other head of the 'sarkar' was the 'amalguzar'. He
was in charge of revenue. Each of them had their own set of subordinate
officials. The 'kotwal' did policing of the town and its suburbs.
A barkar' was divided into 'parganas'. Each 'pargana' had a 'shiqqdar', and
'amil' and 2i 'qazi'. The 'shiqqdar' was executive head and combined in himself
the functions of the 'Faujdar' and 'kotwal' of the 'sarkar'. He took care of law
and order, criminal justice and general administration. The 'amil's' duties were
similar to those af the amalguzar and the 'qazi's' were judicial.
The 'parganas' were further divided into 'Chaklas', which were creatred to
facilitate and improve the realisation and assessment of-revenue and had their
own set of local iofficials like the 'Chakladars'. Each of the officials was
responsible and accountable to those above.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit..
1) Make a list of important officials at the Central level.

2) Make a list of important officials at the p o v i s h l and district leueb.

1.S REVENaE ADMINISTRATION

1.5.1 Land Revenue as the Primary Source of Income
The Revenue system needs to be closely studied &cause land revenue has been
traditionally, the pr'imary source of income of the State. The State and the
cultivator were two parties to the contract. The right of the State to a share of the Administrative System at
the Advent of British Rule
produce was recognised as a principle of political economy from times
immemorial. What was disputed and had to be determined periodically was the
fixing of the share of each.
In ancient times, the State's share was defined by law-givers as one-twelfth, one-
eighth or even one-fourth. However, about one-sixth was realised. While in the
14thcentury, the State took half, Akbar kept it at one-third.
1.5.2 Types o f Land ~ e n u r i a Systems
, l
There were three types of land tenurial systems in India. The Zamindari system
was prevalent in Bengal and was extended by the British to parts of Madras. Here
the Zamindars as the intermediaries played a crucial role. In the Mahalwari system,
as seen in the North West Provinces, the settlement of land revenue was with
zamindars that held their Mahal (estate) in joint proprietorship and not on an
individual basis. The Ryotwari system, seen in North India and the Deccan, did
away with all kinds of intermediaries between the State and the ryots or peasants.
Though the actual cultivators of the soil were responsible for the annual payment
of the fixed revenue, they did not have proprietary rights. These continued to be
vested in the State.
1.5.3 Administration of and Revenue
Land tenures were pretty complex and, varied from place to place. These could be
understood through the following three groups.
i) Non-proprietary tenures were held by peasant cultivators who worked as
tenants and reht-payers. They held land on van rous conditions and got a share
ofthe produce in cash or kind. Though in theory they could be evicted by the
proprietor, yet custom recognised their right to continue as tenants as long as
they r id rent.
ii) The superior proprietary tenures were held by a mixed group. They were
descendants or representatives of ancient chiefs and nobles, military chiefs
or even middlemen called 'assignees'. They also included hereditary
officers and local influential that acted as temporary or permanent owners
of the government share of the produce or rent so long as they paid a
certain tribute or revenue to the State. They usually took 10% of
Government share and were responsible for law and order, land
improvement and even administration of justice. These various types of
assignees formed the feudal structure of society. They often farmed out
their lands and this system of revenue farming was oppressive to the
cultivators.
iii) - The subordinate proprietary tenures were in between the earlier two. Their
existence came to light as a result of the painstaking researches of Holt
Mackenzie and Sir Charles Metcalfe. In the North West Provinces, these
formed a large part of the proprietary community and their counterparts
were found in Punjab, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Since the bulk of the State's income originated from land revenue, administration
of revenue was much critical. The machinery for collection was elaborate and
hierarchical. Apart from the ,official"bureaucracy, there were a whole lot of
intermediaries who had a role to play in revenue collection. The net result was that
the peasants were exploited and-ictimised. They were th'e worst sufferers in the
system because of undue extortion. The only gain for them was a certain amount of
security as they could not be evicted from their holdings for default of payment.
1.5.4 Important Revenue Reforms
important revenue reforms were introduced during the reign of Akbar when Todar
Mal was appointed the Diwan-e-Ashraf. Todar Mal established a standard system
of revenue coilection, with major highlights as survey and measurement of land,
classification of land' and fixation of rates. Hence, the overall success or failure of
Historical Context the revenue system depended on the king and the quality and nature of the
centralised administration. Akbar is credited with having scientifically organised
his land revenue system. It continued till the 18' century though it gradually lost its
vigour and was injurious to the interests of the peasants.
1.5.5 Modus Operandi of Revenue Collection
Mention has been made of the modus.operandi of revenue collection. The
Empire was divide'd'into 'subas', which were subdivided into 'sarkars' and
'sarkars' into 'parganas'. The 'amalguzar' was the chief revenue collector in
charge of a district and was assisted by a large subordinate staff. Among other
officials, mention must be made of the 'Qanungo' who kept revenue records, the
'Bitikchi' or.accountant and the 'Potdar' or district treasurer.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Distinguish between the Zamindari, Mahalwari and Ryotwari tenurial
systems.

2) Who were the "assignees"? What were their functions in the society?

3) Mention three important revenue officials.

1.6 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

1.6.1 Administration of Civil Justice
The Moghul State, being a Muslim State was based on Quranic law. The judges
followed the Quranic precepts, the 'Fatwas' or previous interpretations of the Holy '
Law by eminent jurists and the ordinances of the Emperors. They did not disregard
customary laws and sought t~ follow principles of equity. The Emperor's
interpretations prevailed, provided they did not run counter to the sacred laws.
For the dispensation of justice, there were two types of tribunals. There was the
Chief 'Qazi' with subordinate 'Qazi' who followed the Islamic law, both civil a d
criminal. The other was the 'mir'adl', a secular officer who took care of suits not
specifically provided for by the religious laws of the two communities. The king
was the suoreme court of both original and abbellate iurisdiction.
 he' o&ce of 'mir'adl' was limited to big cltles and towns where the mixed Administrative System at
the Advent of British Rule
population and advanced commerce gave rise to cases not covered by Quranic law.
Here too, there were opportunities for corruption and misuse of authority. Where
thelLmir'adl' and 'qazi' were both present, the former exercised a general
controlling authority over the 'qazi' who acted under him as a law officer.

-
1.6.2 Administration of Criminal Justice
The Quran was the guide for conduct of criminal justice for Muslims as well as
non-Muslims. According to Muhammadan law, crimes were classified under three
main heads: (i) Crimes against God; (ii) Crimes against the sovereign; (iii) Crimes
against private individuals. Punishment of Crimes was on the fotlowing principles:
(a) 'Huda' @ punishment specified by Quranic law which included death,
flogging, etc.; (b) 'Qisas', or retaliation due as a right of man; and (c) 'Tazir' or
punishment inflicted at the discretion of the judge, but not defined by law. It
included admonition, exposure to public insult and even exile and scourging.
By modern standards of justice, punishments were severe and barbarous.
Whipping to death was common. Persons were flayed alive for treason and
conspiracqt against the State. In the reign of Aurangzeb, no Muslim could be
convicted on evidence of a non-Muslim, but the latter could be readily punished
on the testimony of a Muslim or any other person.
The operation of regular courts was seriously affected. With the-disintegration of
the Moghual authority and the collapse of the empire, the operation of regular
courts was confined to chief towns where the provincial governors continued to
wield a measure of autonomy.
At a later stage, one finds that attempts were made by the Britishers to improve
administration of criminal justice.
British administration was especially concerned with criminal branch and sought
to do away with the inequities and inadequacies of Islamic law and order to meet
the needs of a more advanced society as well. as to conform to principles of
natural justice and equal citizenship.
Briefly, the principles the Public Administration during the Moghul period could
be listed as: Centralisation; personalised administration; civil service; different
levels of administration; division of work; bureaucracy having military character;
revenue administration based on well laid down principles; administration based
on fear of force; administration based on regulations, traditions, and practices;
and inadequate unity of command (one could find gaps through illustrations like
the position of provincial Diwan, who was directly under the Imperial'Diwan and
not under the Governor, and the position of Faujdars, who were though under the
Governors, yet could have direct communication with the imperial government).

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
Qs
1) Describe the types of tribunals forjudicial administration. f~?
Historical Context 2) Explain the distinguishing features of the Moghul judiciary. I

1.7 LET US SUM UP

At the advent of British rule, -the administrative system was paternalistic,
centralised and personalised. There was an elaborate network of officials at the
centre constituting tlhe central secretariat which was repeated at the provincial
and local levels. The emperor had the total control of the state. Land revenue was
the principal source of income and land tenures were complex, elaborate and a
mix of rules, regulations, customs and traditions. The judicial system was under
executive dominance and was poorly structured. Society was feudal, with the
toiling masses often given a raw deal.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Bureaucratic Despdtism : Absolute and domineering rule of bureaucrats
in a society.
Centralised Autarchy : Government by an individual or a group with
absolute and unrestricted authority.
Intelligentsia : The educated or intellectual people in a
society.
Monolithic Administration : Undivided and unitary administration.
Paraphernalia : Miscellaneous.

1.9 REFERENCES AND FLJFiTHER READINGS

Majumdar, R. (et al) 1967, An Advanced History ofIndia; Macmillan, New York
Misra, B.B., 1959, The Central Administration of the East India Company
1773-1834, Manchester University Press, Manchester
Puri, B.N. 1975, History of Indian Administration Volume II; Medieval Period,
Bharatiya Vidya Mandir, Bombay

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer must include the following points:
Functions of the officers holding 'mansabs'
Classification of mansabdars into grades
Exploitative nature of mansabdari fibtern
2) Your answer must include the following points:
Amy .
Mansabdari System
Police
n
Check Your Progress 2 Administrative System at
the Advent of British Rule
1) See Sub-section 1.4.1.
2) See Sub-section 1.4.2 and 1.4.3.
Clteek Your Progress 3
1) Your answer must include the following points:
Differences relating to role of intermediaries
Differences relating to payment of revenue
Differences relating to places where they existed
2) Your answer must include the following points:
Composition of Assignees
Source of Income of Assignees
Resp~nsibilitiesof Assignees
3) See Sub-section 1.5.5.
Cbeck Your Progress 4
1) Your answer must include the following points:
Two types of tribunals .'
Role of the dhief 'Qazi' and subordinate 'Qazis'
Role of 'mir'adl'
2) Your answer must include the following points:
Justice in Moghul period was based on Quranic Law
Classification of crimes into three main heads
Nature of punishment
Discrimination between Muslims and non-Muslims
Dominance of executive authority
~radati;d of Courts