Service Law Module 1.

Ancient Administrative
UNIT 1 ANCIENT ADMINISTRATIVE System
SYSTEM
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of Ancient Indian Administration
1.3 Mauryan Administrative System
1.3.1 Central Administration
1.3.2 Provincial Administration
1.3.3 Local Administration
1.3.4 Revenue Administration
1.3.5 Judicial Administration
1.3.6 Military Administration
1.4 Administrative System during Gupta Period
1.4.7 Trade and Business
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 References and Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should able to:
· discuss the evolution of administration in ancient India,
· explain the central, provincial, local, and other fields of administration during
the Mauryan period, and
· describe the central, provincial, local, and other fields of administrations
during the Gupta period.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian administration, as we know, has its evolution that can be traced back to
the 5000 years old Indus Valley Civilization wherein the King was all powerful
and everything in the Kingdom was carried out in his name. He was assisted by
a council of ministers, and also other functionaries and officers in administering
the Kingdom. In other words, in the ancient times, powers of administering the
Kingdom were centralized in the institution of King.
This was followed by the Vedic period. Early Vedic Aryans were organised into
tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called ‘Rajan.’ The main
responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several
functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas
(envoys), and spash (spies). 7
Evolution of Indian However, a systematic model of administration came in with the coming of the
Administration
Mauryan and Gupta dynasties. Both the dynasties had elaborate governmental
machineries that carried out state functions in a highly organized manner. The
Unit therefore tends to discuss the administrative systems that prevailed during
these dynasties.
We will just have a brief discussion about the evolution of the ancient
administrative system to begin with.
1.2 EVOLUTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN

ADMINISTRATION
The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) gets its name from
the Vedas1. Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms.
The chief of a tribe was called ‘Rajan.’ The main responsibility of the Rajan was
to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including
the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas(envoys), and spash (spies).
However, the autonomy of the Rajan was restricted by the tribal councils
called ‘sabha’ and ‘samiti.’ Arthur Llewellyn Basham, a noted historian
and Indologist, theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe,
whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribes men. The two bodies were, in
part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The Rajan could not accede to
the throne without their approval.
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which
had a capital and rudimentary administrative system. The Rajan was seen as the
custodian of social order and the protector of ‘rashtra’ (polity). Hereditary
kingship started emerging. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the King over
his people. He was occasionally referred to as ‘samrat’ (supreme ruler).
The Rajan’s increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over
the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became a compulsory
tribute. There was no organized system of taxation. Sabha and samiti were still
there but with the increasing power of the Rajan, their influence declined. By the
end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical
states (rajya), oligarchic states (gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had
started emerging.
Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralist and

agricultural way of life. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving,
particularly to chiefs and priests, and barter system was there, wherein cattle
were used, as a unit of currency. The transition of Vedic society from semi-
1
Vedas are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted
to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. The Vedic
period, or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE), is the period in the history of the north Indian
subcontinent between the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation and second urbanization, which
began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. It gets its name from the Vedas. Around c.
1200–1000 BCE, Vedic Aryans spread eastward to the fertile Ganges Plain and adopted iron
tools, which allowed for clearing of forest and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way
of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterized by the emergence of
towns, kingdoms, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India.
8
nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in Ancient Administrative
System
trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity
along the Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in
complexity and usage of iron implements increased. Apart from copper, bronze,
and gold, later Vedic texts also mentions about the usage of tin, lead, and silver.
Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. New crafts and occupations
such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and
wine making arose.
Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation, as being in a condition

of “arrested development,” because …chiefs were relatively autonomous and
owing to surplus wealth they controlled, which was used for the increasingly
grandiose rituals that otherwise could have been directed towards state-building
(Bellah 2011). The period of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic era,
(was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations) was
linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley. The growth of
population and trade networks led to the social and economic changes that started
putting pressure on older ways of life suggesting the end of the Vedic period and
setting the stage for urbanization. (Bellah 2011), (697-98: citing the terminology
of Bruce Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations).
By the time the Mauryan dynasty came into power, the treatise of Kautilya,
namely Arthashastra’ became a work on statecraft, economic policy, and military
strategy. Kautilya, was a scholar at Takshashila University and was the teacher
and guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Indian administration system
was well developed and the treatise of Kautilya gives a very first detailed account
of the same.
The Mauryan Period was the era of major development in Indian administration.
Decentralization was prevalent, as the village units played a very important role,
as the base of grassroots administration. Empire was divided into provinces,
provinces into districts, and districts into rural and urban centers for efficient
administration.
A detailed account of the administrative system in Mauryan period is given below.
1.3 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

Indian history entered into a new era with the beginning of the Mauryan Empire,
as for the first time India attained political unity and administrative uniformity.
The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with Patliputra, as the
capital. The names of the four provincial capitals were Tosali in the East, Ujjayain
in the West, Suvarnagiri in the South, and Taxila in the North.
Mauryans developed an organized and an elaborate system of administration.

There was central administration directly under the King. Besides there was
provincial administration, local administration, revenue administration, judicial
administration, and military administration.
We will now discuss the administrative systems. To begin with, is the central
administration system under the Mauryas.
9
Evolution of Indian
Administration
The King was the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan administration.
He had the supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers vested in him. He
was responsible for the safety and security of his kingdom. He laid down the
general lines of policy that was to be followed by all officials. He appointed
ministers and other officers of the royal administration. In addition, the King
was the supreme commander of the army and head of the entire military entire.
The Mauryan Empire (before Ashoka) was essentially a Hindu State. According
to the Hindu concept, the supreme sovereign of the State was ‘Dharma’ or law
and the King was to be its guardian. The King could never dare to defy the laws.
He was aided and advised by a ‘Mantri Parishad’ (Council of Ministers) and he
was to be guided by it in conduct of day-to-day administration. This became
more of an obligation during times of emergencies (war or a natural disaster or
health epidemics). The Brahmins had a great influence on the King and the latter
was required not to disobey them. Instead, he always looked towards their support.
Also, as the powers of the Mauryan government was of a decentralized nature,
the provincial governor and provincial ministers had the right to be consulted by
the King, especially, in all provincial matters.
The number of ministers in the Council of Ministers varied and was not fixed.
The ministers had to qualify by showing their ability, especially in terms of religion
and money. In times of emergency, the King was always to be guided by the
majority decision of the Council of Ministers.
Besides, there was a well organized hierarchy of bureaucrats, who looked after
the executive, judicial, and revenue offices. The entire administration system
was organized into departments, each of which was headed by a Superintendent,
known as ‘Adhyaksha.’ The Adhyaksha was assisted by clerks, accountants, and
spies. In addition, there were two posts of high officials, namely the ‘Samaharta’
and the ‘Sannidhata.’ The Samaharta was the collector general of revenue for the
Mauryan Empire. He had control over the expenditure part also. The post of
Sannidhata was the officer-in-charge of the treasury and store. Besides, there
were other officers like Army Minister, Chief Priest, and Governor of Forts.

The entire Empire was divided into two parts:
The kingdom that was under the direct rule of the King, and
The vassal states
The Mauryan territory that was directly ruled by the King was divided into a
number of provinces called ‘Janapadas.’ Ashoka had five provinces with capitals
namely Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, and Pataliputra. Each province was
subdivided into a number of districts and each district was again subdivided into
a number of units.
However, in addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were

vassal states. They enjoyed a great deal of autonomy.
10
The provincial administration worked on similar lines of the central Ancient Administrative
System
administration. The Mauryan Emperor directly ruled the central and eastern parts
of the Empire. The other areas were ruled by the provincial Governors. The
provincial Governors were responsible for day-to-day conduct of administration
of provinces. They were expected to consult on important matters. (the central
administration). There were also the district officers, reporters, clerks, who helped
in the smooth running of provincial administration.

The district administration was in the charge of ‘Rajukas’, whose position and
functions are similar to today’s district collectors. He was assisted by ‘Yuktas’ or
subordinate officials. In the urban was, there was a Municipal Board with 30
members. There were six committees with five Board members in each to manage
the administration of cities. The six committees were:
1) Committee on Industrial Arts
2) Committee on Foreigners
3) Committee on Registration of Births and Deaths
4) Committee on Trade and Commerce
5) Committee on Supervision of Manufacturers
6) Committee on Collection of Excise and Custom Duties
Village administration was in the hands of ‘Gramani’ and his superior was called
‘Gopa,’ who was incharge of ten to fifteen villages. Census was a regular activity
and the village officials were to number the people along with other details such
as their castes and occupations. They were also to count the animals in each
house.
Census in towns was conducted by municipal officials, especially to track the

movements of both foreign and indigenous population. The data collected were
cross checked by the spies. Census appears to have become a permanent institution
during the administration of the Mauryas.

Kautilya laid greater stress on treasury, as smooth and successful functioning of
administration depended on it. Main sources of income were land revenue,
taxation, and rent. Land revenue was 1/6 of the total produce, yet in reality much
higher proportion was charged, as per the economic and local conditions of the
farmers. In addition to land revenue, there were excise duty, forest tax, water tax,
taxes on mines, tax on coinage etc., as other sources of revenue. Much of the
Mauryan revenue was expended on paying the army, the officials of the royal
government, charities, and different public works like irrigation projects, road
construction etc.

The King was the head of the judiciary. He was the highest court of appeal and
personally listened to appeals of the people. However, since the Mauryan Empire
11
Evolution of Indian was huge, it was not possible for the King to solve each and every case. So, he
Administration
appointed judges for the pupose. They used to hear normal cases. However during
the reign of Ashoka, many reforms were introduced in the judicial system. For
example, granting of pardon was introduced in his time.
The Supreme Court was located in the capital and the Chief Justice was called
‘Dharmathikarin.’ There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals
and districts under ‘Amatyas.’ In villages and towns, cases were settled by the
‘Gramavradha’ and ‘Nagaravyavaharikamahamatra’ respectively.
Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation, and death

were meted out to the offenders. Police stations were found at all major places in
the city. Both Kautilya and Ashoka edicts mention about jails and jail officials. It
was ensured that no innocent gets punished. Ashoka appointed a special class of
officers known, as the Dhamma Mahamatras to look into this. Remission of
sentences is also mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions.

The King was the supreme commander of the military. The Mauryan army was
well organized and it was under the control of a ‘Senapati.’ As per Greek author
Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry,
nine thousand elephants, and eight thousands chariots.
There was a Board of 30 members to look into matters pertaining to war. These
members were placed in six committees with five members in each. These
committees were responsible to manage the following wings of the military:
Navy
Transport and Supply
Infantry
Cavalry
War Chariots
War Elephants
Each of the above wings was under the control of ‘Adhyaksha’ or Superintendents.
The Mauryan Empire had the privilege of having successful administrators such
as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. The administration of the Empire was
decentralized and the administrative powers were divided into administrative
units. However, these units were under a rigid central control.
Ashoka introduced innovations and reforms in the Mauryan administrative system.

He improved the functioning of the executive, legislature, and judiciary. He
introduced reforms in the provincial administration. He appointed many officials
to look into the tasks of public welfare. Ashoka appointed a special class of
officers known, as the Dhamma Mahamatras to look after the material and spiritual
well being of the people. These persons were to spread the gospel of Dhamma.
Activity
Let us know about your view points on the similarities and differences between
12 Mauryan administrative system and contemporary administration of today.
1.4 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING GUPTA System
PERIOD
The administrative system during the Gupta dynasty was found more or less
similar to that of the Mauryan Empire. At the time of the Gupta rule, there was
political harmony in ancient India. During this period, the Empire was classified
into administrative divisions like Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. This
denotes the importance being given to administrative decentralization. The
administrative divisions helped the rulers to systematically control their territories.
The period of Gupta’s has been described, as the golden age in ancient India.
There was consolidation of northern India under one political umbrella, which
ushered in an era of orderly growth and development.
We will discuss Gupta administration under the following headings:

Monarchy was the form of government during the Gupta Age and it has been
hailed, as a benevolent monarchy. The King adopted pompous titles such as
Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraja, and Parambhattaraka. The King was the highest
authority and wielded wide powers to enable smooth functioning of the Empire.
He enjoyed political, administrative, military, and judicial powers. The theory of
the divinity of Kings was popular during this period, which added to the royal
power and prestige. They were looked upon, as Gods. Though the King possessed
extensive powers, he did not rule in a tyrannical manner. Council of ministers
and several other officials assisted the King in day to day performance of his
duties.
The Gupta Kings appointed all governors and military and civil officials and the
latter were responsible to the King. The King conferred all honors and titles. The
King was the custodian of all land in the Empire. He looked into works like
building of dams, imparting of justice, recovery of taxes, and provision of shelter
to needy. The Kings could never afford to be selfish despots. They had to be
ruled, according to the principles of ‘Rajya Dharma.’ There were also ministers
and high officials to aid and advice him and he shared powers with them. The
Emperor was assisted by a council of ministers also known, as Mantri Parishad.
The Prime Minister of the state, known, as Mantri Mukhya was among the
prominent ones in the council. The other portfolios such as military affairs, law
and order matters, and such others were held by different officials known, as
Mahasandhi Vigrahaka, Amatya, Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandnayaka. All
important matters were decided in a joint sitting of the King and his ministers.
The King used to respect the opinion given by his ministers.
Being a benevolent monarch, the King was always concerned with the well being
of his subjects. He toured the country to keep himself abrupt with the social and
economic life of the people.

The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The Empire
was divided into divisions called ‘Bhukth’ and each Bhukti was placed under the
13
Evolution of Indian charge of an ‘Uparika.’ The Bhuktis were divided into districts or Vishayas and
Administration
each Vishaya was under a Vishayapati. The Vishayapatis were generally members
of royal family. They were assisted in the work by a council of representatives.

The city was governed by a Parishad and the head was known, as Nagara-
Rakshaka. Purapala Uparika was another officer and the Nagara-Rakshaka worked
under him. Also, there was a special officer, known as Avasthika, who acted, as
the Superintendent of Dharamsalas.
Professional bodies were given considerable attention. Artisans, merchants, and

bankers organized their own guilds and managed their own affairs. The guild
merchants looked after trade in the cities.
The village was the smallest unit of administration. Gramika was the head of the
village. Other officials known, as Dutas or messengers, headman, and Kartri
were also there. Gramika was assisted by a village assembly. During the Guptas,
the rural bodies like Panchayats were incharge of the welfare of villagers. These
rural bodies comprised of the headman and elders of the villages. Hence, one
can construe that the Guptas promoted local participation at all levels of the
administration.

The duties of revenue administration were carried out by officials like Viniyuktaka,
Rajuka, Uparika, Dashparadhika, and such others. From among the 18 sources
of revenue, land revenue was the chief one. It was generally fixed at one-sixth of
the total produce. Also, land revalue was an important source of income. The
greater part of the revenue generated was spent on public welfare.
Land tax was levied on cultivators, who had no land rights. It was one sixth of
the total produce. There were also other sources of income like income tax known,
as Bhaga, custom duty, mint duty, inheritance tax, and gift tax. In addition to
these taxes, fine such as Dasaparadha that was imposed on the offenders, was a
source of income.
Salaries were usually paid in the form of land grants (in lieu of cash). Such land
grants gave the beneficiaries hereditary rights over the land. However, the King
had the power to take back the land. The lands given to the Brahmins had no tax
on them.
Waste lands were brought under cultivation and pasture lands were protected.
The Gupta rulers promoted irrigation facilities and this enabled increase in
agricultural production.

Judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times.
Several books on law were compiled during this period and for the first time
civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery came under
criminal law and disputes regarding various types of property came under civil
14 law. Elaborate laws were laid down regarding inheritance.
It was the duty of the King to uphold the law and deal with legal cases with the Ancient Administrative
System
help of Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. The decision or the judgment of
the court was based on legal texts, social customs prevailing during those times,
and discretion of the King. King was the highest court of appeal. The guilds of
artisans, merchants, and others were governed by their own laws.
At the lowest level of the judicial system was the village assembly or trade guild.
These were the village councils, which were appointed to settle the disputes
between the parties that appeared before them. It is believed that mild punishments
were awarded to the guilty persons.

Gupta rulers had a huge army. They maintained a standing army and the use of
cavalry and horse archery were in vogue. The territories of the Empire were kept
under watchful eyes. The military officers, referred in inscriptions were the
Senapati, Mahasenapati, Baladhikrita, Mahabaladhikrita, Dandanayaka,
Sandhivigrahika, and Mahasandhivigrahika, They were the key functionaries in
the military administration. The military had four wings namely the information
wing, cavalry wing, elephant wing, and the navy. The main weapons of war were
bows and arrows, swords, axes, and spears.
1.4.7 Trade and Business

The Empire carried out trade activities with countries like China, Ceylon, several
European countries, and the East Indian islands. This made the Empire become
economically and strategically strong, which led to annexation of new states and
thereof the expansion of the territorial boundaries of the Empire.
Activity
Let us know about your view points on the similarities and differences between
administrative system of the Guptas and contemporary administration of today.
1.5 CONCLUSION
The above sections have mentioned about the administrative systems prevalent
in the Mauryan and Gupta kingdoms. The central, provincial, revenue, financial,
judicial, and local administrative systems have been dealt with in details. This
makes one to construe that both the administrative systems were monarchical
yet not despotic. The King was a benevolent monarch, who was concerned with
the welfare of his subjects. Both the administrations were the foundation of the
ancient administrative system and proved to be pointers for our present day
administration.
1.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Arora, R.K., 1996, Indian Public Administration Institutions and Issues, second
edition, Wishwa Prakashan, New Delhi
Basham, A.L., 1997, My Guruji and Problems and Perspectives of Ancient Indian
History and Culture, Abhinav Publications, India
15
Evolution of Indian Bellah, 2011, citing the terminology of Brance Trigger, Understand Early
Administration
Civilizations, http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vedic_period
Maheswari, S.R., 2001, Indian Administration, Orient Longman, New Delhi
Maity Sachindra Kumar, 1975, The Imperial Guptas and Their Times, CIR. AD
300-550, M. M. Publishers, N. Delhi
16
UNIT 2 MEDIEVAL ADMINISTRATIVE System
SYSTEM
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Political life in Medieval India
2.3 Mughal Administration
2.3.1 Role of King
2.4 Mughal Administrative System
2.4.3 District and Local Administration
2.5 Revenue Administration
2.6 Judicial Administration
2.6.1 Administration of Civil Justice
2.6.2 Administration of Criminal Justice
2.7 Army and Police
2.7.1 Army
2.7.2 Police
2.8 Conclusion
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the role of the King in Mughal Administration,
describe the political and administrative structures in Mughal administration,
explain about revenue and judicial administration in Mughal Administrative
system, and
highlight about the functioning of bureaucracy, army, and police in Mughal
Administration.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Medieval India refers to a long period in the Indian subcontinent’s history between
ancient India and modern India. The period from 6th to the13th century is known,
as the early medieval period, and the period from 13th to the 16th century is known,
as the late medieval period. The Mughal Empire, which was established in India
in 1526 AD, is often referred to, as marking the end of late medieval era and
beginning of the early modern era.
In this Unit, we will now begin with a discussion on the entire political and
administrative systems in the Mughal era.
17
Evolution of Indian
Administration 2.2 POLITICAL LIFE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
The period from the 8th to 12th century in political life in India was particularly
dominated by the presence of large number of states. The bigger ones tried to
establish their supremacy in northern India and the Deccan. The main contenders
in this struggle for supremacy were the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas. In
the south, the most powerful kingdom to emerge during this period was that of
the Cholas. The Cholas brought about political unification in large parts of the
country. However, the picture in northern India was of political fragmentation.
It was in this period that India’s contact with the new religion of Islam began.
The contacts began in the late 7th century through the Arab traders.
In the beginning of the 8th century the Arabs had conquered Sind. The Turks
emerged, as a powerful force in Central and West Asia in the 10th century and
had conquered Persia. Their lives were greatly influenced by Persian culture and
tradition. By the end of the 10th century, the Turks invaded India and took over
Punjab. This was followed by series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and
early 13th century that eventually led to the establishment of the Sultanate dynasty.
Within a few centuries after the rise of Islam in Arabia, it became the second
most religion in India with its followers in every part of the country.
The establishment of the Sultanate marked the beginning of a new phase in the
history of medieval India. Politically, it led to the unification of northern India
and parts of the Deccan for almost a century. The Sultanate disintegrated towards
the end of the 14th century leading to the emergence of a number of kingdoms in
different parts of the country. Some of these like Bahmani and Vijayanagar
kingdoms became very powerful. Turks, Persians, Mongols, Afghans, and Arabs
settled, as new social groups in India. There were important changes in economic
life also. Trade and crafts received a stimulus and many new towns arose, as
centres of trade and crafts.
2.3 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

The Mughal Empire, which was established in India in 1526 AD, is often referred
to, as marking the end of late medieval era and beginning of the early modern
era. The Mughal administration was the most organized and long lasting and has
even carried on to the modern times. The reason for this stability was the long
lasting (more than three centuries) rule of the Mughal Sultanate.
Akbar was the architect of this system. The Mughal administration did carry
forward a lot of traditions prevailing in the political and administrative life of the
Mauryan rulers. But, as compared to the Mauryan rulers, they preferred greater
centralization and a rigid structure and did not pay much attention to the social
aspects like health and also ethics in public life, which were areas of special
concern for the Mauryan kings. Right from the principles governing the working
of government, taxation rules, departmental arrangements, and titles conferred
on officials- all was imported from the Caliphate1 of Iran and Egypt. This created
an Islamic state. The Mughals built up monolithic governance. The Mughal
emperor was all powerful and administration was much centralized. The king
1
Caliphate is a person considered a politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad
and a leader of the entire Muslim community. Historically, the caliphates were polities based
18 on Islam, which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.
symbolized the state and was the source and centre of all power and authority. Medieval Administrative
System
Provincial2 governments were more in the nature of administrative agencies.
The Mughals had an efficient civil service. They recognized merit and accepted
Hindu intelligentsia in the higher civil service. It was a highly urbanized
institution. Recruitment to the bureaucracy was based on principles of kin and
kith, heredity, and personal loyalty to the king. The officials were primarily
engaged in maintenance of law and order, safeguard of the interests of the king
from internal uprisings and revolts, defense and extension of the boundaries of
the Empire, and collection of revenue and taxes.
2.3.1 Role of King

The Mughal administration was, as Dr. J.N. Sarkar mentions the “Perso-Arabic
System in Indian setting”. King was the sovereign, whose rule was paternalistic
in nature. The main functions of the officials were to maintain law and order in
the kingdom, safeguard the Kings’ interest from internal uprising and revolts,
defend and extend boundaries of the kingdom, and collect revenue.
The entire administrative machinery revolved round the king, who was mostly
seen, as a benevolent despot, who worked for the welfare of the people. It was
absolute monarchy based on the divine right to rule. The king was everything to
his people. He was all powerful and supreme and the source of all authority and
the fountain-head of justice.
The first Mughal ruler, that is, Babur was so much engrossed in battles that he
could not spare time in bringing in reforms in the administration machinery.
Similar was the case with Humayun. Sher Shah Suri, who was there for a short
time did introduce certain administrative reforms, which continued to guide the
future rulers. Nevertheless, the Mughal Emperors followed certain traditions and
conventions, which were greatly endearing to the people. They were accessible
to the masses and undertook tours in the city to be aware of the civic life.
The Mughal administration was largely the creation of Emperor Akbar and was
followed by his two successors Emperor Jahangir and Emperor Shah Jahan in
similar fashion. However, ruler Aurangzeb made modifications in the
administrative system and adopted reactionary policies. The Mughal system of
administration continued till the East India Company entered the trade and
commerce sector and soon took over powers in its own hands.
In the ensuing Section, we will discuss the entire Mughal administrative system
at central, provincial, and district and local levels.
To begin with is a discussion on the central administration.
2.4 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

The king had a number of ministers to advice and assist in the discharge of
functions. Out of them the four important ones were the ‘Diwan,’ who was in
charge of revenue and finance, ‘Mir Bakshi,’ as the head of military department,
‘Mir Saman,’ who was in charge of factories and stores, and ‘Sadr-us-Sudhar,’
2
A province is also known as ‘Subah. 19
Evolution of Indian who was the head of the ecclesiastical and judicial departments. Though the
Administration
king was absolutely free to make laws for the country but this could not be sans
the Quran law.
We will now discuss some of the ministers serving under the Mughal rule. To
begin with is Diwan, the revenue head.
1) Diwan
There was no council of ministers to assist Mughal rulers. There was a
Diwan, to assist the Sultan in the administration of the country. The Diwan
usually held the revenue department and represented the king at ceremonial
occasions. He was assisted by Diwan-i-Tan and Diwani-Khalsn. According
to Abul Fazl, the Diwan looked after royal treasury and supervised the income
and expenditure of the Empire. The entire revenue system was under his
control. He fixed the revenues of the newly acquired territories and granted
subsidies at times of scarcity. He also decided the cases regarding
compensation to be paid for the losses suffered by farmers due to the
movement of army at times of war. Though the Diwan was purely a civilian
officer, at times of emergency he performed military duties as well. Thus
we find that most of the important matters were in the hands of the Diwan.
As the chief administrative officer of the Empire he exercised control over

the provinces and the officials. The activities of all the officials right from
the Governor down to the Patwari were constantly under watch. The
provincial Governors used to send the accounts regarding the revenue of
their province to him. He also made available necessary funds for
construction of roads, buildings, parks, and such related works. He also
made necessary arrangement for the transfer of funds from one province to
another. Thus we find that the Diwan had very extensive powers and was
always consulted by the emperors on important issues. He was paid a good
remuneration.
2) Mir Bakshi
Mir Bakshi position was held by a minister, who was the Commander of the
entire military under the king. He was the Chief Advisor to the king on
military matters. All records pertaining to the Mansabdars3 were kept by
him. His functions included recruitment to the army, maintenance of troops
in good form, conduct of military warfare tests, inspection of horses,
maintenance of muster rolls of troops at regular intervals, and equipping
them for battles. He was to prepare the strategy for war.
3) Mir Saman
The Mir Saman was the Minister, who looked after the maintenance of royal
buildings, roads, parks, ‘karkhanas’ (workshops) etc. He was also responsible
for the provision of the stores for military and household supplies. He
purchased all the goods on behalf of the State and also was responsible for
trade and commercial activities. The responsibility of exports also rested
with him. During the expeditions, he used to accompany the Emperor and
made provisions for his stay.
3
The term Mansabdar refers to an individual holding a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It
was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, file, and military responsibilities. The
20 Mansabdars were assigned with military responsibilities.
The Mir Saman was assisted by a senior official known, as Diwan-i-Beulat, Medieval Administrative
System
who looked after the financial aspects and had a direct contact with the
Finance Department.
4) Sadar
Sadar was the Chief Justice and also in-charge of ecclesiastical affairs. Sadar
looked after two departments, one of justice and the other of religion. In
performing the judicial functions he acted more, as a ‘Qazi4.’ We find that,
as a Qazi, he decided the cases in accordance with the Muslim law and
therefore enjoyed much status. He exercised the power of justice on behalf
of the king and heard the appeals against the decisions of the lower courts.
It may be noted that during the Mughal period the Department of Justice
was quite corrupt, as Prof. J.N. Sarkar has mentioned, “All the Qazis of the
Mughal period, with a few exceptions, were notorious for taking bribes”.
5) Muhtasib
The office of Muhtasib combined duties of both secular as well as religious
in nature. As regards his religious duties, he ensured that the principles of
Islam were protected and all tenets of faith were religiously carried out. The
moral principles were also advocated to the public. Prof. A.L. Srivastava
stated that Muhtasib was strictly against use of wine and other intoxicants.
Also, gambling was prohibited. One had to do prayers (Namaz) five times a
day in accordance with the religious laws, and those who failed were
punished.
Besides, he was responsible for the proper regulation of markets and for
this purpose he used to inspect the weight and measures used and also ensured
that the things were available to the subjects at reasonable prices. He was
also concerned with maintenance of cleanliness in the city.
Other than the above officials, there was a News Writer and Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki.
The News Writer was appointed by the king on the recommendation of Mir
Bakshi. This office was usually held for a period of five years. The News Writer
was supposed to keep the Sultan informed about the various events that were
taking place in different parts of the kingdom. He was expected to ensure the
authenticity of reports and the reliability of sources of news for, which at times,
he used to get rewarded (otherwise, for unreliable news punishment was meted
out). Usually the News Writers were expected to submit reports on a weekly
basis to the king.
The Postal Department was under the charge of a Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki. It was

his duty to ensure that the news from various parts of the kingdom was carried to
the Sultan without any delay. For this purpose, horses were kept ready. The
Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki was assisted by other officials like Additional Darogas.
Now we will discuss about provincial administration.

The whole kingdom was divided into provinces. However, the number of the
4
Qazi was the second agency of judiciary after the Sultan.He had a bigger role in the judiciary
system of the state and he held the court and gave justice.
21
Evolution of Indian provinces differed under different Mughal rulers. For example under Akbar, there
Administration
were 15 provinces while under Jahangir and Aurangzeb their number rose to 17
and 21 respectively.
There were officials, who were in charge of different areas and we will discuss
them individually in the following paragraphs.
1) Subedar
Each province was under a Subedar, who was also known, as the Governor.
During the times of Akbar the designation Siphasalar was also used for this
official. The Subedar was a sort of mini-king within his own province and
was responsible for the maintenance of law and order, control of local army,
realization of State dues, and provision of justice. Usually the king used to
appoint members of the royal family or confident nobles to this office.
However, he was also guided by the principle of ability in appointment of
the official. Some of the Subedars happened to be very young and got into
the office owing to their ability5. The Subedar derived all authority from the
Sultan and stayed in office, as long as, he enjoyed the good will of the latter.
2) Diwan
The Diwan was appointed by the Sultan and he assisted the Subedar in
running the administration of the provinces. During the initial period of the
Mughal rule, this office was considered, as parallel to that of Subedar.
However, the former did not enjoy equal rights, as of his counterpart. The
Diwan looked after the income and expenditure part of the provincial
administration and made provisions for collection of revenue.
3) Sadar
Sadar was appointed by the king and was completely free from the
interventions of the Diwan or Subedar in performance of his work. He was
generally a scholar and religious person. He used to distribute land and
charity. The Qazi and the Mir Adil also worked under him.
4) Amil
Amil was a revenue collection officer, though he performed certain other
duties too. He looked after the agricultural land and helped farmers convert
the barren land into cultivable land. He also assisted in maintenance of
peace within the province and supervised the work of revenue collectors,
besides supervising the works of Karkuns and Mukkadamas.
5) Bakshi
The office of Bakshi was identical to that of Amil. He supervised the work
of the Qanungos6 and kept a record of various contracts entered into by the
monarchy. He also kept a full record of the cultivatable and barren land, as
well as, income and expenditure from those lands. He sent statement of
annual income and expenditure to the king.
5
For example Aziz koka and Abdul Rahim were made Subedars, while they were very young.
6
Under the Subah sytem each district was subdivided into parganas, serving, as fiscal and
police units. Each pargana had five principal officers, among them quanungo played a vital
22 role for the revenue administration of the Mughal revenue structure.
6) Potdar Medieval Administrative
System
Potdar was mainly concerned with the collection of revenue from the peasants
and deposit the same in the royal treasury. He was authorized to issue
necessary receipt for the revenue collected and keep a full record of the
same. However, he was not authorized to spend without the approval of the
Diwan. All the money that was received by him was only with the approval
of the Diwan.
7) Fauzdar
Fauzdar was in-charge of the provincial army. He assisted the Subedar in
the administration of provinces. He was responsible for the maintenance of
law and order within the province and took necessary steps to suppress
possible revolts. Occasionally, he arranged for demonstration of army. He
was also responsible for the arrests of the dacoits.
8) Kotwal
The Kotwal was primarily a police official, though he performed certain
judicial functions, as well. He was responsible for the preservation of law
and order within the province.
9) Wak-i-Navis
The Wak-i-Navis was responsible for communicating information pertaining
to the provinces to the king. In fact, the king could exercise control over the
provincial administration only on the basis of the information provided by
the Wak-i-Navis.
On the basis of the above description, we can say that provincial

administration under the Mughals was efficient. The Emperor was able to
exercise sufficient control over the provinces and was also in know of the
events taking place there. However, owing to work and time factors, the
king was not able to devote sufficient time to the provincial administration,
as required. This resulted in corrupt practices in provincial administration.
2.4.3 District and Local Administration

The Province was further divided into districts, also known as ‘sarkars.’ The
following were the personnel, who were looking after different functions at the
district level.
District Administration
1) Fauzdar
The administrative head of the district was Fauzdar, who performed same
duties, as was performed by the Subedar at the provincial level. Undoubtedly,
he was appointed by the Emperor but always worked under the control of
Subedar. His main duties were maintenance of law and order and controlling
the revolts of the local feudal lords (zamindars).
He also performed the duties of Amil that of a revenue collection officer at

the district level. He worked under the direct supervision of the Diwan for
this purpose and was in-charge of the Revenue Department of the District.
He maintained direct contact with peasants and helped them in every possible
23
Evolution of Indian way to increase the production. He provided the farmers with loans for
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purchase of ox, pesticides, seeds, fertilizer, and such other related things.
The same were realized in easy installments. He used to report to the Diwan
regarding land that was under his control. He presented an annual report to
the king, which contained information about the economic condition of his
subjects, availability and prices of food grains, and activities of the feudal
lords.
2) Kotwal
Another official at the district level was Kotwal. He was responsible for
maintenance of law and order and was also the judicial head of the district.
He heard criminal cases and took actions against those, who were involved
in activities like hoarding of food grains, use of faulty weights and measures,
and such related activities. He used to have watchful eyes on all those who
visited the king. He used to ensure that the namaz7 is offered by the Muslims
on every Friday. He provided certificate of marriages. Aurangzeb, the
Mughal Emperor, used to collect ‘Jazia8’ and ‘Zakats9’ from the non-
Muslims.
Local Administration
The districts were further divided into Parganas and further they were divided
into villages. The following were the personnel, who were looking after different
functions at the Pargana level and village level.
1) Mukkadam
At the local administration level, the districts were divided into ‘Parganas.’
These were the revenue collection units, each under the control of a
Mukkadam. Mukkadam collected revenue and deposited the same in the
treasury. The peasants were also allowed to deposit the revenue directly to
the treasury. The other revenue officials at the Pargana level were Amil and
Kanungo, who collected the land revenue. There were Qazis also, who settled
local disputes. pertaining to the same.
2) Sarpanch
The village was the lowest unit of administration. It enjoyed autonomy with
people’s rule sans governmental interference. Each village had a Panchayat.
The Panchayat was headed by Sarpanch, who was directly elected by the
people. He acted, as a link between the village and the district administration.
He collected the revenue from the peasants and deposited the same in the
government’s treasury. In case of any delay in depositing the revenue, he
was held accountable for the same to the district administration.
The Sarpanch used to receive two and a half per cent of the total collection,
which was construed, as his income. He was assisted by a Patwari and a Village
7
Namaz is the second of the five pillars in the Islamic faith, as daily obligatory standardized
prayers.
8
Jazia is a per capita yearly taxation, historically levied in the form of financial charge on non-
Muslims of a state governed by Islamic law in order to fund public expenditures of the state.
9
Zakat is an Islamic finance term referring to the obligation that an individual has to donate a
certain proportion of wealth each year to charitable causes.
24
Accountant. The Patwari used to collect revenue from the farms and accountant Medieval Administrative
System
used maintain account of the same.
The Panchayat was also responsible for making necessary arrangements for
irrigation, health, education, and development programmes. It used to look after
the religious duties and also was responsible for the moral upliftment of village
people. It made necessary arrangements for the celebration of various festivals
and was responsible for the maintenance of law and order within its jurisdiction.
The Panchayat also enjoyed certain judicial powers and decided over minor
disputes.
2.5 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

When we discuss about revenue administration, land revenue was the prime source
of income of the Mughal State. The king’s share was defined, as one-twelfth/
one-eighth / one-fourth of the land revenue. This usually depended on the Emperor.
There were three types of land tenure systems. The first was the zamindari system
that was prevalent in Bengal and was extended up to some parts of Madras by
the Britishers. Here the zamindars acted, as intermediaries, between the Empire
and farmers in settlement of land revenue. The second system was the Mahalwari
system, as seen in North West Provinces, wherein the settlement of land revenue
was done jointly by the zamindars and the farmers, as they both had joint
proprietorship of the land. The Ryotwari10 system, as seen in North India and
Deccan, did away with all kinds of intermediaries between the State and the
ryots or peasants. Though the farmers were responsible for the annual payment
of revenue to the King/Zamindars they did not have any proprietary rights. These
were vested in the king.
2.6 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION

We will begin the discussion with administration of civil justice followed by the
administration of criminal justice.
2.6.1 Administration of Civil Justice

The Mughal State, being a Muslim State, the administration of civil justice was
based entirely on the precepts of Quran. The Qazi (judges) followed the Quran
precepts in dispensing justice. They were also guided by the earlier judgements
as well as by the ordinances issued by different Emperors in this regard. The
Qazis had to hold on to the customary laws and were sought to follow the
principles of equity. Though, the Emperor was the final authority in terms of
both original and appellate jurisdiction, he could never defy the sacred laws of
Quran in dispensation of justice.
2.6.2 Administration of Criminal Justice

Similar to civil justice, the administration of criminal justice was also based on
the precepts of Quran. The criminal cases were classified under three main heads,
namely crimes against God, crimes against the sovereign, and crimes against
10
Ryotwari system was a land revenue system in India. 25
Evolution of Indian subjects. ‘Huda’ or retaliation and ‘Tazir’ (punishment inflicted by the judge)11
Administration
were meted out to the offenders.
Punishments seemed to be very harsh. Whipping to death and burning alive were
common for treason and conspiracy against the Mughal State. In the reign of
Aurangzeb, no Muslim could ever be convicted on an evidence of a non-Muslim
but this did not happen vice-versa.
Beyond Aurangzeb, there were no other such Emperors, who could up hold the
Empire. The Mughal State started withering with administration, justice, trade
and commerce, revenue etc. slithering off. By 1600 AD, the East India Company
made inroads that furthered the deterioration of the Empire.
2.7 ARMY AND POLICE

2.7.1 Army
The army is to be understood largely in terms of the mansabdari system. The
officials of the Mughal State held a ‘mansab’ and were expected to supply a
certain number of troops to the military service of the State. The mansabdars
were classified into 33 grades. Each grade had a definite salary. Officers received
their salaries either in cash or through ‘jagirs.’ In case the mansabdars were to
get revenue from the jagirs, the amount was to be equivalent to the cash allocated
for the purpose. The jagir system provided ample scope for exploitation of the
masses owing to the power and independence vested with the mansabdars.
In addition, there were the supplementary troopers and a special category of
‘gentlemen troopers,’ who were horsemen owning exclusive allegiance to the
king. The army had the cavalry, infantry, and artillery with guns. Navy was also
there in the Mughal State.
As the Mughal army grew in numbers, it became too unwieldy. The soldiers
were more attached to those who recruited them than the Emperor. The army on
the move was like a huge moving city, with all its paraphernalia of elephants,
camels, harem, bazaars, etc. Its cost was unbearable and inevitable deterioration
was fully manifest in the times of Jahangir. No longer capable of swift action,
the Marathas, under Shivaji could score over the Mughals in battle.
2.7.2 Police
In the rural areas, policing was undertaken by the village headman and his
subordinate watchmen. In the cities, there were Kotwals, whose main job was to
preserve peace and public security in urban areas. They had to arrest burglars,
perform law and order duties, regulate prices, and check weights and measures.
They had to employ and supervise work of spies and make an inventory of property
of deceased or missing persons. In the districts, law and order functions were
entrusted to Faujdars.
Activity
The Mughal administration has the Emperor at the apex. Some emperors were
benevolent, as compared to the others. Let us know, as how the administration
has fared under the Mughal kings.
26 11
It included admonition, exposure before the public, scourging, and even exile.
Medieval Administrative
2.8 CONCLUSION System
Medieval India refers to a long period of the Indian subcontinent’s history between
ancient India and modern India. The Mughal administration did carry forward a
lot of traditions prevailing in the political and administrative life of the Mauryan
rulers. The Mughals built up monolithic governance. The Mughal emperor was
all powerful and administration was much centralized. The king symbolized the
state and was the source and centre of all power and authority. Provincial
governments were more in the nature of administrative agencies.
The Mughals had an efficient civil service. They recognized merit and accepted
Hindu intelligentsia in the higher civil service. It was mainly concerned with
revenue functions and was a highly urbanized institution.

1) Majumdar, R. (et.al), 1967, An Advanced History of India, Macmillan, New
York
2) Misra, B.B., 1959, The Central Administration of the East India Company
1773-1834, Manchester University Press, Manchester
3) Puri, B.N., 1975, History of Indian Administration, Volume II, Medieval
Period, Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay
4) Indian Administration, BPAE-102, 2005, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU,
New Delhi
27
Evolution of Indian
Administration UNIT 3 BRITISH ADMINISTRATIVE
SYSTEM
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 East India Company-An Overview
3.3 British Administration
3.3.1 Morely-Minto Reforms 1909
3.3.2 Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919
3.3.3 Machinery of Dyarchy at the Provinces
3.3.4 Government of India Act 1935
3.3.4.1 All India Federation
3.3.4.2 Provincial Autonomy
3.4 Features of British Administration influencing Indian Administration
3.4.1 Centralized Administration
3.4.2 Provincial Government
3.4.3 Elaborate Local Government Structure
3.4.4 Rule of Law
3.4.5 Civil Services
3.5 Conclusion
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
explain the administrative set up of East India Company,
highlight the reforms undertaken by the British Administration between the
period from 1858 to 1935, and
elucidate the main features of British Administration.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The British arrived in India, first, as traders under the banner of a trading
Corporation. The British Crown granted a group of merchants a monopoly over
trade in the eastern waters in 1600 AD, which eventually led to the establishment
of the Company. The Company arrived in India, as a trading corporation and
remained so till 1765.
After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the trading Company started gaining
territorial grounds and powers to rule over India. Thereby, the Company re-named
itself, as East India Company.
In this Unit, we shall take in to account both the constitutional and administrative
aspects of British system of administration in India.
28
British System
3.2 EAST INDIA COMPANY-AN OVERVIEW (Constitutional and
Administrative)
The East India Company came to India with trading objectives. The entire system
of governance was commercial in character. There was a Council headed by a
Governor with legislative and executive powers vested in him. The Council set
up Board of Trade, Military Board, Board of Revenue, and Railway Board. The
Boards enabled discussions and deliberations in legislative and executive matters.
Record keeping was an integral part that helped to check absolutism and
uncontrolled power.
In August 1765, with the then Mughal Emperor granting powers to collect ‘diwani’
(revenue)1 from the lands in the provinces of Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa to the
East India Company, the latter got the taste of wielding power and authority. The
events that started from revenue collection gradually led to the amassing of full
powers pertaining to civil, judicial, and military matters. The Company’s two
major goals were now conquest and consolidation.
The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was an aggressive policy that resulted in

taking Company officials active interest in political and administrative affairs of
local kingdoms governed by native princes. The early 1800s could be seen, as an
era, where Company officials focused their strategies in gaining intervention
rights in political, commercial, and military activities of local kingdoms for their
own profit.
The East India Company created a vast administrative machinery. The Company
to set up a well organized personnel system through, which control over territorial
provinces in India could become more consolidated. Lord Cornwallis developed
the civil services code. He regularized and specified the office of District Collector
and established the office of District Judge. The office of the Chief Secretary
was established during the rule of Lord Wellesley. The office of the Commissioner
and sectional arrangement in the secretariat were done under Lord Bentinck’s
rule. Under the Charter Act 1833, the Governor General of Bengal was appointed,
as the Governor General of India, who was now to head the British administration
in India. Doctrine of Lapse of Lord Dalhousie enabled the Company to have
absolute power and control over policy matters of the Indian states. This helped
the English to setup a strong base along with rights of revenue to rule even the
remotest corners of India.
However, with passage of time, the Company became a corrupt ground and was
frittering away with money and profits. To regulate its management, the British
Parliament passed two major Acts, namely, the Regulating Act 1773, and Pitt’s
India Act 1784. Subsequent Acts of 1793, 1813, 1833, and 1853 steadily deprived
the Company of its authority, power, and privileges.
The Regulating Act 1773 and Pitt’s India Act 1784 determined the Company’s
status. The Regulating Act 1773 remodeled the Company and subjected it to
supervision of British government. Pitt’s India Act 1784 set up a Board of Control
in England to look into the affairs of India that consisted of Chancellor of
Exchequer, Secretary of State, and four privy councilors. The government became
known for the first time, as Government of India. For administering the country,
1
Against a premium of Rs 26 lakh per annum. 29
Evolution of Indian a Governor General was appointed with Warren Hastings being the first. The
Administration
Governor General Council had three covenanted members of the Company. The
Governor General had overriding powers over the Council’s decisions.
Administration of the Company’s districts was vested in European district
collectors, who were also made the Presidents of the Company’s civil and criminal
courts in the respective districts. A Board of Revenue was set up at Calcutta to
supervise the district collectors.
The Revolt of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny, led to the end of the
British East India Company’s rule in India. The Government of India Act 1858
was passed in the British parliament that led to the Company’s dissolution. All
powers were transferred to the British Crown, which then created an India Office
in the country with a Secretary of State to look into matters pertaining to its
administration. The nomenclature of Governor General was replaced, as the
Viceroy General of India (Chief Administrator of the British Crown in India).
His role was to look into the implementation of the orders passed by the British
Parliament in India. Military was reorganized and higher levels were offered to
the Europeans and to some higher caste officials from the Indian side. Caste bias
was adhered to with an ultimate aim to avoid and prevent another mutiny from
taking place.
So, in short the British East India Company was the forerunner of the rule of
British Crown in India. The governance of India came directly under the British
Crown post 1857 mutiny.
3.3 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION

The outbreak of 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, as the first war of Independence2 was a
shock to the British Government. Economic exploitation, social deprivation, and
political unrest made 1857 outburst inevitable. The British rulers had to revise
their policy of conquest and annexation and adopt a cautious and calculated
policy of association and cooperation. The Act of 1858 introduced various
changes. It assured the native princes of their rights, dignity, and honor.
The war of 1857 was an eye opener for British rulers. The British Government
enacted Indian Councils Act 1861 to include a number of members other than
the official members (persons of eminence) in the Executive Council of the
Governor General. The legislative powers of the Governor General increased.
His prior approval was needed to introduce measures that affected public finance,
religion, discipline, maintenance of military, and relations with foreign states.
His consent was necessary for any Act to be passed by the legislature and his
ordinances had the validity of an Act.
However, the Act 1861 could not satisfy the prevalent public opinion. In its very
first session, the Indian National Congress-INC- passed a resolution to make
these Councils broad based, elective, and to be bestowed with budgetary and
executive powers.
While the British established a regular system of government from 1857 to 1947
in the country, yet its policy of apparent association went hand in hand with the
policy of oppression. Constitutional advances were always barbed with restrictive
30
2
Called as‘first war of Independence’ by Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
conditions, so that the core of executive bureaucratic responsibility would remain British System
(Constitutional and
untouched. Such contradictions seem to be inevitable with imperialism. Administrative)
Imperialism is not found to be compatible with democratic theory and practices.
The Indian national movement organized itself under the Indian National Congress
(INC) that was set up in 1885. Initially influenced by the Western educated upper
middle class, it aimed to secure reforms through peaceful and constitutional
means. The British rulers also felt that this would remove misunderstanding about
the intentions of the government and would save the Empire. The moderates had
faith in the British sense of justice and fair play and they looked towards to
gradual reforms with constitutional means. But on the other hand were also the
non-moderates, who were not pacified by any kind of moderate ideology and
demanded nothing short of ‘Purna Swaraj’(complete independence and
sovereignty).
The INC owing to its concern with the wider interests of its people, made it
compulsive for the British Government to undertake reforms to make
administration broad based and representative. In the political field, INC
advocated the abolition of executive council, reforms in the legislative councils,
more powers to local bodies, reducing official interference in the working of
local bodies, and removing restrictions on press. The INC wanted governance
that could represent all classes and interests that were Indian.
3.3.1 Morley - Minto Reforms 1909

The Morley Minto Reforms 1909 increased the size of the Legislative Council,
Imperial Council and Provincial Council. For the Imperial Council the number
was raised from 16 members to 60 members. For bigger Provincial Councils, the
number was raised to 50 members, and for minor provinces it was fixed at 30
members. There was a provision of members getting elected to these Councils
and also being nominated. These Reforms expanded the functions of the
Legislative Councils that included discussions on annual budget, discussion on
any matter of public interest, and the power of asking questions to the elected
members. The Act also increased the number of Executive Councilors in the
three major Presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. Indians were now
appointed, as members of the Secretary of States’ Council and of the Governor
Generals’ Council. The Reforms introduced the system of representation for
Muslims.
Lord Morley, the then Secretary of State and Lord Minto, the then Governor
General of India, were not in favour of dispensing the supremacy of British
administration to a representative assembly. The reforms could not establish a
responsible government with now even the moderates in the INC being unhappy
with them.
The association of the Indian Government with Allies in World War I, the Congress
League Lucknow Pact of 19163, the extremists rejoining the INC, and the Home
Rule Movement made it a requisite for further constitutional reforms that could
lead towards a good and responsible government. Montague, the Secretary of
State for India declared a policy in August 1917 for increasing association of
3
Lucknow Pact, 1916 was an agreement that was reached between the INC and the Muslim
League at a joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in October 1916. 31
Evolution of Indian Indians in every branch of administration and gave direction and purpose for
Administration
future constitutional development. Montague toured India with Lord Chelmsford
and the Montague Chelmsford Report, an expression of liberal philosophy,
proposed the reforms in 1919. It has been considered a milestone in the
constitutional development of India.
3.3.2 Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 was based on three important premises.
First, popular control in the field of local government was to be established,
Second, the provincial governments be made responsible to people, and third
that control exerted by the British Parliament and Secretary of State be relaxed.
The Preamble of the Reforms declared that the policy of Parliament was to provide
for increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration that will
eventually lead to the gradual development of self governing institutions. This
was done with a need to have a progressive realization of a responsible government
in British India. In response to the spirit of the Preamble, the Reforms provided
for a complete popular control in various areas coming under the local
governments. It exuded maximum popular representation and freedom to
provincial governments. This was reflected in the system of dyarchy. The
Government of India was still to be responsible to the British Parliament. But
Indian Legislative Council was enlarged and made more democratic in terms of
popular representation. In tune with spirit of the Reforms, control of British
parliament over Indian Government was relaxed and that of Central Government
over the provincial governments was reduced.
3.3.3 Machinery of Dyarchy at the Provinces

The entire subjects of the government were divided between the central and
provincial governments. At the provincial level, subjects got further divided, as
reserved and transferred subjects (a novel feature of the Montague Chelmsford
Reforms). This was dyarchy, wherein there was dividing of governmental
administration into reserved and transferred subjects and they were treated
differentially. The reserved subjects were in the charge of councilors, who were
nominated by the Governor. The transferred subjects were in charge of councilors,
who were appointed by the Governor. The reserved subjects were the key
departments while transferred subjects were felt to be safe, even though when
placed in Indian hands. The councilors in charge of reserved subject was not
responsible to the legislature but along with the Governor was responsible to the
Secretary of State and the British Parliament. The counutors in charge of
transferred subjects were responsible to the provincial legislature. The Governor
exercised effective powers over the whole administration through the instrument
of instructions and Executive Business Rules.
The experiment of dyarchy failed. The INC boycotted the first elections held in
1920. However, some major reforms pertaining to local government, education,
and social welfare were carried out. Almost in every province, right to vote was
extended to women. Diarchy failed but it showed the way towards a federal
government, which could be more representative and responsive.
32
3.3.4 Government of India Act 1935 British System
(Constitutional and
Administrative)
3.3.4.1 All India Federation
The Act of 1935 proposed for an All India Federation at the centre along with
provincial autonomy. The Act proposed a federation for provinces and princely
states in India. The princely states had an option to join the Federation.
The Act provided for a bicameral legislature. The Lower House will be elected
indirectly and the Upper House (Council of States) will be a composite
representation of princely states and eminent classes. The Act also gave more
powers to the Upper House of voting grants and making members responsible to
the Council.
The subjects allotted to the federal and provincial governments were detailed in
three lists. The subjects of common interest for the whole country and which
demanded a uniform treatment were covered by the Federal list. The List included
59 items. Subjects primarily of provincial interests and where no uniform
treatment was necessary were put in the provincial list. This contained 54 items.
A third list covered subjects primarily of provincial interests, where uniform
action was or would be desirable. These numbered 36. These subjects were jointly
managed by the federal and provincial governments. Residuary powers to
accommodate future subjects were vested in hands of Governor General.
The Act, proposed a Federal form of government for India and for the first time
brought in Indian States and British administration under one Constitution. It
adhered to the essential features of a Federation-a written constitution, division
of subjects between federal and provincial governments, and a Federal Court to
interpret the provisions of the Constitution.
The proposed All India Federation did not materialize. The supremacy of the
British Parliament was retained by the Act. The Secretary of State and Governor
General were the ultimate authorities and they were to be above the Act. Thus
none of the Indian political parties were convinced of the autonomy the Act
proposed about.
3.3.4.2 Provincial Autonomy
The 1935 Act discontinued the application of dyarchy. The distinction between
transferred and reserved subjects was removed and the whole administration
was entrusted to a minister, who was responsible to the legislature. The provinces
were given a separate status with specified subjects to operate, as per the three
list system and were accorded a federal relationship with the Centre.
The Act of 1935, as a whole, can be considered important. It was an interim

constitution and proved to be the base of the draft of constituion for a free India.
33
Evolution of Indian
Administration 3.4 FEATURES OF BRITISH ADMINISTRATION
INFLUENCING INDIAN ADMINISTRATION
We will now discuss the features of British administration that have influenced
Indian administration.
3.4.1 Centralized Administration

The first signs of centralization of administration were witnessed in the Regulation
Act of 1773, which restricted the powers of Presidencies. Presidencies were
brought under the administrative control of the Governor General-in-Council.
The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 paved the way for further centralization under, which
matters relating to India were placed under the direct control of a Board of Control
under the British Government.
We have a central administration with the Prime Minister and the Council of
Ministers forming the government at the Union level. Commissions and
institutions like the National Institute for Transforming India, Union Public
Service Commission, Election Commission, Finance Commission, C e n t r a l
Vigilance Commission, and Administrative Reforms Commission are Union
bodies that work.
Besides, regulatory bodies like Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, Pension

Fund Regulatory and Development Authority, Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India, Aviation Authority and such others are operating at the Central
level.
3.4.2 Provincial Government

The Act of 1919 had divided the subjects between central and provincial
governments. Some autonomy was given to the provinces to manage their own
affairs. The Act of 1935 brought in more decentralization and gave the provinces
more autonomy, as compared to 1919 Act. The Act of 1935 had two important
aspects. Firstly, it gave the provinces an exclusive authority in specific areas and
they were relatively free from the Central control. Secondly, there was evidence
of keenness on the part of the colonial government to introduce responsible
government at the level of provinces. Despite these efforts, the British were a
highly centralized goverment and developed an administrative structure primarily
intended to support the goal of centralization.
We do have a federal structure in our country. Centre, state, and local level
governments have been entitled to make laws pertaining to the subjects that are
earmarked for each of them. However, here too, the central goverment is
considered to be more powerful.
3.4.3 Elaborate Local Government Structure

The colonial government ruled the country with an elaborate administrative
structure supported by vast bureaucratic machinery. The country was divided
into provinces, districts, and taluks (revenue sub-district). The institution of
District Collector was created in 1772. He headed the district administration and
34
was the most powerful official under whom all the departments at the district British System
(Constitutional and
level were placed. The main functions of the District Collector were the Administrative)
maintenance of law and order and collection of revenue. The Collector was
regarded, as the principal agent of the government, chief of police, and head of
magistracy at the district level.
The office of the Collector is still continuing and plays a pivotal role in district
administration. Local administration operates at the district and below levels in
both the urban and rural areas. District is made, as an important unit in
administration so as to bring government closer to the people. District Collector
heads the district administration. He/She is responsible to maintain law and order,
administer justice, collect revenue, and carry out developmental works in his/
her respective district.
Separate function aries functions and funds have been provided to the local bodies
to ensure autonomy and self-governance. There is a planning machinery existing
and also a finance commission for earmarking grants.
The establishment of local self-government institutions is providing an

opportunity to local people to participate in the local administration and resolve
their local problems. These bodies were visualized, as training ground for direct
democracy, being retained by the implementation of 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment Acts 1992 in local self-governance.
3.4.4 Rule of Law

Another characteristic feature of the British administration was the introduction
of the Rule of Law. The spread of liberal ideas and institutions in the 19th and 20th
centuries across the world prompted the British to introduce the Rule of Law.
They codified the laws and considered every citizen to be equal before law.
There is an independent judiciary in India. Supreme Court is the apex authority

in the judicial system. High Courts exist in every state followed by District and
Sessions Courts operating separately for civil and criminal cases. Rule of law is
firmly adhered to. System of appeal is there with higher courts acting, as appellate
authorities.
3.4.5 Civil Services

The Indian Civil Service was created for the purpose of achieving efficiency in
administration. It was considered to be a highly professional trained civil service.
The members of this Service constituted the essence of British power in India.
Recruitment to this service was made by open competitive examinations. The
Federal Public Service Commission was created in 1926 to conduct competitive
examinations for the appointment to these Services.
We have the Union Public Service Commission established at the Centre to

conduct examinations for entry into the All India Services. Every year the
Commission conducts entrance examinations for the purpose and prepares the
final list of meritorious candidates for appointment to different governmental
organizations at the Union level.
35
Evolution of Indian Activity
Administration
Enlist the features of the British administrative system that influenced Indian
administration.
3.5 CONCLUSION
We can recollect, as how a body of traders and merchants, who explored the
world for commercial activities came to India to work out trade relations in 1600
AD. Coming, as a purely commercial corporation, it assumed the name of East
India Company. With passage of time, the Company took control over the Indian
political system. After the 1857 mutiny, the power and authority of the Company
and the entire administration of the country was taken over by the British Crown.
The British Government initiated reforms in the form of Indian Council Acts
1861 and 1892, Morley Minto Reforms 1909, Montague Chelmsford Reforms
1919, and Government of India Act 1935 during its regime from 1858-1935. The
landmark achievements of having three lists of subjects that were categorized,
as federal subjects, provincial subjects, and the concurrent subjects; the Public
Service Commission, as an autonomous body to conduct the selection of public
servants; decentralized local self-government units, the office of the District
Collector and such other features of the British administration have been adopted
by us in our system of administration of today.
3.6 REFERENCES & FURTHER READINGS

1) Chanda A.K., 1968, Indian Administration, George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
London
2) Ganguly, D.K., 1979, Aspects of Ancient Indian Administration, Abhinav
Publications, New Delhi
3) Indian Administration, 2013, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University,
Hyderabad
4) Indian Administration, 2005, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU New Delhi
5) Johari, J.C., 1977, Indian Government and Politics, Vishal Publications,
Delhi
6) Maheswari, S.R., 2001, Indian Administration, Orient Longman, New Delhi
7) Misra B.B., 1970, The Administrative History of India, Oxford University
Press, London
8) Robert, P.E., 1952, History of British India under the Company and the
Crown, Oxford, University Press, London
9) Thomson, Edward and Garratt G.R., 1958, Rise and Fulfillment of British
Rule in India, Central Book Depot, Allahabad
36
British System
UNIT 4 CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN (Constitutional and
Administrative)
INDIAN ADMINISTRATION-POST
1947
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Challenges to Indian Administration
4.3 Indian Administration: Legacy of British Rule
4.3.1 Departmental Organizations
4.3.2 Public Services
4.3.3 Public Service Commission
4.3.4 District Administration
4.3.5 Local Government
4.3.6 Financial Administration
4.4 Changes in Indian Administration
4.4.1 Development and Welfare
4.4.2 Popular Participation in Administration
4.4.3 Electronic Governance
4.5 Conclusion
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study of this Unit, you should be able to:
explain the legacy of British rule and reasons for its continuity, and
discuss the changes brought in the Indian administration after independence.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Administration of independent India contains the impact and influence of the
British Administration. The legacy of British rule is natural and obvious. In this
Unit, an attempt is being made to highlight the legacy of British rule and also
changes in administration brought in after the attainment of India’s independence.
4.2 CHALLENGES TO INDIAN ADMINISTRATION

In the wake of independence, one of crises was of the refugees, who came in
from Pakistan because of partition. Because of the partition and influx of millions
of refugees, there were communal disturbances, which posed a serious challenge
to our administration.
Owing to partition, a sudden scarcity of civil servants was felt because a large
number of Europeans had left the country and Muslim civil servants resigned
and were leaving en numbers. According to Shriram Maheswari the strength of
37
Evolution of Indian Indian Civil Service was around 1064 in 1945 and 1947, which fell to 422
Administration
immediately after Independence.
With the famines in the forties leading to a shortage in supply of food grains
coupled with price rise brought in an undue pressure on the administration to
manage the crisis. Rationing was introduced to regulate supply and distribution
of food grains. It added another burden to the already pressurized administrative
system. The additional work resulting from the introduction of rationing
necessitated urgent and large scale recruitment to various positions of public
personnel. As it had to be undertaken at a very short notice, so basic training
could not be imparted to the newly recruited ones under the prevailing
circumstances. An economy of shortages eventually led to corruption in public
administration.
When the Britishers left the country, the entire country automatically became a
part of the Indian Union. But the territories under princely states (over 600 in
number) remained outside the domain of independent India. The administrative
system became engaged in the very task of integration of these princely states.
Thus, the administrative system had passed through a testing time after
independence. It faced several challenges and crises situations. It had to work,
as a stabilizing force, to withstand not only the stress and strain caused by partition
but also other major problems, as discussed above.
4.3 INDIAN ADMINISTRATION: LEGACY OF

BRITISH RULE
The present Indian administrative structure is largely a legacy of British rule in
India. Free India inherited governmental machinery, as developed by the British
with the feel of significance accorded to having a federal government. All India
Services, civil services recruitment, administrative training, the secretariat system,
office procedures, district administration, revenue administration, police system,
law and order, budgeting, accounting, auditing, and a number of other structural
and functional areas of Indian administration have their roots in the British system.
Though the British had their own objectives of sustaining and strengthening
their empire, to which the administrative system was geared, some of their
organizational initiatives have proved to be useful to India in the aftermath of
independence.
The continuing features of British administration are discussed below in detail.
4.3.1 Departmental Organizations

Departmental organizations have been playing a dominant role in Indian
administration system. The internal organization of the departments and their
working procedures has not changed much. Hierarchy, written records, and
communication have continued. Pre-independence manuals still govern these
departments. The position of chief secretary in state administration continues
even till today.
38
4.3.2 Public Services Continuity and Change in
Indian Administration- Post
1947
One of the important legacies of the British Rule in India was creation of Indian
Civil Service. The nomenclature of the service was changed to Indian
Administrative Service (IAS) after independence. It is a steel frame to the
administrative machinery. The organizational structure, administrative setup,
functioning, and ethos have influenced not only the governmental functioning
but also the administrative culture. Several strategic positions in both central
and state administrations are being held by the IAS cadre.
4.3.3 Public Service Commission

Another substantial contribution of the British rule was that the competitive
examinations were conducted by an independent agency. The idea of a merit-
based civil service germinated on the Indian soil for the first time with the
submission of the Macaulay Report in 1854. To ensure impartial selection of
meritorious civil servants, the Federal Public Service Commission was established
in 1926. This was replaced by Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) after
the new Constitution of India came into force on 26th January, 1950. The authors
of the Constitution not only vested it with a Constitutional Status, but also provided
elaborate safeguards for maintenance of its independence to enable it to be the
upholder of the merit system of personnel.
4.3.4 District Administration

District is still continuing, as a unit of administration with noticeable increase in
its importance. The head of the district administration continues to be the collector.
However, the scale of operations at the district has more than doubled. The
collector still enjoys the powers and status, as he used to, during the British rule.
Now, apart from the regulatory functions like maintenance of law and order and
revenue collection, the collectors are entrusted with the developmental functions
for the development and growth of the respective districts.
4.3.5 Local Government

Local government is yet another feature of the British administrative system that
is being continued. Lord Ripon, who had introduced local self-government in
India, has been called the ‘father of local self-government in India’. Local
government institutions, which existed before independence, were consolidated
and new ones were created to meet the growing needs of people. Laws have
been passed for every state to have Municipal Corporations and Municipalities
in the urban areas and village Panchayats in the rural areas.
4.3.6 Financial Administration

The British administration created institutions like Comptroller and Auditor
General, (C&AG), Public Accounts Committee, Reserve Bank, and a budget
system for having a sound financial administration in government. These
institutions are still playing a key role in government to ensure financial prudence
and accountability.
Now we will discuss the changes in the Indian administration system that were
brought in by the new Constitution. 39
Evolution of Indian
Administration 4.4 CHANGES IN INDIAN ADMINISTRATION
A new Constitution came into vogue on January 26 1950 and its objectives and
nature were quite different from those prevailing under the British rule. The new
Constitution established Parliamentary Democracy in the country. Federal
governance with the Union and state governments was established. Public Service
Commissions were set up at the union and the state levels for ensuring selection
of meritorious candidates. Directive Principles of State Policy and the fundamental
rights and fundamental duties for the citizens were laid down. These and such
other provisions increased the responsibilities of public administration in the
country.
We will now delve on the areas that brought in changes and more responsibilities
for the administration of free India.
4.4.1 Development and Welfare

Under the British rule, administration was motivated more into trade and
commercial activities that led to the surface of railways, posts and telegraphs,
ports and highways, banking and insurance areas. Education was also given
priority. Health and medical facilities got started at the elementary level. Fiscal
incentives were provided for industrial development, especially after the World
War I (1914-1918). However, development and welfare of the people were given
a second priority.
When India became free from the colonial rule, the Constitution of India was
written for the newly independent country. It started with a Preamble. The
Preamble seeks to secure to all citizens social, economic, and political justice;
liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship; equality of status and
opportunity; and promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the
individual and sovereignty and integrity of the nation. Part IV of the Constitution,
which deals with Directive Principles of State Policy provide for principles to
give guidance to the government in making policies and administering them on
the basis of the above mentioned features. The State is to strive to minimize the
inequalities in income and eliminate inequalities in status, facilities, and
opportunities to its citizens. Both men and women will have equal right to an
adequate means of livelihood. Equal pay for equal work is another directive to
be adhered to by the states. The moral, mental, physical, and psychological health
of children and youth are to be protected. Equal justice and free legal aid, right to
work, education, and public assistance in old age, unemployment, etc. is secured
by these Principles to be taken care of, as guiding points in state policies.
4.4.2 Popular Participation in Administration

In the late fifties, panchayati raj has been the most significant channel of the
participation of the rural people in the rural development administration.
Community development was the earlier phase of this popular participation.
The Parliament has passed the Right Information Bill on 11th May 2005 and it
has come into effect from 12th October 2005.
40
4.4.3 Electronic Governance Continuity and Change in
Indian Administration- Post
1947
In the past few decades, ICT has been increasingly used to improve government
services. This kind of technology application to public system management is
called e-governance. It is a form of governance comprising the processes and
structures involved in the delivery of electronic services to the public. The aim,
ultimately, is to simplify procedures, enable people’s participation, and bring
about improvement in governance through mail, telecommunication, and Internet.
Various manifestations of e-governance initiatives are using IT tools and
applications, such as computers and internet and also information systems like
GIS, MIS, and such others.
The GoI has launched the National E-governance Plan (NEGP) in May 2006.
Under the NEGP numerous e-enabled initiatives have been undertaken by various
line departments like Mission Mode Projects. Also, State Wide Area Network,
State Data Centers, Common Service Centers, and Electronic Payment Gateways
have been functioning enabling seamless connectivity across departments and
levels of government.
Digital India has also been launched to transform India into a digitally empowered
society and knowledge economy.
Activity
Update the changes that have been made in the Indian administrative system
during the past ten years that is from 2010-2011 to 2020.
4.5 CONCLUSION
Ever since the country became independent, Indian administration has continued
with the British legacy by having erstwhile departmental organizations, public
services, Public Service Commissions, the institution of District Collector,
Reserve Bank, Comptroller and Auditor General, and such others. Along with
this, the country introduced changes in Indian administration with a focus on
citizens and pro-citizen services. Development and welfare became sina qua
non with democracy and participation.
Right to Information, local self government institutions, gender participation,

citizens’ charters, social audit, ICT, and such other measures are the traits of
good governance that are today possible for the people of India.

1) Basu, D.D., 1988, Constitutional Law of India, Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited, New Delhi
2) Chanda, Asoka, 1967, Indian Administration, George Allen and Unwin Ltd,
London
3) Indian Administration, 2013, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University,

Hyderabad
41

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Ancient Administrative

UNIT 1 ANCIENT ADMINISTRATIVE System

1.2 EVOLUTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralist and

Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation, as being in a condition

A detailed account of the administrative system in Mauryan period is given below.

1.3 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

Mauryans developed an organized and an elaborate system of administration.

1.3.2 Provincial Administration

However, in addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were

1.3.3 Local Administration

Census in towns was conducted by municipal officials, especially to track the

1.3.4 Revenue Administration

1.3.5 Judicial Administration

Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation, and death

1.3.6 Military Administration

Ashoka introduced innovations and reforms in the Mauryan administrative system.

We will discuss Gupta administration under the following headings:

1.4.1 Central Administration

1.4.2 Provincial Administration

1.4.3 Local Administration

Professional bodies were given considerable attention. Artisans, merchants, and

1.4.4 Revenue Administration

1.4.5 Judicial Administration

1.4.6 Military Administration

1.4.7 Trade and Business

1.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Maheswari, S.R., 2001, Indian Administration, Orient Longman, New Delhi

2.3 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

2.3.1 Role of King

2.4 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

As the chief administrative officer of the Empire he exercised control over

The Postal Department was under the charge of a Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki. It was

2.4.2 Provincial Administration

On the basis of the above description, we can say that provincial

2.4.3 District and Local Administration

He also performed the duties of Amil that of a revenue collection officer at

2.5 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

2.6 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION

2.6.1 Administration of Civil Justice

2.6.2 Administration of Criminal Justice

2.7 ARMY AND POLICE

2.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was an aggressive policy that resulted in

3.3 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION

3.3.1 Morley - Minto Reforms 1909

3.3.2 Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919

3.3.3 Machinery of Dyarchy at the Provinces

3.3.4.2 Provincial Autonomy

The Act of 1935, as a whole, can be considered important. It was an interim

3.4.1 Centralized Administration

Besides, regulatory bodies like Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, Pension

3.4.2 Provincial Government

3.4.3 Elaborate Local Government Structure

The establishment of local self-government institutions is providing an

3.4.4 Rule of Law

There is an independent judiciary in India. Supreme Court is the apex authority

3.4.5 Civil Services

We have the Union Public Service Commission established at the Centre to