Assignment on History

TOPIC: THE MAIN FEATURES OF

MAURYANS ADMINISTRATION

Dated: 09th October 2019

Submitted by
LALRINPUII
CLASS XII, SECTION _
ROLL NO. __
 THE MAIN FEATURES OF MAURYANS
ADMINISTRATION
Introduction
Mauryans were the first to build a pan-Indian empire. For the first time
in South Asia, political unity, military security and a uniform administrative
system allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and
commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. When Chandragupta
Maurya and Chankya gave emphasis to the centralized administration and
statecraft, Ashoka gave emphasis to creating a welfare state.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

 There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire:

Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini,
Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
 It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform
administrative system so historians believe that the administrative
control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
 Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to
administer the Empire.
 The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of
the empire but also for administering them.
 Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military
activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants,
recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for
soldiers.
 Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma,
whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine
propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards
elders. Dhamma mahamattas were appointed to spread the principles
of Dhamma.
 The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan
inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main
features of his policy of 'dhamma'. According to the inscriptions, he had
also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread
Dhamma.
 Administration
A distinguished feature of the Mauryan political system was development of a well
organised bureaucratic structure. According to K.A. Nilkanta Shastri, “in fact, the great
elaboration with which the machinery of Central government is dealt with by Kautilya in the
Adhyaksha-prachāra (Book II of the Arthashāstra) is worthy of a modern manual of
administration.”53R.C. Majumdar54 talks of two branches of administration:

(i) Mantrins, sannidhātā, samāhartā formed the higher branch of administration.

(ii) (ii) Next came the lower branch consisting mainly of superintendents of various
departments.

Central Administration

There were various officers who conducted the affairs of the state. Kautilya
mentions 18 tirthas who are also called mahāmātras or high functionaries. In Ashokan edicts
we see the counterpart of this term as amātya. They were the top administrators. The
highest amātyas were appointed as mantrins. Important amātyas were

1. The high priest (purohita)

2. The commander-in-chief (senāpati)

3. The chief judge

4. The door keeper (pratihārī)

5. The collector general (samāhartā)

6. The high treasurer (sannidhātā)

Samāhartā and sannidhātā played very important roles in the administration. The
main task of samāhartā was to supervise the collection of revenue from the whole kingdom.
He had to give his attention to all fortified towns, provinces, mines, gardens, forests and
trade routes which were the chief source of income. Tolls, fines, fees for assaying weights
and measures, police, currency, passports, liquor, slaughter house, oil, sugar, goldsmith,
prostitutes and gambling formed the chief source of revenue from towns. The sannidhātā
whose duties combined those of chamberlain and treasurer had charge of the construction
of treasuries and warehouses of suitable strength and proportions wherever they were
required, and was the custodian of the realised revenue in cash and kind.

Existence of the officers like samāhartā and sannidhātā makes it clear that the
Mauryas had a highly advanced system of taxation. However, Kautilya considers assessment
more important than storage and depositing. The harm done to the state by samāhartā who
was the highest officer in-charge of assessment, is thought to be more serious than that
caused by the sannidhātā who was the chief custodian of the state treasury and storehouse.
Thus the assessment machinery really seems to have appeared in the Mauryan period.

Along with these 18 tirthas Kautilya provides in some detail for 27 superintendents
(adhykshas) concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties though
social functions are not ignored. These superintendents were what we would now call heads
of departments, functioning under the general control and supervision of a minister who
had charge of a group of allied 86 departments. Their duties comprised the exploitation of
crown property as well as regulation and control of the economic and social life of the
community. The names of the departments mentioned in the Arthashāstra, are : treasury,
mines, metals, mint, salt, gold, storehouse, trade, forest produce, armoury, weights and
measures, measurement of space and time, tolls, spinning and weaving, agriculture,
intoxicating liquor, slaughter houses, courtesans, shipping, cattle, horses, elephants,
chariots, infantry, passports, pastures, elephant forests, spices, religious institutions,
gambling, jails and ports.

Pointing out the uniqueness of the Mauryan administration, K.A. Nilkanta Shastri
says:

“a government which undertook such delicate tasks as the medical inspection of or

the regulation of the rates charged by courtesans, of the punishment of house holders who
turned ascetics without making adequate provisions for their dependents, and of the
control of the visits to villages of peripatetic parties of musicians, dancers and acrobats so as
not to interfere with the productive activity of the villagers must have displayed an energy
in administration altogether new in India.”

Provincial Administration

Though the Mauryas had established a centralised bureaucratic state, the empire
was divided into various provinces for administrative convenience. In the Ashokan edicts we
find reference to four provinces –

1. North-Western province (capital Taxila)

2. Western province (capital Ujjayini)

3. Eastern province of Kalinga (capital Tosali)

4. Southern province (capital Suvarngiri).

Kumārāmātyas (princes of royal blood) were the rulers of these provinces.

Provinces were controlled by the Central government. Administrative heads of these
provinces (Kumārāmātyas) also had their own council of ministers. But important officers
were appointed by the king himself.

Municipal Administration or Town Administration

The Mauryas developed a well organised system of municipal administration. The

administration of the city corresponded on a small scale, with that of the country. It was
divided into several wards, and each ward into several groups of households like the
corresponding divisions of the country into districts and villages. Corresponding to
samāhartā at the Central level, the chief officer of the city was called nāgaraka or city
superintendent. The nāgaraka had under him, subordinate officials called sthānika (four in
number in each city) and gopa. The town was divided into wards and sthānika was the in-
charge of the ward, gopa worked under sthānika and was the in-charge of some villages.
Each village had a headman also.

Nāgaraka (Head of the town)

Sthānika (Head of the ward)

Gopa (Head of some villages)

Grāmika (Head of a village)

Regarding the administration of the capital city of Pātaliputra, Megasthenes refers

to the existence of various committees. The city was administered by thirty officials divided
into six committees. The first committee looked after industry and crafts. The second
committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included arranging for their food,
comfort, stay and security. The third committee was responsible for the registration of
births and deaths. The fourth committee regulated trade and measurement. The fifth 88
committee inspected the manufactured goods. The sixth committee collected taxes on the
goods sold.

Village Administration

The village was the smallest unit of administration under the in-charge ship of an
official called grāmika or village headman. He was either nominated by the king or elected
by the people of the village. With the assistance of an assembly of villagers, he transacted
the affairs of the village and maintained peace and order.
 Besides these officers, we find references to certain other officers in the inscriptions
of Ashoka like— rajjuka, pradeshtā and yukta. Pradeshtā was entrusted with the duty of
maintenance of law and order and also with some magisterial powers. R.S. Sharma
compares him with a modern police-cummagisterial officer. Rajjuka is an officer which
frequently appears in Ashokan edicts. They performed various functions. They were the
imperial agents who received express directions for carrying out and broadcasting the
emperor’s orders. Collection and utilisation of the revenue through various departments
was the main function of the yukta. Dhamma-mahāmātras were entrusted with the task of
establishment and increase of piety.

The pay scale of different categories of employees suggests that the bureaucracy
was highly hierarchical. The highest functionaries such as the mantrin, purohita, senāpati
and yuvarāja were paid generously as much as 48,000 panas. In contrast the lowest officials
are recommended 60 panas in the consolidated pay list. It also shows a pyramidical
bureaucratic structure. Sometimes this gigantic and much powerful bureaucratic structure
resulted in the oppression of the subjects. In the Buddhist work, Divyāvadāna, we have
stories of popular revolts at Taxila during the reigns of Bindusara and Ashoka which were
provoked by the oppression of officials. More authentic evidence comes from Ashoka’s
Kalinga Rock Edict which conveys strong warning to the city officials against wrongful
confinements.

Military Administration

The Mauryas developed a huge military setup and a well organised control system
to maintain and govern it. According to Justin, Chandragupta overran the whole of India
with an army of 600,000.56 This shows the huge size of the Mauryan army.

The Mauryas maintained a large, efficient and well equipped army which was
composed of six elements:

1. The hereditary army which was most loyal, reliable and composed mainly of the
fighting classes.

2. The hired army consisting of mercenaries who were recruited from various
countries.

3. Army formed of corporations of people (sreni) or guild consisting of soldiers

provided by trade and craft guilds for short expedition.

4. The army of king’s friend (mitra).

5. The army belonging to an enemy (amitra).

6. The army composed of wild tribes.

 According to Kautilya hereditary army is the best. Also, every former type is better
than the latter in the order of enumeration.

The Mauryan army consisted of four limbs:-

1. The infantry

2. The cavalry

3. The elephantary

4. The charioteers.

For the efficient organisation of army a separate army department was established
consisting of 30 members. This department was further divided into six boards each board
having five members. These six boards were –

1. Board for navy

2. Board for infantry

3. Board for cavalry

4. Board for elephantary

5. Board for chariots

6. Board for transport

The swords, shields, lances, bows and javelins were the main equipment of the
soldiers. All arms were the property of the state. Similarly horses and elephants were the
property of the state and private ownership of these was not permitted. There was a
separate department to look after the production and maintenance of a variety of
armaments whose chief was known as ayudhāgārādhyaksha. Pliny, basing his statement on
Megasthenes put the strength of Chandragupta’s forces at 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry
and 9,000 elephants.

Ghosal points out certain special features of the Mauryan military system:

a. Chandragupta’s army consisted wholly of professional fighters.

b. The army was wholly maintained out of the state treasury.

c. A separate staff of attendants was employed for the equipment of the fighters.

d. The numerical strength of the army (especially infantry) was increased by

Chandragupta.

Espionage
 Spies or secret agents were an important part of administration. They were
maintained not only by the king, but by almost all the important officials as a check against
their subordinates. Persons to be recruited as spies were trained up for this purpose since
their childhood. They were trained in various languages as well as in the art of putting on
disguises appropriate to different places and trades. Disguised as householders, cultivators,
merchants, hermits, ascetics and students, 91 they mixed with all ranks of society and
collected information. The king employed them to watch the movements not only of his
high officials including the priests, ministers and commander-in-chief but even of his own
son and heir apparent to the throne. There were counter spies for the detection of spies and
very often different bands of spies, unknown to one another were employed for the same
work so that the truth might be ascertained by comparing the different accounts given by
them. The spies evolved systems of signs, symbols, and cipherwriting for communicating
with one another. Female spies were also popular. Spies were deputed to foreign countries
also. According to the Arthashāstra, there were two types of spies— sansthā (posted in
certain places) and sanchāra (used to travel to different places).

Judicial Administration

The Mauryas developed a system of courts from local level to the Central level. The
central court was held in the capital. It was presided over by the king or the chief justice,
and included four or five judges who were chosen for their character and expertise in law.
This was the highest court of justice and exercised a sort of general supervision over the
administration of justice throughout the country. The local courts were three in number.
The first consisted of the kindred of the accused. The second was the guild to which he
belonged and the village assembly formed the third. Between the king’s court and local
courts, there were other courts in important cities, where royal officers, assisted by judges,
administered justice.

There were two classes of courts, dharmasthīya courts and kantakashodhana courts.
There is a great difference of opinion regarding the nature of these courts. According to P.V.
Kane, “the dharma courts dealt with the disputes brought before them by the parties; In the
kantakashodhana courts the actions started on the initiative of the executive.” 58 K.A.N.
Shastri opines that the kantakshodhana courts were a new type of court introduced to meet
the growing needs of an 92 increasingly complex social economy and to implement the
decisions of a highly organised bureaucracy on all matters that were being brought under
their control and regulation for the first time and were unknown to the old legal system. The
regular dharma courts dealt with vyavahāra as developed in the tradition of the
dharmashāstras; the function of kantakashodhana were quasi-judicial, and their methods
had more in common with those of a modern police force than that of a judiciary. Their aim
was to protect the state and people from base actions of antisocial persons, the thorns
(kantaka) of society.59It seems that in reality dharmasthīya courts were like modern civil
courts which decided cases relating to contracts, agreements, gifts, sales, marriages,
inheritance and boundry disputes. Kantakashodhana courts were like modern criminal
courts which decided cases of thefts, robbery, murder, offence related to sex etc.

The Mauryan Economy

The Mauryan economy was an expanding economy and the state took a keen interest
in consolidating and promoting its economic gains. Therefore, it not only controlled and
coordinated the activities of the peasant manufacturers and traders, but also directly
participated in the production and exchange of different commodities. The state, in fact, very
strictly regulated the economic activities of the state.

The political unification of India, the creation of a strong centralized government,

restoration of law and order, opening up the Western trade-routes by Alexander, measures
taken by the Mauryan state for the promotion of agriculture, trade, commerce, industries, and
crafts gave impetus to economic development during this period.

The use of iron facilitated the clearing of the jungles and furrowed the land more deeply
so as to exploit fully the potential fertility of the Ganga-Yamuna valley. The spurt in
agriculture resulted in the accumulation of the surplus food necessitating its exports which
was facilitated by the natural water-way of the Ganga. The resulting trade and commerce led
to the rise of gradual urbanization. The famous cities of Saravasti, Saketa, Varanasi, Champa,
Rajagriha, Ujjain etc., grew around market places and attracted artisans from far and wide
with the allurement of easy availability of raw-material and ready market for the disposal of
their handiworks. With the consolidation of the markets, cities multiplied in number and
became the storehouse of wealth. These famous cities were so much coveted and prized by
the adventuring spirits that they became the capitals of the famous kingdoms of the sixth
century B.C. mentioned in the traditional lists of Sixteen Mahajanapadas. These centres of
trade, commerce and craft were interlinked by means of trade-routes:
 The 1st linked Champa with Varanasi via Rajgriha, from then on to Taxila
 The 2nd linked Varanasi with Sarasvasti via Saketa and Ayodhya
 The 3rd joined Varanasi with Ujjain via Kausambhi
 The 4th linked these northern centers with the Deccan via Ujjain.

From Champa, the merchants were going to Suvarnabhumi (Arakan in Burma),

Tamraparni (Ceylon), and the other islands to the east of India and Taxila became culture
cum – commercial distributing centre of ‘Indian Wares’ to Central and Western Asia and
further to West Africa and Europe. The background had been fully prepared by these
spanning trade routes and expanding agrarian economy resulting in gradual urbanization for
the rise of imperial polity manifested by the Mauryas.

Agriculture
 The mainstay of economy during this period was agriculture. The Mauryan state founded
new agricultural settlements to bring virgin land under cultivation. People from
overpopulated areas and prisoners of war were brought to these new settlements to work on
the fields. These villages belonged to king and were looked after by government official
called sitadhyaksha or superintendent of agriculture. Besides state farms, there were
individual land holders who paid a variety of taxes to the state. The bali or land tax was the
main item of revenue, levied at the rate of one sixth of the produce. Peasants had to pay many
other taxes like pindakara, hiranya, bhaga, bhoga etc. Principal crops were various varieties
of rice, barley, millet, wheat, sugarcane and most of the pulses, peas and oilseeds.

The importance of irrigation to Indian agricultural conditions was fully recognized. In certain
areas water for irrigation was distributed and measured. The Arthashastra refers to a water tax
which was regularly collected wherever the state assisted in providing irrigation. One of
Chandragupta’s governors, Pushyagupta was responsible for building a dam across a river
near Girnar in Western India. The construction and maintenance of reservoirs, tanks, canals,
and wells were regarded as part of the functions of the government.

Cattle breeding in the peasant society had become an adjunct of agriculture, but there were
still certain pockets which pursued pastoral economy. Herds were maintained not only by the
state but also by wealthy individuals. Fishing and hunting were practiced as a means to
livelihood especially by the tribes and practitioners of these occupations had to pay one-tenth
of their catch to the royal storehouse. Ashoka stopped the indiscriminate killing of animals
and introduced many measures for the welfare of people who practiced it.

Craft and Industries

Under the Mauryas, the most important industry was that of mining and metallurgy
and the state had a monopoly over it. It formed the base of political as well as economic
power of the Mauryas. It was looked after by the superintendent of mines who was to be an
expert on mining and metallurgy. He was to develop the old mines and discover the new
ones. The ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron and Bitumen were worked upon. Literary
evidence suggests that working of iron was much more expensive than any other metal.
Lohadhyaksha was the officer – in - charge of iron working. The production of minerals and
mining trade was the monopoly of the state. Thus, metals and mining were the most
important factors in the Mauryan state policy. Kautilya points out that the origin of treasury is
mining, and of force in treasury, and earth is acquired by means of treasury and force. It
controlled everything from processing to refining. One of the more notable results of the
political unification of the sub-continent was the security provided by a stable and centralized
government which patronized expansion of various, craft guilds and trade.

The Mauryan state directly employed some of the artisans such as armours,
shipbuilders, etc., who were exempted from tax but others who worked in state workshops
were liable to tax. Craft activities were also a major source of revenue to the state. Artisans
living in towns had to pay taxes either in cash or kind or work free for the king. Traders and
artisans were organised in associations called srenis or guilds. The Mauryas were responsible
for introduction of iron on a large scale in different parts of the subcontinent. They
maintained a monopoly over production of iron, which was in great demand by the army,
industry and agriculture. It was done through the official called loha-adyaksha.
The Mauryan Empire regulated trade and industry with the help of a number of
superintendents.
 The superintendent of commerce was in charge of the market
 The superintendent of weights and measures used to enforce correct weights and
measures
 The superintendent of ships looked after water communications and collected ferry dues
 The superintendent of tolls collected customs on commodities for internal and external
commerce
 The superintendent of weaving looked after weaving industry mainly run by women
laborers
 The superintendent of liquor managed the state wine shops.

{State had the complete monopoly over the trade of salt and liquor.}

State Control

The Mauryan state itself was a vast industrial and trading concern and employed in its
service vast numbers of artisans and merchants. Hence, the state had to control its entire trade
to safeguard its own interests. Regulating the relations between State concerns and private
enterprise was a delicate task and the Arthashastra gives clear evidence that the Mauryan
state performed this task with considerable success.

Apart from the incomes of the economic undertaking, the state also imposed a large
number of customary and new taxes. Economy of Mauryan Empire witnessed a well
organised tax system devised by Kautilya. A tax was levied on all manufactured articles and
the date was stamped on them. The merchandise goods were strictly supervised. Various
factors such as current price, supply and demand, and the expenses of production were
considered by the superintendent of commerce, before assessing the goods. Land revenue was
the major source of income for the government. Land was subjugated to regular assessments
and an appropriate level of tax was levied. Industries and enterprises were also taxed. The
main tax was the 1/6 of the production of the peasants as the royal share. The state also
received 1/4 and sometimes 1/2 from the share croppers who received land and other
agricultural inputs from it. The peasants also paid another tax known as the pindakara,
imposed on the groups of villages. The old Vedic Tax bali, perhaps is now regarded as the
religious tax. Kara was a tax received from flower and fruit gardens. Senabhakta was a tax
received from the villagers in the form of supply of provisions to the army when it passed the
villages concerned. Hiranya was known as payment in cash. The peasants had also to pay
irrigation cases.

There were also customs and ferry dues. Taxes were also imposed on the guilds of
urban artisans. Even those numerous taxes could not meet the mounting expenditure of the
state. So, Arthasastra provides for large real emergency taxes. One such measure was the
imposition of pranaya or the gifts of affection which was to be levied only once on peasants
and which amounted to 1/3rd or 1/4th of their produce. Arthasastra also provided for
compulsory raising of a second crop by the cultivators, a share of which went to the state.
According to Patanjali and Kautilya, the Mauryan emperors also collected money by setting
up images of Gods for worship. Jaina tradition also suggests that Kautilya issued 800 million
karsapanas i.e. Kautilya debased silver coins to fill up the treasury. All such emergence
measures enormously increased the income of the Mauryan State.
 Thus the whole Mauryan economy was geared up to meet the financial requirements
of the state. Most of these taxes were collected in kind. From the nature of the duties of the
superintendent of mints, it appears that money economy under the Mauryas, made
considerable progress. But the growth of money economy, at the same time, was retarded due
to Mauryan policy of depositing half the amount in treasury, and not investing them for
productive purposes. Moreover, taxes levied on all varieties of commodities also retarded the
progress of money economy.

In spite of such limitations, the Mauryan age, witnessed significant economic progress
with giant strides in the expansion of agriculture and mining industry. Development of
transport and communications helped in expansion of inland trade and commerce.