1111 Chapter 2

2
3
4 Excavation
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
YOUR GOALS
5
6 You need to understand
7 ■ why and when excavation is undertaken
8
■ what can be achieved by excavation
9
201111 ■ the advantages and disadvantages of common excavation strategies
1 ■ the principles of stratigraphy
2 ■ how artefacts and faunal and floral material are recovered during excavations
3
■ the techniques of recording used in archaeology.
4
5
6
7
8 To many people, archaeology simply means WHY EXCAVATE?
9 excavation. Often their interest in archaeology Any removal of the accumulated evidence of
30 stems from witnessing an excavation or viewing the past is a finite act. Once disturbed,
1 one on television or through other media. trowelled, shovelled and bucketed away that
2 Excavation is often the public face of material cannot be replaced as it was before the
3 archaeology. It is only when people ‘dig’ excavator removed it. Hence it has been
4 deeper into the subject that they are able to frequently said that ‘all excavation is
5 recognise the role that excavation plays in the destruction’. Today no one condones
6 wider nature of the discipline. It has its own excavation as it took place in the nineteenth
7 methodology, which constantly changes to century: for the pleasure of the excavators and
8 reflect current thinking and improving to establish collections of artefacts. In all but
9 technologies. There can never be one set of those extreme circumstances, where chance
40 rules for excavation although there is general discovery of remains demands a prompt
1 agreement on key elements of the process. This response, there should be controlled planning.
2 chapter will try to reflect that current This should establish the rationale for
3111 consensus.
26 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

excavation and formulate a series of questions, Today, excavators are expected to:
which it is hoped, the excavation might answer.
■ provide justifications for digging a site
Often the record of a site can be remarkably ■ use survey techniques to plan excavation
full if a wide range of reconnaissance methods strategies
has been applied and there are sufficient clues ■ be able to cope with subsequent changes on
about hidden features or structures. In many site
cases, once the record of such survey activities ■ ensure that a complete recording system is
is carefully housed in an appropriate archive, in place
for example the local SMR, archaeologists leave ■ select and maintain appropriate samples for
the physical remains untouched. If, however, a analysis
decision is made to excavate, it should be ■ have facilities for all aspects of post-
viewed as a most serious step in the archaeo- excavation work
logical process. While most scientific ■ interpret a site from a limited excavation or
experiments can be repeated over and over sample
again in the laboratory, archaeological ■ ‘publish’ the results of the work so that
excavation, although scientific in its approach, they are available to other interested parties
does not, by its very nature, allow a second ■ maintain professional standards while
chance. Some excavation procedures, somewhat working under time and economic
confusingly referred to as sampling strategies, constraints.
have been developed to try and ensure that not
all the evidence is removed in the primary If this is done then excavation can move
investigation of a feature or deposit. beyond the possible results of survey and get
Nevertheless, in essence, excavation means to the real core of archaeology – the hard
destruction. However, that ‘destruction’ is evidence left by previous people of their
minimised if the archaeologist pays appropriate existence.
care and attention to the way the excavation is
conducted and particularly to the quality of the
TYPES OF EXCAVATION
records kept. This is sometimes referred to as
‘preservation by record’ (
see p. 114). Excavations today usually fall into one of three
broad categories depending on the main reason
There are other considerations. A balance must for them: research, rescue or salvage.
be struck between the desire to protect archae-
ological remains for future generations and the
Research excavations
need to develop the discipline and advance our
knowledge through excavation. It is also These are excavations on sites where there is no
important that archaeology is kept sufficiently immediate threat of destruction. The site is
in the public eye to receive the support it needs selected by archaeologists for its suitability to
in the wider political forum. answer the questions they wish to answer. It
can be excavated according to archaeological
needs rather than prompted by the threat of
development. Research excavation is only
undertaken when the perceived benefits to
 EXCAVATION ■ 27

1111
2
KEY SITE
3
4 Avebury
5
Recent research has revealed much new detail of this famous archaeological landscape. The
6
eastern lines of stones running to Avebury from the Sanctuary, known as the West Kennet
7
Avenue, are well known but the possible avenue to the west, the Beckhampton Avenue, has been
8
surrounded in mystery. William Stukeley recorded it in the eighteenth century but only two
9
visible stones survive. Investigation of this key element of the world heritage site of Avebury
10
began with investigation of a cropmark of what appeared to be an oval enclosure lying
1
adjacent to the suspected line of the avenue.
2
3 Fieldwork and excavation to evaluate the evidence involved three universities assisted by
4 English Heritage (EH) and the Ancient Monuments Laboratory (AML). The enclosure proved
5 to have features similar to causewayed enclosures of the early Neolithic. Geophysics surveys on
6 the line of the avenue revealed three pits left where stones had been removed and broken up
7 and three still containing buried sarsen stones. These had been deliberately tipped over to
8 remove surface trace of them.
9
This research answered some questions on the enclosure and the stones of the Avenue but
201111
posed others. Further research is planned.
1
2
3 http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/
4 avelatest.html
5 Tr. 13 Tr. 15
6 Current Archaeology 167
Tr. 14 F.21
7
8 F.23
F.22

9 F.10 F.24

30 F.25 Figure 2.1 Research investigations of an

oval enclosure and possible stone settings
1 F.26 for the Beckhampton Avenue near Avebury,
2 Ridge and furrow
ch

seen as a mix of area and linear trench

dit

excavations. Trenches 11, 12 and 13 cross

re

3 Tr. 11
su
clo

the line of the enclosure (noted as

4
En

Longstones
cropmarks on an aerial photograph) while
5 Tr. 12
0 m 50 Trench 10 to the east of the site is an area
6 excavation to cover the stone holes
7 (F21–F26)
8
9
40
1
2
3111
28 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

KEY SITE
Castell Henllys
This small Iron Age hill fort in South West Wales was bought in 1980 by the co-founder of the
London Dungeon, who worked to develop it as a tourist attraction with reconstructed Iron Age
houses. Subsequently it has been taken over by the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, which
has established a visitors’ centre on the site.
It was necessary to excavate the site and recover the evidence on which to base the
reconstructions. Students and paying volunteers have helped in the excavations each summer.
Over twenty seasons, archaeologists have studied the defensive circuit, the complex phases of
the gateway, and almost the whole of the interior of the fort. Reconstructions of four major
roundhouses and smaller constructions have been completed.

This research has provided a much

fuller understanding of the
archaeology of this period and
provided a link via its marketing
style between archaeologists and
the general public.

http://archaeology.lamp.
ac.uk/CastellH/chenter.html

Current Archaeology 161

Figure 2.2
An area excavation to reveal the
‘chevaux de frise’ an Iron Age
‘tank trap’ protecting the
entrance to Castell Henllys,
West Wales. Compare with
interpretation on p. 103
 EXCAVATION ■ 29

1111 archaeological understanding outweigh the loss archaeological units have developed. Many
2 of the original site, or part of it, to future have urban bases, but demand for large urban
3 generations. excavation has fallen considerably since the
4 introduction of PPG 16 (
see p. 111).
5 There is little public or commercial funding of
6 research excavation so archaeologists have to Originally, rescue teams identified potential
7 finance themselves by alternative means. For threats to archaeological sites from planned
8 instance, universities that run ‘training developments such as road building, gravel
9 excavations’ for their undergraduates may also extraction or pipelines, and submitted bids for
10 accept paying ‘volunteers’. Applied research public funding to excavate before development
1 agencies, for example the British Academy, began. Today planning authorities, guided by
2 provide some support for this type of long- PPG 16, often require developers to prepare
3 term research. impact assessments and may also demand a
4 formal site evaluation. Depending on the
5 findings there may be excavation in advance of
Rescue excavations
6 development and/or a watching brief during
7 The term ‘rescue excavations’ was coined in the construction. On the principle of ‘the polluter
8 1960s when so much development was in pays’ the cost is increasingly passed on to
9 progress that the earlier pattern of amateur and developers. However, for most sites, full
201111 university summer excavations could no long excavation with its heavy costs and delays in
1 cope with the volume of archaeological sites construction is not usually necessary. Where
2 being threatened and destroyed. Rescue, a excavation does occur, decisions are made on
3 charitable trust, dramatised the threat to whether all of a site should be excavated or just
4 Britain’s archaeology by using as its logo an a sample. Often work will be concentrated on
5 image of Stonehenge being scooped up in a areas felt to be of greatest importance.
6 bulldozer’s bucket. However, this conjures up a Excavation takes place within a time limit but
7 rather more violent image than is truly the is carefully planned and involves co-operation
8 picture. In fact what was recognised was that between archaeologists, planners and
9 the scale and pace of development meant that contractors. Archaeologists can usually carry
30 much valuable evidence was in danger of being out their work according to correct archaeo-
1 lost if it could not be excavated and recorded. logical procedures. Rescue does not generally
2 Excavation teams were needed all year round. mean working under the jaws of mechanical
3 diggers in an uncontrolled rush. If it is, this
4 http//www.rescue-archaeology. will usually be in the final days of what has
5 freeserve.co.uk/ previously been an ordered excavation. Non-
6 archaeologists often find the pace of excavation
7 Some teams were centrally based within slower than they would imagine and need to
8 government agencies while others were formed have the processes explained to them. The
9 locally to combat specific threats. The M5 Channel Tunnel Project provides an excellent
40 Rescue Committee is a good example of a example of a considered strategy for retrieving
1 group founded with a clear but essentially archaeological evidence.
2 time-constrained focus. From these late
3111 1960s/early 1970s teams most of today’s
30 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

KEY SITE
Empingham, Rutland, Part 1
The valley of the river Gwash was of little interest to people outside Rutland until planners in
the 1970s decided to build a dam across it. The area flooded would create Rutland Water –
one of England’s largest lakes.
Through the chance discovery of an Anglo-
Saxon brooch and the process of fieldwalking
two Romano-British sites were revealed which
enabled archaeologists to plan rescue
excavations on an Anglo-Saxon cemetery, a
Romano-British farmstead and a villa
respectively. All three sites lay directly under
the line of the proposed dam.
Excavations over three seasons were designed
and conducted with knowledge of the
impending engineering development but with
the normal safeguards of time for the removal
and recording of features and finds. However,
once the contractors arrived on site the
nature of the archaeological work changed
considerably . . .
see p. 32.

Cooper 2000

Figure 2.3 Burial 74 at Empingham. A plan of a skeleton in the grave to show positions of bones
and grave goods. The skeleton of a male aged about 25–30 years old was accompanied by a shield
boss; two board studs, a spearhead, an iron knife, a copper alloy-bound wooden bucket and an iron
buckle. Preserved wood remains in the spear socket were identified as willow and poplar and in the
bucket as yew. See drawing of finds in Figure 11.10 (p. 253)
 EXCAVATION ■ 31

1111 Salvage excavations

2
KEY SITE There are some occasions when archaeological
3
evidence is unexpectedly revealed in circum-
4 The Channel Tunnel rail link
stances where it is impossible for excavation to
5
The development of this new railway be pre-planned or systematic. The main
6
resulted in the largest archaeological decision is whether in the circumstances
7
project to date in the United Kingdom. excavating will be a valid exercise or whether
8
Engineers and archaeologists worked in simply to note the presence of the remains is
9
tandem to ensure that archaeological the better option. A rapid exploration is often
10
issues were fully considered throughout the the best that can be hoped for.
1
process. Rail Link Engineering employed
2
its own archaeologists and others involved There is some overlap between these categories
3
have come from English Heritage, as the Empingham example shows. It is also the
4
University College London, Kent County case that priorities in rescue excavations can be
5
Council and four other units. set to answer research questions. The bulk of
6
excavation in Britain today is rescue work.
7 All forms of survey work were carried out;
8 over 2,000 trial trenches and test pits
9 were dug. Fieldwork informed the setting
201111 of priorities about where to excavate.
1 Some 55 hectares of the route were KEY TASK
2 identified as requiring detailed archaeo-
Identifying the nature of an excavation
3 logical investigation. Planning of the work
4 gave archaeologists time to ‘painstakingly’ Much has been written about the discovery
5 record the archaeological deposits on the and excavation of Seahenge (
p. 124)
6 sites selected for detailed work. Other
Use the weblink to consider to what extent
7 areas were subject to watching briefs
the excavation of this site was research,
8 (where archaeologists are on hand to
rescue or salvage. Two alternative sites are
9 observe work – particularly topsoil removal
also provided.
30 – so they can recognise and record
1 features as they appear). In this particular
http://www.channel4.com/nextstep/
2 scheme the archaeologists were empowered
timeteam/
3 to stop construction work if ‘features of
4 significance’ were identified. Over forty http://www.arch.soton.ac.uk/
5 sites have been excavated with dates Research/Dunragit/
6 ranging from the Palaeolithic to the http://www. suffolkcc.gov.uk/e-and-
7 Second World War. The impact of the new t/archaeology/eriswell/
8 evidence will enhance and probably alter
9 many current perceptions of Kent’s
40 archaeology.
1
2 Current Archaeology 168.
3111
32 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

KEY SITE
Empingham, Rutland, Part 2
A watching brief was negotiated with the developers and a series of discoveries were made as
mechanical scrapers systematically stripped the landscape of its topsoil on both sides of the
river for 2 kilometres back from the dam. These included:
■ two burials in stone coffins
■ a third major Romano-British site
■ an Iron Age roundhouse
■ two Anglo-Saxon grubenhauser
■ a sunken Iron Age trackway
■ a large Anglo-Saxon inhumation cemetery
with 130 burials.
An excavation team and resources had to be
gathered at short notice to deal with the
situation. The Romano-British site and burials
had to be excavated immediately as they lay in
the path of planned engineering works, which
could not be delayed. Arrangements were made
for contractors to ‘work around’ the other sites
which enabled a higher level of excavation and
recording.

Cooper 2000

Figure 2.4 Another grave from Empingham. Note the different information provided by plan on
p. 30 and photograph
 EXCAVATION ■ 33

1111
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
201111
1
2
3
4
5
6 Figure 2.5 An area excavation of the medieval burial grounds at Spitalfields in London. Note the cover
7 over the site, both for protection of the remains and out of respect for the burials. The relatively
8 confined space is typical of most urban excavations
9
30
1 EXCAVATION STRATEGIES AND THE Defining the site in question is the first issue
2 PROCESS OF EXCAVATION (
see p. 166). In excavation terms some ‘sites’
3 are in fact a series of smaller ‘sites’ in
The previous section identified reasons for
4 themselves. For example, cropmarks may
excavations. In all cases there is a degree of
5 indicate a series of features (enclosures, pits,
choice available to archaeologists.
6 tracks) which can be separated out for investi-
Archaeologists are aware of the nature of their
7 gation while a Roman town has a street plan
sites and do not dig ‘blind’. While there is
8 and a variety of public and private buildings
always the element of unpredictability, which is
9 each capable of individual excavation. Sites are
one of the joys of the subject, a qualified
40 set within a landscape context and a successful
excavation director should be able to work out
1 excavation needs to take note of that factor too.
an appropriate strategy using prior knowledge
2 So those planning to excavate need to
and fieldwork results.
3111 determine whether it is the entirety of the site
34 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

with current thinking and therefore ensure that

their results, when published, stand up to
scrutiny and are accepted by their peers. For
example, many archaeological units use the
Museum of London manual.

http://www.molas.org.uk

The nature of the archaeological record in the

ground is often complex. Human nature and
life circumstances ensure that most sites have a
Figure 2.6 A Neolithic ritual site at Down developmental history, which the archaeologist
Farm on Cranborne Chase top-stripped and needs to unravel. The people who left the
ready for excavation. The major features show evidence went about their daily business
up clearly as discoloration in the soil
without a thought for how their activities
might leave traces for future investigators.
that is the focus of their attention or whether They were not simply creating ‘features’ much
concentration on certain parts offers the best of the time, nor did they often build a structure
chance to answer the questions posed for the and leave it unaltered. However, their
excavation. constructional or daily activities will have
created a sequence of deposits, layers or
contexts (the words are often used inter-
http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/raunds/index.htm
changeably) which builds up to create the
http://www.hungsteinsite.de/gibs_00/ archaeological record. Contained within these
hhindwell.htm deposits, which are linked to features and

There is no set manual for archaeological field

practices either in relation to where to put the
holes in the ground or in how to proceed once
the excavation trench is underway. This is not
because archaeologists have a laissez-faire
attitude to standards and procedures but
because of variety in the nature of sites,
evidence and questions asked. Most texts on
excavation express their ideas about appropriate
‘good practice’ and as new methods evolve so
they too appear in print. The archaeological
world constantly shares its experiences and a
general consensus of current good practice is Figure 2.7 These shells from the Palaeolithic
evident when one looks at images of modern site at Klithi in Greece were transformed from
ecofacts to artefacts through modification by
excavations. Practitioners learn from one people. In this case they have been transformed
another and try to keep their methods in line into beads
 EXCAVATION ■ 35

1111 structures, are the artefacts of pottery, rectangular shaped excavation of variable width
2 metalwork, etc. and ecofacts, which provide and length. Frequently the length far exceeds
3 sources for understanding the chronological, the width as trenches are used to investigate
4 cultural and environmental nature of the site. linear archaeological features such as defensive
5 earthworks by being placed at 90° to the
6 One further issue which excavators have to be alignment of the feature. The trenches cut by
7 aware of is the health and safety of their Alcock through the defences of South Cadbury
8 diggers. Precautions range from hardhats and hill fort in Somerset provide a classic example.
9 reflective clothing on developer sites to By strategically placing a series of 2-metre wide
10 ensuring that deep trenches are properly shored trenches around the hill he was able to study
1 up or have stepped sides. Safety issues are most and report on the developmental sequence of
2 evident on underwater sites where air supply, the site’s fortifications. This had the added
3 currents, cold and sharks are amongst the bonus of disturbing a small proportion of the
4 potential hazards not faced on land. site in return for a volume of evidence. Most of
5 the site was left undamaged for future archaeol-
6 ogists. Other linear features such as roads and
How to dig?
7 boundaries can be cross-sectioned in this way.
8 The crux of the excavation methodology debate Offa’s Dyke, an early medieval feature running
9 centres on the fact that all sites have two from north to south Wales, has been the focus
201111 distinct but interrelated horizons. A vertical of a long-term study by Manchester University
1 sequence of layers containing structures and and over 100 trenches have been put across it
2 finds, and the horizontal layout of an to check and confirm details of its construc-
3 occupation area or individual structure. To tion. Cutting across linear features on a smaller
4 record both sets of evidence is vital. Over the scale frequently occurs on area excavations. At
5 years methods have evolved to attempt to solve Westhawk Farm, Kent (Current Archaeology
6 this difficult balancing trick. Unless the archae-
7 ologist can establish the correct succession of
8 levels (
see p. 39) an excavation and its results
9 will have limited, if any, value. Likewise the
30 inability to produce the plan (layout) of a
1 building or a cemetery leaves the researcher
2 well short of the required results.
3 Archaeologists have therefore developed a
4 series of methods appropriate to different types
5 of site. The methods chosen reflect the need to
6 achieve a full record of a site within the limits
7 of the resources available for the excavation.
8
9 Trenches
40 The term ‘trench’ has been applied to any
1 linear excavation and sometimes to any hole Figure 2.8 A section cut across a feature to
reveal its profile in section. The depth and
2 cut into the ground by archaeologists, whatever shape of the feature can be determined as well
3111 its surface shape. A stricter definition is a as its fill and any stratigraphy
36 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

168), the side ditches of the main road running whether excavation will be needed or whether
through the newly discovered Roman town remains can be left ‘in situ’. They are less
were identified as features when the area was photogenic than open area excavations and less
extensively cleared and then excavated by the regularly seen in popular archaeological
removal of sections of fill to reveal their magazines.
profiles.
Area excavation
Those of you who have watched Time Team on This is the most common form of excavation as
Channel 4 will be familiar with the use of trial can be seen with reference to reports or
trenches to investigate possible features archaeological magazines. ‘Area’ or ‘open-
identified through archaeological recon- stripping’ occurs where the extent of the
naissance. In many countries test pits, usually features to be uncovered determines the size of
1 metre square, from the surface down to the excavation. This does not mean that whole
bedrock, perform a similar function. They also sites are always laid bare. This can be an
provide an insight into the stratigraphy of the outcome but more frequently other factors
site. Trial trenches and test pits are regularly limit the total recovery of evidence. Financial
used in developer led archaeology to determine constraints may limit the amount of digging

Figure 2.9 An area excavation of the Anglo-Saxon site at West Heslerton showing that extensive
features are preserved just below the surface of the ground. Attempting to interpret these features
without excavation could be very misleading
 EXCAVATION ■ 37

1111 while other logistical constraints could lead to a feeding the data into a computer. This can be
2 seasonal approach where parts of a site are interrogated to produce sections along any
3 uncovered and researched year by year. chosen line. The problem is that without
4 Danebury hill fort is a well-published example baulks no check is left in place if the director
5 of such a strategy. In development areas only wishes to refer back, so the recording systems
6 part of the site may be threatened or available must be of the highest quality.
7 for excavation. The depth of the archaeological
8 deposits is important. You can excavate a Box-grid or quadrant systems
9 greater area of a site with shallow remains than These sit in an intermediate position between
10 one with deeper stratification (for example trenches and area excavation attempting to
1 urban sites) in the same time and with similar offer archaeologists the better aspects of each
2 resource implications. Finally there are archae- by giving access to both the horizontal view
3 ological considerations. Only a sample of the and the vertical cut simultaneously.
4 site may be needed to address a question. It is
5 impossible to generalise on the size of an area The box-grid system owes its origins to the
6 excavation. It is as large or as small as the work of Sir Mortimer Wheeler in the first half
7 demands of the archaeology dictate in the eyes of the twentieth century. He would set out a
8 of the site director. grid of square ‘boxes’ to be excavated with
9 baulks left in between them. This resulted in a
201111 Although destructive, area excavation has dig resembling a patchwork quilt. An
1 become the key approved method for several advantage was the chance to record four
2 reasons. sections for every ‘box’. Removal of spoil was
3 also easier as baulks provided barrow runs.
4 ■ Complete structures can be studied. However, the whole layout of a site was not
5 ■ Complex relationships between features can revealed until the baulks were finally removed.
6 be clarified. Important relationships between features or
7 ■ It provides excellent recording possibilities. structures would not be understood while
8 ■ A total understanding of horizontal digging, which might depend on such an
9 relationships is possible. understanding, was progressing. The system
30 was costly of time and manpower and its
1 When area excavation became fashionable there popularity short-lived though it is still possible
2 was criticism from those traditionalists who to see some excavations where a pattern of trial
3 had used trenches. The sides of trenches have trenching that clearly owes something to this
4 the advantage of revealing the vertical sequence earlier method is used.
5 of deposits (stratigraphy) and there was
6 concern that this essential record might be lost. The ‘quadrant system’ is a similar approach
7 The depth of deposits can vary and the issue is that is still in common usage. It is particularly
8 of great significance where the stratification is relevant in the case of sites that are approxi-
9 deeper and more complicated. This problem mately circular in nature, such as round
40 can be addressed by leaving baulks (undug barrows, although a smaller scale version of
1 strips of ground) at strategic points or, this method is often employed on hearths, pits
2 increasingly, by carefully recording the or even postholes. The feature is cut into four
3111 horizontal picture of a site layer by layer and quarters by lines intersecting at the middle and
38 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

Figure 2.11 A quadrant excavation of a

mound demonstrated at the Quest Project
Figure 2.10 A pit which has been quartered in
order to give four internal section profiles

opposing quadrants are excavated first. It is

possible after only removing half the remains KEY TASK
to see patterns of features in plan (which if
they show common elements suggest that they Testing the law of superposition
continue under the undug areas) and to totally
When you have been working at your desk
record the vertical profile of the site in two
for a while or after, say, half an hour of a
directions.
lesson look at the way your books, papers,
pencil case, sweet wrappers (or those of
your fellow students) have combined in an
overlapping manner. If you pick your way
KEY TASK
backwards through the evidence it should
Simulating quadrant excavation be possible to establish in reverse order
the sequence of events that led to the
Students with a sweet tooth might like to
accumulated material being in position.
enhance their understanding of excavation
This will not tell you when the movement
procedures by attempting a quadrant
of items took place but should establish
excavation of a gateau placed on a
the order. The floor of your room provides
patterned plate. You should reveal enough
an alternative site to examine.
of the plate to recognise patterns and see
clearly the layers of sponge and cream in
the excavated sections! from the ground in which they have lain to suit
the varying circumstances of archaeological
sites. The topsoil is removed by mechanically
topstripping with a digger or by using picks,
THE PROCESS OF EXCAVATION
mattocks and shovels. This is either bulldozed
Archaeologists have developed a variety of or wheelbarrowed away to start a spoil heap.
methods for removing archaeological deposits This has to be far enough away to avoid it
 EXCAVATION ■ 39

1111
2
KEY CONCEPT
3
4 Stratigraphy
5
In any text about archaeological sites you will
6
come across terms such as level, layer,
7
deposit, stratum. They describe the make-up
8
of the excavated ground in terms of layers.
9
These were created either by people or
10
nature. Archaeologists attempt to carefully
1
record these strata – the stratification. By
2
studying their relationship they can build up a
3
sequence of events on the site. The study of
4
the strata is known as stratigraphy.
5
6 Each layer, usually identified from those above
7 and below it during excavation by colour,
8 texture or content has its own spatial
9 boundaries and relationships. Archaeologists
201111 talk and write about these relationships. If no
1 intrusive features are present (for example a
2 pit dug from an upper/recent layer down
3 through lower/older layers) it would be safe
4 to assume that layers at the bottom of any
5 sequence are older than those at the top. Figure 2.12 A picture that demonstrates
how the law of superposition can tell a
6 Each successive layer was deposited after the story. The female skeleton is lying above the
7 one directly below it. This is sometimes mosaic at Kingscote and covered by building
8 refered to as ‘the law of superposition’. But debris. The interpretation is that she was
9 life and archaeological sites are not usually one of a number of ‘squatters’ who occupied
the derelict villa building but was killed,
30 that simple. Archaeologists need to establish apparently trying to escape, when it
1 which layers overlie others and which cut into collapsed
2 earlier layers or are cut by later ones. Only by
3 posing and answering such questions then planning each layer and relating it into a vertical
4 sequence can a picture emerge of change and development on a site.
5
It is within the layers that the artefactual, environmental and dating evidence is located. They
6
are like a time capsule. Materials in any layer are likely to be broadly contemporary and can
7
be dated by association with dateable evidence from that layer. The layer holds the clues to the
8
immediate context of finds and structures. Plotting the position of each layer within the site
9
helps determine chronological patterns. Other archaeologists will use published data about the
40
stratification to assure themselves of the authenticity of the conclusions reached about phasing
1
on a site.
2
3111
40 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

KEY CONCEPT cont.

The key methods of publishing information about a site’s stratigraphy have long been via the
medium of section drawings (
see p. 48). While this is still quite prevalent, the Harris Matrix
(invented in 1973) has revolutionised the representation of the sequence of deposits by using
schematic diagrams. This recording system, which can apply equally to standing buildings or
rock art as to more traditional archaeological deposits, has been widely adopted. The Harris
Matrix website outlines its significance and provides a range of links. One key observation
made by Harris and previously not fully developed is the idea that boundaries between
elements of a section may be as significant as the layers themselves. His term for these
boundaries is ‘interfaces’ and in the schematic drawings these can be represented as ‘units of
stratification’.

http://www.harrismatrix.com

spilling over and contaminating deeper layers contexts in which the material is found. They
or burying the diggers. Although mechanical are collected in labelled ‘finds trays’ so that all
diggers are used for trial trenches, most the finds from each layer can be put together.
excavation is by hand. According to the time They will subsequently be washed, dried and
available and the nature of the deposits, tools coded to their particular layer for recording.
could range from shovels to dentistry
instruments for recovering tiny fragments of On the same sites less common objects like
material. The most familiar toolkit includes a metal, worked bone or stone will usually be
mattock, a short pointed trowel, a dustbrush, a classified as ‘small finds’ and a distinct and
coalshovel and a bucket. Eventually, and very more comprehensive recording system will
neatly, what was an archaeological resource will ensure that the precise location of each find is
have been converted into a hole in the ground. recorded in three dimensions by triangulation
The extracted evidence must be subjected to a and depth measurements. They are collected in
rigorous recording process or the excavation finds trays or plastic bags and given unique
will have destroyed the site and its potential. reference numbers. On a working floor
Recording requirements will vary for sites with associated with a prehistoric flint-knapper
less obvious collectable material or with careful plotting of each flake is necessary to
particular distributions of evidence. recreate the sequence of the earlier activity.
Sometimes their position in a layer is marked
Layers of deposits in the ground are by a small flag so that distribution patterns can
recognised, labelled and removed in sequence. be recorded. These finds will be kept separately
On many sites such as Roman or medieval and the nature and fragility of each object will
where pottery sherds and animal bones are determine their post-excavation scientific
common, their collection is linked to the treatment.
 EXCAVATION ■ 41

1111 Figure 2.13

2 Archaeologists
recording burials at
3 the Spitalfields site
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
201111 Figure 2.14 On
1 Palaeolithic sites,
2 the position of
each flake of
3 stone and each
4 animal bone is
5 carefully recorded
to provide
6 insights into
7 behaviour. This
8 ‘working floor’ at
Klithi has been
9
painstakingly
30 cleaned up prior
1 to recording
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Recovery of environmental material evidence such as snail shells, small fish or bird
9
bones, insect remains, seeds and pollen grains.
40 Not all the material to be retrieved can be
Not all of these are visible to the naked eye.
1 recovered by trowelling. The ground contains
Tiny fragments of metal or worked material
2 much smaller and less obvious evidence, in
such as flint or glass present the same problem.
3111 particular faunal (animal) and floral (plant)
42 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

This material can be recovered on-site by using

sieving or flotation or by taking strategically
selected soil samples for later analysis.

Buckets of spoil from the excavation, or a

sample, are tipped into a basic garden sieve and
riddled over a barrow to ensure that finds not
detected in the digging process are retrieved.
A series of sieves with increasingly finer mesh
improve collection chances and also collect
different sized material in each sieve. The
introduction of water to create ‘wet-sieving’,
whether by spray or dipping into a tank, helps
to remove the soil particles. Wet material is
often easier to identify and locate by colour
contrast.

Soil sampling
Some recovery of environmental remains
occurs off-site following the collection of soil
samples. These are taken from selected
locations such as pits, ditches or other similar
diagnostic features or layers. On peat sites,
long sampling tins are hammered vertically into
the sides of freshly dug sections, removed and Figure 2.15 Flotation bins used for separating
quickly sealed in plastic to avoid contami- ecofacts from soil samples
nation. They are then placed in cold storage
before detailed analysis in the laboratory.
Soil samples Film of oil to trap pollen
The pollens and plant remains in them will be Outflow
used to provide vegetation sequences and help
date the site. Soil may also be sampled for Bubbles Coarse
mesh
chemical analysis, particularly for phosphates carry small
particles up
(
see p. 15). Fine
mesh

Flotation
Water flow
This involves putting soil samples into water. Settling Drain
tank
Lighter materials such as plant remains float to Sludge
the surface while the soil drops to the bottom
Froth flotation can separate pollens and small
of the container. Improvements to this basic ecofacts and artefacts from soil samples.
methodology include adding oil to hold tiny Water pumped in
Sieving, using a series of different meshes is
particles on the surface and bubbling air from more appropriate for larger finds.
below the water to create a froth, which holds
and separates lighter organic material. Water is Figure 2.16 How a flotation bin works
 EXCAVATION ■ 43

1111 drained from the top through a sequence of

2 increasingly finely meshed sieves.
3
4 Metal detection
5 On some excavations, and directly under the
6 control of the director, it is appropriate to use
7 metal detectors. They can be employed as part
8 of the initial survey as a piece of geophysical
9 equipment but they can also be used to check
10 the spoil dump for finds. This would be
1 applicable if the site had been stripped by
2 machine rather than by hand or if soil removal
3 had been by pick and shovel without
4 subsequent sieving. Any such finds would be
5 classed as unstratified. Metal detectors can also
6 be used to alert diggers to potentially fragile
7 metal objects in areas they are trowelling.
8
9 In whatever way the finds are identified and
201111 collected it is vital that the methods used allow
1 their full potential to be exploited in post-
2 excavation analysis and dating procedures.
3 Individual directors of excavations have to
4 make valid decisions about the processes they
5 adopt in order to balance the needs of the dig
6 to make sufficient progress with the demands
7 of post-excavation studies.
8 Figure 2.17 A metal detector being used to
9 alert diggers to possible metal finds
WHAT RECORDS DO ARCHAEOLOGISTS
30
CREATE?
1
2 Different directors will approach the task of
3 recording, as they will the excavation itself,
4 from slightly different standpoints. But certain
5 common themes will feature: context sheets,
6 plans, sections, photographs, artefact collection
7 systems and, increasingly, the use of on-site
8 computer technology. They also make use of a
9 range of surveying equipment to plot the exact
40
1
Figure 2.18 (right) Close-up of a total station
2 that combines the functions of many surveying
3111 tools in one piece of equipment
44 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

SITE CODE:
CONTEXT RECORDING SHEET BGB95 Unique

U N IT
reference
AREA TRENCH: GRID SQUARE: INTERPRETATION CONTEXT No: numbers
Where 100/0105
found.
5/6 L/S FOUNDATIONS 266
Enables
horizontal DESCRIPTION : (COMPACTION : COLOUR : COMPOSITION : INCLUSIONS : THICKNESS & EXTENT
& ANY OTHER OBSERVATIONS
reconstruction
SINGLE COURSE OF ROUGHLY SQUARED AND FACED L/S BLOCKS RANGING IN
ARCHAEO L O G I CAL

SIZE FROM 260mm x 230mm x 80mm TO 680mm x 360mm x 80mm

WITH A CENTRAL CORE OF SMALLER IRREG-SHAPED L/S PCS AVE SIZE 170mm x Record of
170mm x 60mm ALIGNED N–S. NO OBVIOUS BONDING distinguising
features
DIMENSIONS N–S 4.8m REMAINING
E–W 1.00m
DEPTH 80mm

GRID CO-ORDINATE:

STRATIGRAPHICALLY: SAME AS 105

EARLIER THAN
This identifies
its place in
LATER THAN the sequence
of dsposits
3/5

COMMENTS / INTERPRETATION
L INCOLN

Identifies PLAN No’s: PHOTOGRAPH B/W No’s: SAMPLE: FINDS:

it on OTHER
site
OF

plan SECTION No’s PHOTOGRAPH COLOUR No’s: NONE GLASS

35/3/1–3, OTHER Links
POT ✓ METAL elsewhere in
SKETCH PLAN: MATRIX LOCATION:
BRICK/TILE B.M. the site
archive
CI TY

BONE WOOD
HIGHEST LEVEL O.D: LOWEST LEVEL O.D:
63.12m 62.98m IRON LEATHER

PROVISIONAL PERIOD: PHASE: CHECKED BY: RECORDED BY

DATE:
Y.R. 25/07/95

Enables vertical reconstruction

Figure 2.19 How to interpret a context sheet

 EXCAVATION ■ 45

1111 positions of finds and features. Alidades, plane They will be used in post-excavation analysis
2 tables and theodolites are still in use alongside to reconstruct the phases of use of the site and
3 Electronic Distance Measures (EDMs) but its features.
4 increasingly total stations are superseding
5 them.
Plans
6
7
Context sheets
8 Detailed plans are used to show the location
9 These provide detailed records of layers and and spread of features, artefacts and structures.
10 other elements of the stratigraphy of the site. Large-scale plans are used to illustrate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
201111
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40 Figure 2.20 Plan of an excavated round barrow at Lockington using the quadrant method of mound
1 removal. Circular features such as the surrounding ring ditch and palisade gully are revealed in each
quadrant. Eight narrow baulks are left for extra sections. A pit containing gold armlets was located on
2 the edge of the barrow. Although clearly important, no relationship could be established by the processes
3111 of excavation to link this pit and its contents to the barrow and the cremation burial below it
46 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

of some of the artefacts may be better

explained by a close-up drawing featuring,
perhaps, the chest area of the burial.

http://www.gla.ac.uk/archaeology/staff/

All these drawings relate to the fixed recording

grid on the site. Their position is plotted using
surveying equipment and their dimensions
carefully scaled onto paper. This usually
involves placing a gridframe over the feature to
Figure 2.21 Using a total station to rapidly assist the production of accurately measured
plot the position of finds. At Spitalfields, so drawings. Considerable effort after the
many skeletons were discovered that digital excavation often goes into producing cleaned
means of recording their position were used
up versions of these plans for publication.
Often finds and features will be plotted on a
individual features. For example, an excavation series of overlays related to soil and
of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery requires an overall topography. Increasingly, plans are plotted onto
plan to show the relationships between graves computers because of the flexibility in
and associated features. A detailed plan presenting data they allow. GIS is revolu-
drawing will be required of each individual tionising this process. Its 3D database enables
grave to show the position of skeletal remains the production of any section or plan and the
and the location of grave goods. The position testing of complex models.

Figure 2.22 Planning using both old and new technologies. The traditional grid frame has been placed
over the feature to assist drawing but context information is entered onto computer in the field
 EXCAVATION ■ 47

1111 Section drawings feature. For example, the relationship of a ‘post

2 pipe’ – the evidence for the location of the post
The sides of excavation trenches, strategically
3 itself – within a posthole and to any packing
placed baulks or cuts through the fill of
4 material is best related in drawn form. As with
features such as ditches, pits or postholes offer
5 plans, a key advantage of section drawings is
vertical slices through the constituent layers of
6 that they can highlight subtle differences in the
an archaeological site.
7 colour, texture or composition of layers. These
8 are difficult to pick up with photographs.
Although methods of recording the horizontal
9 Before drawing it is essential that the face of
spread and depth of each deposit have
10 the section is cleaned up and in some instances
improved over recent decades it still remains
1 sprayed with water to improve contrast.
true that an accurate scaled depiction of the
2 Munsell colour charts are sometimes used to
vertical relationship of layers is commonly used
3 enable specific and standardised descriptions.
to demonstrate the development of a site or
4
5 Where a section results from a continuous
6 period of excavation it may be some time
7 before it is ready for recording. Archaeologists
8 note the presence of layers as the dig proceeds
9 by pinning labels to the side of the excavation
201111 with context numbers to ensure that when the
1 section is drawn it is still possible to recognise
2 the finer points of the stratification. Such labels
3 are frequently seen on site photographs.
4
5 Once completed, drawings are usually
6 accompanied by an interpretation offered in
7 textual or schematic form such as the Harris
8 Matrix (
see p. 40). It must be stressed that
9 drawings are always interpretations and the
30 quality of on-site drawings does vary according
1 to the skill of the recorder and the conditions
2 they are working under. Back-up photographs
3 can provide an additional record.
4
5
Photographs
6
7 The camera is a key aid to recording although
8 many archaeologists observe that it is less
9 comprehensive in the detail it can show than
40 Figure 2.23 A section across an Iron Age the drawn record. Although rulers or ranging
1 ditch on Twyford Down. Each layer of soil has rods are usually seen in photographs to give an
been identified and labelled for recording by
2 drawing. These layers are not immediately idea of scale, distances are distorted and film
3111 obvious in a photograph cannot be used to provide precise
48 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

Figure 2.24 A quartered round barrow seen in profile. The picture also shows the familiar wheelbarrow
runs used to remove spoil from the excavation itself

Figure 2.25 A section drawing of Trowse Round Barrow. This barrow has two incomplete ditches
surrounding it. The main composite cross-section shows the inner ditch twice, the outer ditch once and
several other features. The inner and outer ditch sections are enlarged to give greater detail. A key is
provided to demonstrate the soil types present. Reproduced with the permission of the copyright holder
Norfolk Archaeology & Environment Division
 EXCAVATION ■ 49

1111 measurements. The camera clearly offers the SPECIAL CASES

2 chance of accurate views of features and
Most of the points in this chapter apply to all
3 sections whereas the draughtsperson can
sites but there are other issues that apply to
4 accentuate elements that the camera might
particular types of sites.
5 obscure, for example similar coloured soils
6 which have different textures. The camera also
7 provides back up in case the drawings are poor. Recording standing buildings
8 The two methods complement each other and
Although the usual rules of stratigraphy may
9 both are normally used.
not entirely apply, one of the objectives of
10
recording is to enable the developmental
1 The essence of site photography lies in
sequence of the building to be traced. Details
2 ensuring that the parts to be captured on film
of the fabric and construction of the building,
3 are clean, edges of individual structures or
alterations and dating evidence are gathered
4 bones are well established, a scale is in shot,
through drawing and photography. Buildings
5 and careful spraying is used to accentuate
are often drawn stone by stone using grids as
6 coloration changes and contrasts. It may be
the completed drawing can often reveal
7 appropriate to have some site/feature reference
patterns not obvious to the naked eye. This can
8 codes included in the photograph. The use of
be supplemented by photogrammetry. EDMs
9 photographic towers or other means to get a
have made the task of measuring buildings
201111 camera above the excavation is common.
much swifter while computer-aided design
1 Vertical photographs with scales can be used as
(CAD) enables 3D presentations of the results.
2 an aid in the creation of plans.
3
4 Developments in digital photography are being
Archaeology of standing buildings
5 incorporated into archaeological recording
6 systems. Many archaeologists continue to use In ‘traditional’ archaeology interpretation of
7 black and white prints for contrast while excavated evidence relies on the basic principle
8 colour slides help form the basis of lectures. that the deeper the deposit, the earlier it is –
9 Increasingly, directors employ video as a the basis of relative dating by stratigraphy.
30 support to the site diary, thus capturing details Although standing buildings require a different
1 of features and colours. Digital cameras and approach to their study, the basic principles
2 videos enable the excavation experience to be remain the same. Where a feature has been
3 shared online. inserted into an existing one (for example a
4 window or door inserted into a standing wall)
5 http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/ it follows that the inserted feature is later than
6 field_proj/scat/ that into which it was inserted. Similarly, later
7 http://www.woodnet.org.uk/woodlandweb/ walls may be of different construction to the
8 enjoy/excavat.htm original or may be butt-jointed (simply butted
9 up against earlier walls rather than properly
40 bonded). All of these clues help archaeologists
1 to build up a sequence of development in the
2 same way as on an excavation. Recording
3111 standing buildings may involve reconnaissance
50 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

Figure 2.26
Medieval Hall in
Stroud: a standing
building which was
properly recorded prior
to redevelopment

Figure 2.27
Plan of the
ground floor at
Medieval Hall, Stroud.
The archaeologists have
identified features of the
building by date to
enable the sequence of
construction and
alteration to be
interpreted
 EXCAVATION ■ 51

1111 techniques (
see p. 10), dismantling, excavation for excavation, conservation and post-
2 or a combination of these approaches. The excavation analysis on wetland sites need to
3 amount of information which may be take into account the time and cost of dealing
4 recovered from a building will depend on many with additional evidence as well as the
5 factors. Cosmetic renovation of a structure may particular problems associated with
6 give only a few clues (for example glimpses waterlogged sites. In particular there are often
7 beneath floor boards or behind small areas of large quantities of environmental material,
8 plaster) whereas a building undergoing especially plant remains. While the complete
9 substantial alterations or even demolition will removal of all material for close examination is
10 be far more exposed to study. The aim should not usually a viable proposition much emphasis
1 be to identify the earliest structural remains on is put on the selection of large numbers of
2 the site and then, having plotted them, begin samples of site deposits for laboratory analysis.
3 to add in later stages of development. Once out of water, organic material will be
4 Additions or changes to a building are never stored in tanks of water prior to conservation
5 random: they will always serve a clear purpose
6 which archaeologists try to detect, for example
7 the extending of a room or rebuilding of a
8 façade.
9
201111 The recording of standing buildings should be
1 every bit as rigorous as the recording of an
2 excavation. Alongside drawings and written
3 descriptions a full photographic record should
4 be maintained, indicating scale and the exact
5 point on a master plan from which the view
6 was taken, along with any other relevant
7 information. Sampling should include examples
8 of different mortars and plasters. Substantial
9 timbers may be sampled for
30 dendrochronology.
1
2
Wetland archaeology
3
4 Waterlogged sites are where the natural water
5 table has maintained a wet or damp
6 environment since the deposition of the
7 evidence. They have been a major factor in
8 adding to our knowledge of past cultures.
9 Anaerobic conditions, which prevent or Figure 2.28 Salvage excavation at a wetland
40 impede normal bacterial and chemical decay site. Three Iron Age boats were unexpectedly
1 processes, can result in widespread survival of uncovered at Holme Pierrepoint. The
archaeologists had to rapidly excavate them
2 organic material such as wood, leather and before decay or mechanical diggers destroyed
3111 textiles which would normally perish. Strategies them
52 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

by, for example, treatment with polyethyl- understanding was derived to lead to full
eneglycol (PEG) or freeze-drying to prevent excavation. Where little or no wooden remains
rapid decay. are present and finds are in a dispersed state,
plans are drawn and trial trenches excavated to
The consequence is that while the information determine the extent of the deposits.
from ‘wet’ sites is considered a real bonus in
archaeological study, the costs of obtaining it http://www.arch.sotonriac.uk/Research/
considerably outstrip those of excavating ‘dry’ justin/saxon%20fisheries.html
sites. http://www.abc.se/~m10354/uwa/

Unlike ‘dry’ sites where you can walk carefully http://www.maryrose.org/

across the site, pressure on wetland deposits
can cause considerable damage. Excavators at http://www.culture.fr/culture/archeosm/
Flag Fen erected a series of platforms on en/archeosm.htm
scaffolding to allow diggers to lie above the
features they were excavating. Such restriction Removal of spoil can employ a combination
to movement makes digging, cleaning, planning of hand movement and water dispersal but
and photography all the more difficult. special tools are usually required. A water
lance can shred sediment while a range of
water vacuum cleaners can help excavate
http://www.crannog.co.uk/
spoil and keep a site clear of sediment for
recording. Objects may have suffered
corrosion and created concretions that need
Underwater archaeology
to be broken apart. Decisions have to be
Although underwater sites follow the same made as to whether to use hammer and chisel
basic rules as dry sites – the need for survey, below water or to bring the whole mass to
careful excavation and recording – being below the surface. Ordinary finds are placed in open
water presents additional challenges. The containers, fragile finds in sealed ones and
excavators usually require watertight diving larger objects lifted by the use of inflated air
suits, air tanks and weights. In extreme depths bags. As with waterlogged sites, organic
remotely controlled vehicles may be used. In material is susceptible to damage if it is
addition to underwater hazards, cold temper- allowed, even briefly, to dry out during
atures may make it difficult to remain excavation. Once such material is removed
stationary for long periods while poor visibility from the water it must be quickly put into
may require excavation using touch rather than appropriate storage.
sight!
Plastic 2 × 2 or 4 × 4 metre recording grids are
To inform excavation strategy a form of set out and the usual land-based methods of
sampling is often employed to gain a feel for planning, context sheets and photography
the site. One example of this is the Tudor employed where possible. Synthetic paper
warship the Mary Rose whose position and enables ordinary pens to be used underwater.
condition was examined and investigated for Photography is likely to be limited to close-up
several years before a full enough shots or carefully rigged photogrammetry rather
 EXCAVATION ■ 53

1111 5
2 4
3 7
3 6
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 1
8 2 6 1
9
Key
201111 1 Pipe sucking sediment and spoil away
1 2 Laminated recording sheets
2 3 Suspended polythene tube grids
3 4 Finds box
4 5 Ranging pole
5 6 Water lance and tube
6 7 Section (close-up below)
7 8 Organic materials
8
9
30
1 Figure 2.29 Diagram illustrating some of the
2 equipment used in underwater archaeology
(after Thomasen in Andersen 1985)
3
4
5 than general views. One advantage of under- archaeologists working on urban sites face very
6 water excavation is that the archaeologist can different challenges.
7 cross the site without treading on a trowelled
8 surface! In urban areas open ground is at a premium
9 and so it is usually the clearance of a site for
40 development that provides archaeological
Urban archaeology
1 opportunities. The area involved is often tightly
2 While it is clear that there is a great variety in constrained by other buildings and therefore
3111 the nature of archaeological sites in rural areas, only parts of buried sites are available for
54 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

study. These do not necessarily correspond to

areas which archaeologists would choose if
KEY TASK
they were making the site selection on
academic grounds, a good example of rescue Comparative study of survey and
archaeology being dictated by developer excavation methods
activity. Such excavations are like keyholes into
Take either an excavation report or an
the past because a full view cannot be obtained.
article from Current Archaeology, British
The depth of stratification is usually much
Archaeology or Rescue News. Make notes
greater than on rural sites because of frequent
under the following headings:
reuse of the same site over time. It is particu-
larly difficult to forecast the range of features, ■ Name of site
that will be encountered and the time it will ■ Reason for excavation
take to excavate them all properly. Deep ■ Was this a research, rescue or salvage
excavation also presents additional safety excavation?
hazards. ■ Source of funding
■ Prior knowledge of site and survey
Survey methods applicable to rural sites such as methods employed prior to excavation
aerial photography and many of the ■ Style and strategy of excavation
geophysical procedures are ineffectual or ■ Key finds
inappropriate in preparatory work. Indeed, at a ■ Post-excavation scientific activity
large excavation in London at Number 1, ■ Dating methods employed
Poultry in the 1990s the evaluation consisted
If a group of students follow this
of a desktop survey and four shafts between
information gathering process, valuable
3 m and 5 m deep to reach the top of the
comparative data will emerge to inform
discussion on a series of key issues relating
to current practice in archaeology.

natural geology. These gave indications of the

sequences and structures which might be
encountered. The excavation also produced
‘wet’ archaeology including about 1,500 datable
(by dendrochronology) Roman timbers. This
extensive urban excavation (the on-site budget
exceeded £2m) continued for twelve months
under the construction of the new building.
Normally archaeologists have to complete their
Figure 2.30 The excavation of human remains work before the building contractors arrive on
increasingly raises ethical questions for site.
archaeologists. What ethical issues do you think
are raised by the excavation and disposal of
human remains from sites such as Spitalfields?
 EXCAVATION ■ 55

1111
2
KEY SKILL
3
4 Tackling structured, source-based questions
5
These questions are found at GCSE, AS and some A Level papers. You may also have to
6
analyse sites in a similar way at university. At GCSE you will have one source per set of
7
questions, at AS and beyond you will usually have several sources to work with at the same
8
time. These will be drawn from archaeological plans, sections, illustrations, tables, maps,
9
photographs and reports. Four common areas are outlined below. Two essential pieces of
10
equipment which you can take into the exam are a ruler and a magnifying glass. Be sure to
1
use them.
2
3
Interpreting plans
4
5 Begin with an accurate description of the relevant sites, features and artefacts in order to build
6 up a picture of overall function or changes. You should consider:
7
■ size
8
■ orientation
9
■ spatial distribution of features
201111
■ phases of use: discuss any stratigraphic evidence for different periods of activity
1
■ assess individual features to identify site function
2
■ boundaries: are they defensive or just a demarcation line – a physical or a spiritual barrier
3
or both?
4
5 When you discuss these, refer to context numbers where they are given.
6
7 Interpreting aerial photographs
8
Read all the questions concerned with these first. They will probably ask about method as well
9
as interpretation and you need to match the right response to a question. For interpretation
30
start by describing what you can see. Is it a cropmark, soil mark or shadows? What size and
1
shape is it? Is it a boundary, structure or some other type of feature. How is it aligned?
2
Only when you have done this, suggest specific site or period. This way you will get some marks
3
even where you get it wrong. Questions about the method will usually require an account of
4
why features are visible and can be recorded and why they do not show up in all areas
5
(
see pp. 20–3).
6
7
Appraising methods
8
9 You need to understand the basic techniques for each type of material you are likely to be
40 tested on, for example stone, pottery, metal, and what it can tell us. Ensure you know the main
1 principles and some of their strengths and limitations. In the case of dating and reconnaissance
2 methods it is sensible to test yourself on their application to different types of material and
3111 sites. In all cases, one good example is useful.
56 ■ ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEBOOK

KEY SKILL cont.

Interpreting organic remains

Questions are usually about what could be learned in a general sense from the remains. To do
this you need to be familiar with common ways of presenting such data and what terms such
as MNI mean. Before you attempt this always consider the size of the sample. Are there
sufficient examples to say much at all? Also comment on their survival: why have they survived
and in what ways may they have been transformed by taphonomic forces (
see p. 97)?

Chapters 3 and 4. The eventual outcome of the

Current Archaeology 143 and 158
excavation used to be a full excavation report
http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ with text on the features and structures,
MOLsite/forum/spital0.html catalogues and drawings of finds and
specialists’ reports. Today the emphasis is on
http://www.molas.org.uk/
producing a quality ‘archive’ which can then be
adapted as appropriate into reports, more
popular publications or to provide research
AFTER EXCAVATION opportunities. Increasingly records are stored
Once the digging is completed attention digitally which offers tremendous potential for
switches to the laboratories and the processing disseminating data to different audiences in
of finds and site records. This is dealt with in different ways.

KEY TASK
Test your understanding of
methods
Examine the diagrams from an
excavated site at Gamston. Figure
2.31 contrasts what was seen in
aerial photographs and after
excavation.
1a Why would this site have shown
up from the air? 2 mks
1b Why is there a difference
between what can be seen in
Figure 2.31 Gamston drawing 1. Gamston was an Iron Age
the two diagrams? 6 mks settlement and field system in the Trent Valley
 EXCAVATION ■ 57

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2
KEY TASK cont.
3
4 Test your understanding
5 of methods
6
7 Now examine Figure 2.32
8
1c What information did
9
the archaeologists
10
need to have in order
1
to construct these
2
diagrams? 8 mks
3
4 Suggested markscheme on
5
p. 305.
6
7
8
9
201111
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6 Figure 2.32 Gamston
7 drawing 2
8
9
40
1
2
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