Dredgers and Archaeology - Shipfinds From The Slufter

DREDGERS AND ARCHAEOLOGY:
Shipfinds from the Slufter
rERlE VAN WE1 N, \1

DREDGERS A N D ARCHAEOLOGY
J. Adams
A. F. L. van Holk
Th. J. Maarleveld
Archeologie onder water,

2e onderzoeksrapport
Ministerie van Welzijn,
Volksgezondheid en Cultuur
Alphen aan den Rijn

1990
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Grootschalige locatie voor de berging van

baggerspecie uit het benedenrivierengebied.
Initiative:
Gemeente Rotterdam
Rijkswaterstaat
Provincie Zuid-Holland
mei 1990
Two versions of this report, fitting in different series and
thus with different covers but otherwise indentical are
published by:
Projectorganisatie Grootschalige locatie

Gemeente Rotterdam
Rijkswaterstaat
Provincie Zuid-Holland
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Grootschalige locatie voor de berging van baggerspecie uit
het benedenrivierengebied
Correspondence:
Dienst van Gemeentewerken
Galvanistraat 15
Postbus 6633
3002 AP Rotterdam
Afdeling Archeologie Onder water

Ministerie van Welzijn, Volksgezondheid en Cultuur
as
OREDGERSANDARCHAEOLOGY
ISBN 90-800467-1-X
This second version can be ordered by giro transfer of

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary
Samenvatting
Introduction
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
1. Preliminary archaeological survey of t h e Slufter p r o j e c t

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to the area
1.3 Geological survey
1.4 Historical information
1.5 Potential for archaeological sites
1.6 Conclusions and a line of action
1.7 Changes in planning
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
1. Wrecksite S L 1
1.1 Circumstances of discovery
1.1.1 The first hit
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand extraction
1.1.4 On-site inspection
1.2 Description of the recovered remains
1.2.1 The ship
1.2.2 Ship's fittings
1.2.3 Associated finds
1.3 Analyses
1.3.1 Dendrochronological analysis
1.3.2 Caulking and luting materials
1.4 Evaluation
1.4.1 The site
1.4.2 The ship
2. Wrecksite S L 2
2.3 Analyses
2.4 Evaluative considerations
3. Wrecksite S L 3
3.3 Analyses
3.4 Conclusions
4. Wrecksite SL 4
4.1.1 The first hit
4.1.3 Considerations and decisions
4.1.4 Clearance
4.1.5 Renewed considerations
4.2.1 The ship
4.3 Analyses
4.3.1 Wood species
4.3.4 Copper alloys
4.3.5 Coal
4.4 Evaluation
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 The site
4.4.3 The ship and its construction
4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and ship type
4.4.6 The cargo
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck
4.5 Conclusion
5. Wrecksite SL 5
5.3 Analyses
5.4 Discussion
6. Wrecksite SL 6
7. Miscellaneous finds
EVALUATION
1. Dredgers a n d archaeology
2. Objectives a n d planning
3. Prospects
4. G e n e r a l a p p r o a c h a n d limitations
4.1 Formal setting
4.2 Technical scope
4.3 Methods
5. Results
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Direct results
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding
5.2.2 Wrecksites and site formation
5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
5.3 Experience
6. Recommendations
APPENDICES
Appendix I Introduction to dendrochronological analysis 157

Appendix I1 Selection of historical documents that are relevant to the study 161
of the ship at SL 4
Appendix 111 Conservation and artefact filing 167
Glossary 169
Verklarende woordenlijst 18 1
References 191
Acknowledgements 197
SUMMARY
In September 1987 the Slufter, a large scale It did not predict what would be found during
disposal site for contaminated dredged construction, but it indicated possibilities as
material adjacent to the Maasvlakte was put well as sensitive areas. On the one hand it
into use. Its realization had taken eighteen showed large sequences of sediments to be
months of dredging and construction and archaeologically sterile, thereby considerably
many years of preparation. Through its reducing the extent of sediments deserving
realization the environmental problems of the archaeological attention. On the other hand it
storage of contaminated material which must opened the possibility to set priorities by
continuously be dredged from the channels making the archaeological potential explicit.
and basins of the port of Rotterdam in order to A line of action deployed on the basis of this
guarantee its accessability, were alleviated for preliminary survey set the terms for
the mid term. This, however, was not its only appropriate action to various kinds of
result. A work of this magnitude has many discovery:
side-effects. Most of these were thoroughly archaeological attention would be
studied in advance and an Environmental focused on shipwreck-sites;
Impact Statement [E.I.S.] was part of the wreck-sites related to a navigation
decision-making procedure. The present channel which had passed North of
report deals with archaeology, an aspect the area from medieval times onwards
which was not considered at the time but were deemed to deserve more care
which has been given ample consideration than wreck-sites relating to a channel
since it was pointed to at the end of E.I.S. to the South which came into use in
procedure. the 18th century;
Realization of the Slufter inter alii implied wreck-sites containing considerable
that 37 million m' of sediments which had remains in structural cohesion were
been deposited in the outer delta of the deemed to deserve more attention
RhineIMeuse estuary would be moved and than dispersed sites;
thus loose their original integrity. On the face all on-site archaeological work had to
of it this may not seem very significant. be practicable and reasonable within
However such earth-moving will also the limitations set by the construction
obliterate any data relating to the formation of project;
the area which can be derived from its it would be made possible by a
original stratigraphy as well as any data or flexible approach to the order of
remains relating to its former use by man. It is construction;
an aspect which will easily attract attention overall delays had to be avoided but
whenever visible remains and monuments optimal opportunities for on-site
outcrop at the surface but which is of equal observations would be created by
importance when the cultural heritage is tackling the most sensitive areas first.
buried in deep sediments. In this dynamic set-up it was essential that a
To accomodate for archaeology - for quick assessment of any discovery could be
preservation of the cultural heritage - in a made by on-site archaeological staff.
large-scale dredging project is not an easy The principle aim of the archaeological
task. One of the main problems in planning is endeavour was to document what would
that the cultural values involved are not otherwise be lost.
known in advance. Paradoxically it is just the Although the preliminary survey and the line
fact that any vestiges and remains are of action were completed in advance of the
undisturbed and thus unknown that actual start of construction, no agreement had
determines their potentially great value. In the been reached as to which authority was to
Slufter project this basic problem was bear the extra cost of the archaeological
considerably reduced by a preliminary survey. survey. A factor which indubitably explains
SUMMARY
part of the reticence at this stage was the lack the Slufter was documentation, and
of tangible evidence referred to above. The documentation is its main result. This applies
municipality of Rotterdam provided the most to the sites mentioned in this summary as well
necessary means in advance after the first as to the other dispersed discoveries. Both the
wreck-sites had actually been found. scale of the project and the attempt to
While sketching the preparatory phase as well integrate measures for archaeological
as outlining the difficulties encountered the recording into its organisation are unusual.
present report is mainly concerned with the All in all it resulted in new information on
archaeological documentation and research as shipping and shipbuilding, wreck-sites and
such. In total six wreck-sites were discovered site formation as well as the geology and the
in the dredged area. One site [SL 21 might be geographical history of the area. All this
of medieval date, the others are younger. information would have been lost if no
Subsequent research proved three sites [SL 1, attempt had been made to document it.
SL 3, SL 51 to have formed after the same Although far from advertising dredging as an
wrecking event, even though they are over archaeological technique the report concludes
1 km apart. The remains discovered indicate a that dredgers and archaeology should not be
medium sized vessel which wrecked late in treated as two incompatible phenomena.
the 18th century. Its study and recording Wherever there are clear indications that [as
showed interesting detail in the construction yet unknown] archaeological values are
of this typical Dutch-built vessel. Part of its threatened by large scale marine engineering
fittings, rig and inventory could also be this should be taken into consideration. A
documented. preliminary survey, a clear line of action and
A slightly younger wreck was found at site priorities set in advance will make an effort
SL 4. It was preserved virtually complete and for archaeological documentation quite
must have gone down during or around the manageable and will considerably reduce the
1840's. In the light of its relative young date, risk of unanticipated discoveries. If sensitive
the complexity of excavating a complete ship areas are to be dredged the experience of the
and the priorities set in the line of action the Slufter-project has shown that flexibility and
site as such was abandoned archaeologically. a few basic requirements for timely
However the study of a large hull section assessment and recording may safeguard
which was raised during clearance operations valuable information. However, there should
proved most rewarding. It showed a vessel of be agreement in advance on the way in which
north-eastern English build engaged in the the unavoidable costs will be met.
coaltrade with Rotterdam. Although quite
common in its day it represents a class of
vessel on which historical data is far from
complete. Its study provides detailed and
accurate information on its construction.
Integration of these archaeological data in the
aggregate knowledge of early 19th century
shipbuilding and the collier-trade showed it to
be particularly rewarding with respect to
constructional detail and a better
understanding of long term development. For
one thing it provided information on aspects
that were never written down. For another it
provides a valuable means of cross-checking
between historical documentation where it
appears to be comprehensive and reality as
demonstrated by the archaeological remains.
It shows assertions to be generalisations or
simply incorrect. It also elucidates aspects
which are equivocal in the archival record.
By providing a clue to historical documents it
thus augments our knowledge of early 19th
century shipbuilding far more than one might
anticipate.
However the main purpose of the
archaeological work during the realization of
SUMMARY
SAMENVATTING
Aan de westzijde van de Maasvlakte is in zee te voren bekend is om welke culturele

de Slufter aangelegd, de grootschalige locatie waarden het gaat, maakt het bijzonder lastig.
voor de berging van baggerspecie uit het Paradoxaal genoeg draagt juist het feit dat de
benedeizrivierengebied. Na vele jaren van sporen en resten voorheen onberoerd zijn en
voorbereiding en achttien maanden baggeren dus princ~pieelonbekend, in belangrijke mate
en bollwen kon deze stortplaats in september brj aan de potentiele archeologische waarde
1987 in gebrurk worden gesteld. Er is van het gebied. Bij het Slufter-project is dit
daarmee voor de middellange termijn een zoveel mogelijk ondei-vangen door een
milieuhygieniscl~verantwoorde oplossing vooronderzoek. Hoewel niet in detail kon
gekomen voor de problemen van her-ging van worden voorspeld wat er gevonden zou
verontreinigd havenslib dat bij voortduring worden kon we1 worden aangegeven wat de
uit de Rotterdamse havens moet worden mogelijkheden waren en welke gebieden
gebaggerd om deze op diepte te houden. Dat bijzondere aandacht behoefden. Van grote
is echter niet het enige resultaat, want een pakketten afzettingen kon worden vastgesteld
werk van deze omvang heeft vele dat deze vanuit archeologisch oogpunt als
neveneffecten. In de voorbereidingsfase zijn steriel konden worden beschouwd, waardoor
veel van deze aspecten onder de loupe het aandachtsgebied aaizzienlijk kon worden
genomen en in de besluitvormingsprocedure verkleind. Bovendien maakte het
was een milieu-effectrapportage [M.E.R.] vooi-onderzoek het mogelijk om prioriteiten re
opgenomen. Het voorliggende rapport is stellen, doordat het inzicht gaf in het
gewijd aan de archeologie. Dat is een aspect archeologisch potentieel.
dat indertijd buiten beschouwing is gebleven, Op basis van het vooronderzoek werd een
nlaar dat ruime aandacht heeft gekregerz sinds plan van aanpak opgesteld, waarin bepaaald
het 01) 11et eind van de M.E.R.-procedure werd wat er re doeri stond bij welk type
onder de aandacht is gebracht. ontdekking:
De aanleg vaii de Slufter betekende onder de aandacht van archeologische zijde
meer dat 37 miljoen m3sediment in de zou worden beperkt tot
voordelta vaii Rijn en Maas zou worden scheepsvondsten;
vergraven en daarniee zijn oorspronkelijke aan eventuele scheepsvondsten die in
samenhang zou verliezen. Op het eerste verband konden wordeii gebracht met
gezicht lijkt dat misschien niet zo bijzonder, de vaargeul die vanaf de
maar door dat graafwerk wordt ook alle Middeleeuwen aan de noordzijde
iiiforniatie uitgewist die men aan de lungs het gebied had gelopen zou
grondlagen kan ontlenen. Enerzijds gaat lzet meer aandacht worden besteed dun
daarbij on? informatie over de opbouw en het aan scheepsvondsten die verband
ontstaan vaii het gebied zelfen anderzijds om houden met de zuidelijk gelegen geul,
spore11 en overblrj~selendie inzicht kunnen die in de 18e eeuw irz gebruik is
verschaffen over de wijze waarop de mens het genomen;
gebied in vroeger tijd heeft gebruikt. Het zijn er zou meer aandacht worden besteed
aspecten die onmiddellijk in het oog springen aan vindplaatsen met grote delen van
wanneer er overblijfselen en n~olzumentenaan een scheepsromp, dun aan
ket bodemoppervlak zichtbaar zijn, maar die vindplaatsen met verspreid, 10s
van even groot belang zijn wanneer het materiaal;
cultureel erfgoed schuil gaat onder dikke het archeologisch veldwerk diende
lagen sediment. doeltreffend te zijn en praktisch
Bij grootschalige zandwinning rekening uitvoerbaar binnen de beperkingen
houdeiz met de archeologie - met als doe1 het van het project;
cultureel erfgoed te behouden - is geen het veldwerk zou mogelijk worden
gemakkeljke taak. Vooral het feit dat niet van gemaakt door plooibaarheid en
SAMENVATTING
flexibiliteit in de volgorde van de vindplaats archeologisch op te geven. Toen de
. zandwinning;
vertraging in de totale uitvoering van
vindplaats vervolgens werd geruimd kwam
een groot rompfragment als E'E'n geheel hovetl
het werk diende te worden vermeden, water en bleek het toch zeer de moeite waai-d
maar optimale condities voor het dit te bestuderen. Het gaat om een schip dat
doen van archeologische in Noordoost-Engeland is gebouwd en dat
waarnemingen zouden worden met kolen op Rotterdam voer.
geschapen door de belangrijkste Hoewel het indertijd een zeer alledaags schip
gebieden het eerste aan te pakken. moet zijn geweest zijn de historlsche gegevens
In deze clynamische benadering was het van over dit soort schepen verre van volledig.
essentieel belang dat iedere ontdekking Het onderzoek heeft gedetailleerde en
onmiddellijk ter plaatse op waarde geschat nauwkeurige gegevens opgeleverd over de
kon worden door archeologen. De bouwwijze. Het combineren van deze
voornaamste doelstelling van de archeologische gegevens met hetgeen reeds
archeologische inspanningen was om vast te bekend is over 19e-eeuwse scheepsbouw en
leggen wat anders verloren zou gaan. kolenhandel bleek zeer verhelderend.
Het vooronderzoek en het plan van aanpak Enerzijds gaat het daarbij om zaken
waren voltooid voordat met de aanleg werd waarover nooit geschreven is en bovendien
begonnen, maar er was geen levert her waardevolle gegevens om de
overeenstemming over de vraag welke uitgebreide historische docurnentatie te
instelling de kosten zou moeten dragen die toetsen aan de werkelijkheid, zoals die in de
met het archeologische onderzoek waren archeologische overblijyselen besloten ligt.
gemoeid. De terughoudendheid die in dit Stellige beweringen blijken daarbij
stadiunl werd betracht valt zonder twijjel generalisaties of domweg onjuist. Bovendien
voor een deel te verklaren uit het feit dat werpt het onderzoek llcht op aspecten die uit
tastbare aanwijzingen ontbraken, een het archiefmateriaal otzduidelijk of cryptisch
prohleem waar hierboven a1 op werd naar voren komen. Doordat het op die wijze
gewezen. Nadat de eerste historische schepen een sleutel vormt tot historische documenten
daadwerkelijk waren gevonden heeft de draagt het veel meer bij tot onze kennis van
gemeetzte Rotterdam de meest noodzakelijke de 19e-eeuwse scheepsbouw dan men zou
financien ter heschikking gesteld. verwachten.
Hoewel rle voorbereidingen, maar ook de Ondanks dit alles was de belangrijkste
moeilijkheden die het hoofd moesten worden doelstelling van het archeologisch onderzoek
geboden in grove lijnen worden geschetst is tijdens de aanleg van de Slufter om vast te
dit rapport eerst en vooral gewijd aan de leggen wat verloren zou gaan, en dat is ook
archeologie zelf, de documentatie en het het voornaamste resultaat. Zowel de schaal
onderzoek. In totaal werden tijdens het werk van het project als de poging om
op zes plaatsen sclzeepsresten gevonden. EE'n archeologisch onderzoek in te passen in
van de vindplaatsen [SL 21 zoil middeleeuws planning en organisatie van baggerwerk zijtz
kunnen zijn, de overige zijn van later datum. ongebruikelijk. Het heeft geresulteerd in
Het onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat drie nieuwe gegevens over scheepvaart en
vindplaatsen [SL 1, SL 3 , SL 51 resten scheepsbouw, over schipbreuk en
bevatten van &inen hetzelfde schip, hoewel wrakvorrnitzg en over de geologie en
zij meer dun een kilometer uiteen liggen. Het geografische geschiedenis van het betreffencle
gaat om een middelgroot schip clat op het gebied. A1 die gegevens zouden zijn verloi-en
eind van de 18e eeuw moet zijn vergaan en als de poging om ze vast te leggen acl~terwege
dat op typisch Nederlandse wijze is gebouwd. was gebleven.
Het onderzoek heeft hzerover interessante Hoewel het zeker nief de bedoeling is om de
details aan het licht gebracht. Ook konden bagggertechniek als een bruikhare
delen van de uitrusting, de tuigage en de archeologische opgravingsmethode te
scheepsinventaris worden vastgelegd. propageren besluit het rapport met de stelling
Van iets later datum is het schip dat op dat zandzcligers en at-cheologie toch niet als
vindplaats SL 4 werd aatzgetroffen. Het was twee volstrekt onverenigbare grootheden
zo goed als volledig behouden en moet moeten worden gezlen. Wanneer er ergens
omstreeks de jaren 1840 zijn gezonken. De duiclelijke aanwijzingen zijn dat vooralst~og
rela fief jonge datering, de problemen die onbekende archeologische waarden worden
rijzen bij her opgraven van een compleet bedi-eigd door grootschalige
schip en de prioriteiten die in het plan van waterbouwkundige projecten, dienf daaraan
aanpak waren gesteld noopten ertoe de de nodige aandacht te woi-den gegeven. Een
SAMENVATTING
vooronderzoek, een plan van aanpak en
duidelijk gestelde prioriteiten maken een
verantwoorde archeologische documentatie
beheersbaar. De kans dat men tijdens het
werk onvoorbereid wordt geconfronteerd met
archeologische ontdekkingen, waarvan
vertragingen van het project het gevolg
kunnen zijn, wordt daardoor aanzienlijk
verkleind. De ervaring van het Slufterproject
heeft geleerd dat, wanneer in potentieel
belangrijk sediment wordt gebaggerd,
~~aardevolle gegevens kunnen worden veilig
gesteld door eenflexibele opstelling en een
paar basisvoorzieningen om ontdekkingen
rijdig op hun ~ ~ a a r te
d eschatten. Van groot
belang is daarbij dat er op voorhand
overeenstemming is over definanciering.
SAMENVATTING
INTRODUCTION
The present report is the result of disposal of dredged sludge], set up in 1975,
archaeological research carried out as part of has devised short-term and longer term
a large marine dredging project: the policies for the issue. In accordance with
realisation of a large-scale disposal site for these policies the Municipality of Rotterdam,
contaminated dredged material, the so-called the Ministry of Transport and Public Works
Slufter project. The site is situated to the West and the Public Authority Rijnmond [now
of Rotterdam, adjacent to the Maasvlakte Provincial Executive of South-Holland]
[fig. 11. announced their intention to solve the issue in
Dredgers and archaeology do not combine medium-range planning through the
easily. Even on dry land the combination of realisation of a large-scale disposal site. A
archaeological and engineering interests is not range of preliminary studies have resulted in
always an easy one. Nevertheless a successful an Environmental Impact Statement [E.I.S.]
tradition of incorporation of archaeology in in 1984 [Gemeente Rotterdam et al. 19841.
planning has developed [Klok 1987; After an extensive decision-making process
Maarleveld 19891. In a marine situation both the necessary concession and permits were
the scope of works, the machinery used and granted for the realisation of alternative I11 as
the complexity of archaeological recording described in the E.I.S. An optimization study
tend to be bigger, and so are the difficulties successively resulted in a final plan in
that are to be met. November 1985 [Gemeente Rotterdam et al.
It is thus quite understandable that 1985b1 [fig. 21.
archaeology in a rescue situation under water In short the plan implies that the seabed
has so far largely remained untrodden ground. adjacent to the Maasvlakte is locally
Nevertheless the ever growing extent of excavated to a depth of 28 m. The extracted
dredging activities and their utterly sand is used in the construction of a dike
destructive effects on archaeological deposits around the site to a height of 23 m. In total
are to be given serious consideration. In the 37 million m3 of earth are moved. The dike
present project a discreet attempt has been encircles an area of 260 ha. The depot has a
made to do so. As befits such an enterprise volume of 90 million m3. Over the years
strong emphasis was lain on recording what 150 million m' of uncompacted sludge can be
would otherwise be lost. This implied a accommodated, sufficient to bridge a fifteen
flexible approach to any discoveries that were year period [I987 - 20021. Started in May
made. 1986 the construction was finished at a great
pace. In September 1987 the disposal site was
Slufter project put into use.
The accessibility of the port of Rotterdam has
to be guaranteed by continuous maintenance Preliminary archaeological survey
of appropriate waterdepth in the Lower Rhine During the process of decision-making on the
reaches. Annually some 23 million m3 of realisation of a large-scale disposal site
sludge is dredged from the channels and objections were raised by the Minister of
basins. A substantial part of this, some Welfare, Public Health and Culture [W.V.C.]
10 million m3, is so contaminated that it because the Environmental Impact Statement
would be irresponsible to dump it into the sea. made no mention of the cultural heritage. The
It has to be disposed of in another, more possible effects on archaeological remains
controllable, way. remained unstudied. The need to envisage any
Ever since the beginning of the seventies necessary archaeological investigations
finding appropriate disposal locations on dry through reservations in the budget was
land has become increasingly problematical. stressed. These objections were successful1 in
The Stuurgroep Berging Baggerspecie this way that the position towards
[S.G.B.B. - Steering committee for the archaeological remains was given ample
INTRODUCTION
consideration and that the effort of a
preliminary survey was deemed necessary.
Clauses on archaeological discoveries were
included in the concession that was granted
for the realisation of the disposal site. It was
provided that the Director of the State Service
for Archaeological Investigations [Rijksdienst
voor Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek
R.O.B.] was to be enabled to carry out
archaeological investigations to the extent
that would reasonably be possible without
endangering the planned inauguration of the
site through delays. Also a tight time-
schedule for in situ work was defined.
Simultaneously with further preparations for
the project a preliminary archaeological
survey was undertaken with two-fold aims:
to meet the demand for understanding
where within the project area
archaeological remains could have
been preserved, as well as
what the general characteristics of
these remains were expected to be;
to consider what measures could be
taken to further appropriate handling
of discoveries within the project.
The survey included both geological,
geophysical and historical-geographical
research. The formation of the area, the way
in which it developed and the way in which
man had made use of the successive
circumstances were provisionally described.
Natural channels that silted during the Middle
Ages could be recognized. Covered by shoal-
deposits those sediments had not been
disturbed later on. On the basis of theoretical
considerations on the formation and
preservation of archaeological sites the
historical and geological information was
used to predict what kind of remains could be
encountered.
It was concluded that the sediments between 6
and 12 m below ordnance datum [N.A.P.]
could contain wreckage from the period 1000
to 1500 A.D. The. discovery of such remains
would be extremely important as they date
from a transitional periodin shipbuilding
from which very few shipfinds have been
studied. As no major gullies seemed to have
crossed the area later on it was thought to be
unlikely that substantial ship remains of
younger clate would be encountered, unless
they be the remains of small fishing vessels.
The report on the preliminary archaeological
survey [Gemeente Rotterdam et al. 19861
shared the dichotomy of the survey itself. In
addition to discussions on the relevant data it
deployed a line of action to be followed
during the construction phase of the project.
INTRODUCTION
Due to the extreme urgency of the realisation
of the disposal site a keynote was that
construction of the site itself could not be
delayed. Operational delays of specific
dredging machinery due to archaeological
discoveries was to be offset by temporary
shifting of activities.
It was therefore recommended to excavate the
most sensitive areas first.
Simple electronic detecting devices would
have to be mounted onto the dredgers. On-site
archaeological expertise would be made
available on a modest scale.
The budget for this line of action was
estimated at dfl 1,500,000: dfl 300,000 to be
used on detecting devices and archaeological
support, whereas the rest would account for
stagnation and shifting of dredgers.
Implementation
Completion of the preliminary survey and
publication of the report Vooronderzoek
Archeologie had no immediate consequences.
The reason for this was a financial deadlock:
who was to pay for archaeoIogica1 support
and the implementation of the proposed line
of action? The Ministry of W.V.C. as the
responsible authority for the cultural heritage
or the originators of the project that
necessitated the excavation?
[Fig. 11 The necessity to open the site for disposal of
The location of the large-scale contaminated sludge in the autumn of 1987
disposal site Slufter. meant that it was impossible to wait till a
Situering van de grootschalige locatie solution was found. In accordance with the
Slufter. tight time schedule realisation of the Slufter
project was started in May 1986 without
[Fig. 21 detecting devices having been mounted. The
General lay-out of the large-scale sequence of excavation, however, concurred
disposal site. with the sequence that was stipulated in the
Het uitgevoerde ontwerp van de line of action.
grootschalige locatie. Shortly after the start of dredging two
potentially interesting shipwrecks were
discovered. Archaeological expertise was
provided on an ad hoc basis but funds to
proceed investigations were lacking. Thanks
to the municipality of Rotterdam the deadlock
was broken: it provided the most necessary
means in advance. Since recruitment of
competent archaeological staff did not at all
prove easy at short notice it was only from the
beginning of October 1986 that
archaeological work could proceed with a
complete crew. From then onwards the
proposed line of action could be closely
followed.
T h e present report
The report on archaeological survey as part of
the Slufter project is divided in three sections.
INTRODUCTION
In the first part the results of the preliminary The archaeological research was carried out
geological and historical-geographical studies by Jonathan Adams, AndrC van Holk and
are described as well as the deployed line of Thijs Maarleveld, the authors of this report.
action. The second part is devoted to the They were greatly assisted by many [see
archaeology of the Slufter project proper. acknowledgements]. Overall coordination of
The third part is included for the purpose of survey and research as well as the final
evaluation, i.e. overall conclusions about the editing of the report have been the
area researched, as well as some evaluational responsibility of the last author.
observations about the handling of
archaeological information in connection with
large engineering projects. Both the summary
and the captions to the illustrations are
presented in English as well as in Dutch. The
report is supplemented with appendices and a
bilingual [English and Dutch] glossary of
maritime terms that appear in the text and
captions.
Organisation and responsibilities

For the purpose of archaelogical research
within the Slufter project a working party was
formed in September 1985. Its terms of
reference implied:
guidance of the realisation of the
Slufter as far as archaeological
perspectives are concerned;
mobilization of expertise and
knowledge as well as aids and
appliances;
reporting and publicity;
surveillance of planning and budget
control.
The working party was composed as follows:
ir. R.G.J. van Orden

Project-manager Large-scale disposal
site, Public Works Department
Rotterdam:
ir. J . Bakker
Associate Project-manager Large-
scale disposal site, Lower Rivers
Directorate, Ministry of Transport and
Public Works;
drs. Th.J. Maarleveld

Ministry of Welfare, Public Health
and Culture;
drs. L.M. Akveld

Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik,
Rotterdam;
drs. M.C. van Trierum

Office for Archaeological
Investigations, Public Works
Department Rotterdam.
INTRODUCTION
1. Preliminary archaeological survey of the Slufter project

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to the area
1.3 Geological survey
1.4 Historical information
1.5 Potential for archaeological sites
1.6 Conclusions and a line of action
1.7 Changes in planning
[Fig. 31
Archaeological sites as previously
revealed by dredging in the area:
x concentrations of Mesolithic
artefacts;
NOORDZEE t shipwreck-sites predating 1800 A.D.;
0 19th century wreck-sites.
Archeologische vindplaatsen die bij
eerderzuigwerk in het gebied aan het
MAASVLAKTE
licht zijn gekornen:
x Mesolitische vondstconscenrraries;
+ vindplaatsen van schepen die voor
1800 zijn vergaan;
0 vindplaatsen van 19e eeuwse
schepen.
P R E L I M I N A R Y ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF T H E SLUFTER
PROJECT
1.1 OBJECTIVES [e.g. Zagwijn and Van Staalduinen 1975;

The purpose of the preliminary survey Schiittenhelm 19801 and the detailed case-
was to establish where archaeological remains studies of C. Hoek must be mentioned in this
were to be found and what kind of remains context. Recent overviews with ample
one had to reckon with. To this end the survey references can be found in Hallewas and Van
envisaged combining geological and Regteren Altena [1980], Louwe Kooijmans
historical information. A theoretical [I9851 and Van Trierum and Henkes [1986].
prediction was its aim, in combination of The historical development of the foreshore
course with a practical guideline of how to and outer delta however, is largely inferred
cope with discoveries during the realization of from the general development of the North
the work. First of all it was to be established Sea basin in combination with data collected
which sediments were to be considered further inland.
archaeologically sterile and what kind of On the archaeological contents of the deposits
archaeological remains were to be in the Slufter location nothing specific was
encountered in those that were not. It was known. The only indications were the finds
quite clear that during construction itself there made during and after other major dredging
would at the best be occasion for emergency operations in the region.
measures. There would be little opportunity Mesolithic hunting and fishing equipment of
for extensive documentation of find Boreal Age has been found among material
circumstances and the geological situation. dredged form the Calandkanaal [Verhart
Studying these in advance would ease 19881. A whole series of historic shipwreck
interpretation later on. sites has been disrupted during dredging
Actual probing of the whole area [ca. 300 ha] activities in the Oostvoornse Meer, a few
was out of the question. Even if that approach miles inshore.
could have been made practicable for such an These activities took place in the late sixties
extended and deep unit of sediments, there and no attention was paid to archaeology at
would have been neither funds nor time to the time. How many sites were destroyed can
realize it. The preliminary study thus focused only be guessed. Along the fringes alone, six
on reassessment of previously collected data. historic wreck sites have since been
It was carried out in the period September discovered by sports-divers [fig. 31. One of
1985 to March 1986. It resulted in a report these has been investigated by a group of
that was published in April 1986 [Gemeente diving hobby-archaeologists under the
Rotterdam et al. 19861. leadership of 0. Normann [Maarleveld 1982;
Normann 19871, two others are currently
1.2 INTRODUCTION T O T H E AREA under investigation by the Ministry of W.V.C.
The Slufter area is situated in the
outer delta of the Rhinemeuse estuary. Ever 1.3 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
since the North Sea came into existence it has In the course of the feasibility studies
been one of the few inlets in the coast of the for the construction of the large-scale disposal
Lowlands that offered a passage towards the site, the area was surveyed geologically. Both
interior of continental Europe. In historical deep corings and seismic/acoustical surveys
times the estuary featured important shipping were made.
routes. Navigation, however, has greatly been The collected data were - at that stage -
affected by continuous changes in the course analysed from a technical point of view only.
and depth of the natural channels. The relative permeability and stability of the
The geological and occupational history of various deposits were more important in that
the Rhine/Meuse estuary is rather well context than their genesis [Gerneente
studied. Both the encompassing work of Rotterdam et. al 19841. Nevertheless this data
Geological Survey of The Netherlands formed a good basis for further research, the
more so since [in view of several location
alternatives] a much larger area had been
studied than the a c t ~ ~ a lchosen
ly site.
General characteristics
The RhineIMeuse estuary is characterized by
deep quaternary sediments [see fig. 4, 51. The
riverine sediments from the Under Pleistocene
[Formatie van Tegelen; Formatie van
Kedichem] are covered by marine sands
which were deposited during the Eemian
interglacial. These have been reworked during
the Weichsel glacial and have partly been
covered by the riverine Formatie van
Kreftenheye, which is the youngest
pleistocene deposit in the area.
The first sediments from the Holocene period
are a peaty clay layer, which has not been
preserved everywhere. It is commonly named
the layer of Velsen. During the Atlanticum
this layer has been covered by tidal marsh
sediments. The subboreal and subatlantic
transgressions have caused alternating erosion
and sedimentation, resulting in a complex
intertwining of shoal-deposits and gully
fillings.
Supplementary research
A detailed reinterpretation of previously
collected geological data [fig. 61 was carried
out in the present context with the following
objectives:
to understand the formation of those
sediments that were liable to contain
archaeological remains;
to establish their distribution.
In pursuance of the aims set out above it
concentrated on the genesis of the subatlantic
sequence.
In addition to the preceding field work a few
coring samples were analysed
palynologically. The geological survey thus
dealt with three sets of data:
acoustical and seismic data;
lithostratigraphical data;
palynological data.
The results that are summarized here were
published by Niessen [1986].
The acoustical and seismic data consisted of
records that had been recorded with Sonia and
Sparker devices. They were primarily made
with the aim of charting the presence of the
layer of Velsen. Because of its impermeability
this layer could be extremely important for
the technicalities of the disposal site, had it
appeared to be undisturbed in the whole site
area [fig. 71. Nevertheless the records do
contain a lot of information on the younger
sedimentation [fig. 81. Shoal-deposits and
gully fillings could readily be recognized. The
skew and orientation of gi~llyfillings could be
deduced.
The lithostratigraphical description of cores
was essential as a clue to the Sonia and
Sparker records [fig. 91. In combination the
two sets of data to a certain extent allow for
the venture of reconstruction of changes in the
gully pattern and of the general direction of
sedimentation in the area.
Palynological analysis was carried out on two
cores [fig. 10, 85.004 and 85.0081, thus
providing a general basis for the dating of
sediments.
All in all the geological survey allowed the
following general conclusions:
the holocene sedimentation reaches to
a depth of around 21 metres below
N.A.P. [Normal Amsterdam Level];
the top is composed of very young
shoal deposits, 2 to 3 metres thick,
hardly ever reaching to a greater
depth than 6 metres;
the subatlantic deposits reach to a
depth of around 10 to 12 metres;
older marine deposits reach to a depth
of around 21 metres;
the clayeylpeaty layer of Velsen is
found at about 21 metres, at the basis
of the holocene sedimentation;
the direction of sedimentation in the
subatlantic deposits has, in general,
been from South going North. The
gullies have shifted in that direction;
in combination with the results of the
palynological research of two
seperate gully fillings it is assumed
that all subatlantic gully deposits in
the area have a late subatlantic date.
[Fig. 41 [Fig. 71 1.e. they are surely younger than
Chronostratigraphical and Distribution of the socalled Layerof 700 A.D. and have for the greater part
lithostratigraphical classification of the Velsen [hatched]. been formed after 1300 A.D.
Quaternary. Verspreiding van de Laag van Velsen
Chronostratigrafische en Igearceerdl. 1.4 HISTORICAL INFORMATION
lithostratigrafische indeling van het In addition to the study of the area
Kwartair. itself it was thought to be essential to get a
good overview of what could be said about
[Fig. 51 the development of the area on the basis of
Chronostratigraphical classification of historical information. For this purpose the
the Holocene. historical geography was studied by Hofland.
Chronostratigrafische indeling van het His results are summarized here. For his
Holoceen. cartographic reconstructions the reader is
referred to the original publication [Hofland
[Fig. 61 19861. Here only some rough sketches are
Masterplan featuring the distribution of given [fig. 111.
previously collected geological data. Information on navigation in and beaconing
Kartografisch overzicht van de tijdens of the outer delta does go back to 1280 A.D.
het vooronderzoek beschikbare A reliable reconstruction on the basis of
geologische gegevens. historical data can, however, only be made
i
from 1540 onwards. The estuary has
continually been very broad. Navigation
channels have always been whimsical and
water depth was never guaranteed for long.
In late medieval times two beacons that are
first mentioned in 1280 had to be moved
several times. During the 16th century two
alternative approaches were in use [three even
at a certain time]. The southernmost of these
approaches was the most important. It was
located some 300 metres North of the Slufter
site. The channel was buoyed along its
northern bank only.
Shipping was thus warned for the shallows
along its northern fringes. What hazards
shipping confronted southward of the buoys is
not very clear. There was no question of the
whole stretch between the buoys and the coast
of Voorne being navigable. Off-shore both the
Hinderplaat and the Westplaat had to be
rounded. The Westplaat is of particular
interest in the context of this study.
From the end of the 17th century onwards the
estuary narrowed. On the northern bank a
recurved spit [dutch: haakwal] was formed,
called the Beer [i.e. bear in English]. As it
narrowed the tides were harnessed causing
erosion at one place and sedimentation at
another. The area of the Slufter disposal site
was located in the sedimentation zone.
Finally, in the beginning of the 18th century
the ebb-tide eroded the Westplaat and forced a
new passage. It was located some 100 metres
South of the Slufter location and soon became
the most important navigation channel.
All in all the historical information allows for
the following conclusions:
the Slufter location has been an area
of shallows for the whole period for
which historical data are available
[i.e. from 1540 A.D. onwards];
channels of any importance have not
crossed the location since;
during the 16th century the most
important navigation channel was
within 300 metres North of the
location;
during the 17th century the shallows
[Westplaat] extended towards the
North;
it is probable that during the
17th century the navigation channel
did also shift to the North;
in the 18th century a new passage
through the shallows came to be used
for navigation. That channel is
located some 100 metres South of the
Slufter location.
P R E L I M I N A R Y RESEARCH
1.5 POTENTIAL FOR
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Predictions on the archaeological
contents of a specific area are a most
hazardous affair. Trusting careful analysis of
geological and historical data, it is of course
possible to make general inferences. Reliable
predictions, however, can only be given in the
negative. Sterile areas can be indicated. The
possibility of striking on a certain type of site
in other areas is, however, not a very tangible
kind of data. It is something quite different
from a positive prediction that something will
be found. Nevertheless on the basis of the
historical-geographical and geological
information presented above some statements
concerning any archaeological sites in the
construction zone were made which in turn
were used as a basis for a strategy.
Chance finds after the construction of the
Maasvlakte proved that the boreal deposits in
what is referred to as the layer of Velsen
contain remains of human activity during the
Mesolithic. It would however be contrary to
reason to suppose that proper attention could
be given to any relating sites during the
construction of the large-scale disposal site.
Systematic investigation of these layers
would be an extremely expensive affair,
[Fig. 81 whereas clear-cut results are not indubitably
The interpretation of Sparker-record 22 to be expected. It would, however, be sensible
showing the Holocene sedimentation. to remain alert for chance finds of mesolithic
Interpretatie van Sparkerrecord 22 in tools in the dredged material.
het Holocene sedimentatiepakket. All sediments above the layer of Velsen are of
marine origin. Any remains of human activity
[Fig. 91 these might contain must have been brought
Lithostratigraphical basis of by or through the sea. The only type of
interpretation. archaeological site one really has to reckon
De lithostratigrafische grondslag van with is the site originating in shipwreck.
interpretatie. Archaeological remains cannot be younger
than the sediment they are contained in. The
[Fig. 101 oldest topical sequence of marine deposits
Palynological analysis of two cores. dates from before the start of the Subatlantic
Boorkolommen met pollenzones. [i.e. before 900 B.c.]. It is certain that
seafaring was already practised long before.
[Fig. 111 Nevertheless, the chances of discovery of any
An overview of the development of wrecksites in the older sediments must be
shipping channels in the RhineIMeuse deemed negligible. Also the subatlantic
outer delta, as derived from historical sediments deserved most attention, even
information. though it is true that the area might also
Beknopt overzicht van de onhuikkeling contain remains of much older date. Traffic
van scheepvaartroutes in de and the resulting losses have gained in
Maasmond zoals die kon worden intensity. Wether or not these losses can be
afgeleid uit historische gegevens. traced depends on the processes that
determine the formation and preservation of
archaeological sites. By taking these into
consideration the sensitive geological
sequences can be defined even more
precisely.
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH 23
Formation of wrecksites
As stated above shipwreck is the main cause
of archaeological site formation in the area. It
is a process with its own dynamics. There are
many reasons why a ship can come to grief. In
general this happens more often near to shore
or at the mouth of an inlet than on the high
seas. A shallow estuarine area, like the outer
delta of the RhineIMeuse, is particularly
accident prone. The hydrographic situation in
such an area changes quickly.
Unfamiliarity with the local conditions and
currents or just inattentiveness can easily
cause grounding. The situation is worse in
strong winds, especially with an onshore
direction. Onshore - that is westerly - winds
are most usual in the area. If grounding leads
to wreck this may come about in two ways:
the ship stays were it stuck and is torn
apart;
the ship springs a leak but starts
floating again and sinks elsewhere.
In the first instance the remains are exposed
to extremely strong mechanical forces. They
can be dispersed over a large area. The force
of the breakers and the velocity of the
breaking up process determine the size of
individual bits and pieces.
In the second instance the ship may sink in
deeper water or slide down to deeper water if
it sinks on the bank of a gully. In that case the
chances of large pieces being embedded in the
sediments in their entirety are much better.
Once the remains have more or less settled the
site is susceptible to a number of complex
influences and transforms. At a shallow site
the mechanical forces in operation will
overrule all other factors. In general nothing
remains undamaged in less than six meters of
water on an exposed site along the Dutch
coast. At a deeper site - i.e. in a gully -
remains stand a better chance.
Chemical degradation and attack by marine
organisms are two, mutually intensifying
agents affecting their preservation. The
mechanical force of the currents is in some
ways subordinate. It will in most cases more
strongly act upon the environment than upon
the remains themselves, as more often than
not these have a greater resistance. However,
by doing so the currents determine whether or
not the remains are buried and to what extent
they are exposed to the aforementioned
chemical and biological attack. Changes in
the course of gullies can produce repeated
slowing and acceleration of this kind of
degradation.
If wreckage ends up in a sedimentation zone
- for instance along a convex gully bank -
it can be covered rather quickly: the remains
are no longer exposed to the oxygen rich
seawater. The context may remain virtually
unchanged until discovery. The only influence
one has to reckon with is the mechanical force
of compaction of the sediments.
If a wreck ends up in the middle of a gully or
in an erosion zone the situation will be much
more complex. The wreck itself will obstruct
the currents and will thus interfere with
erosion and deposition processes. Scouring
will intensify and it is not improbable that the
remains or part thereof will slip into the gully
so formed. The process may repeat itself time
and again. It will only end if the geological
circumstances change sufficiently to override
the localised effect of the wreck structure or
if, due to collapse or displacement enough
water storage is attained for the rate of flow to
diminish. In both cases sedimentation will
occur and the remains will finally be covered
after having been susceptible not only to
chemical and biological degradation but also
to mechanical damage as a result of
displacement. The formation of the site will
have affected sediments well beyond the local
depth of the gully at the time of sinking.
For the situation in the area concerned these
theoretical considerations have the following
consequences. Shipfinds with structural
cohesion are not to be expected in those
deposits that have formed on shoal tops [and
in consequence have a purely horizontal
stratigraphy]. In sediments that have been
deposited in gullies such finds are only to be
expected at a greater depth than six meters
[under mean low water and to be corrected for
the sealevel at the time of the gully's activity].
They are most likely to appear at the deepest
spots of erosion that a phase of activity of a
gully has caused.
1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND A LINE O F

ACTION
Consideration of the historical-
geographical and geological data in
combination with the theoretical aspects
elucidated above allowed some reasoning on
which a line of action could be deployed. To
begin with a quite substantial amount of
sediment could -for all practical purposes -
be considered to be archaeologically sterile.
This applied both to the pleistocene sequence
and to the holocene sequence predating the
Subatlantic. This also applied to those
sediments that lay at a shallower depth than
6 m below N.A.P., as well as to all those
sediments that can be interpreted as shoal-
deposits.
What remains to be scrutinized are the gully-
deposits in the subatlantic sequence. These
were supposed to extend no deeper than 12 m
below N.A.P. Their build-up is the result of
sedimentation in gullies migrating to the
North. This happened after 700 A.D. and for
the greater part after 1300 A.D. During the
16th century a gully that was used as an
important navigation channel was situated
some 300 m North of the construction site.
During the 18th century a new passage was
opened at 100 m South of the location.
On the basis of this information it was
inferred that the northern navigation channel
had previously had a slightly more southerly
course. It might have been in use before
1500 A.D. If any wrecksites related to that
channel had been preserved they might be
encountered in the northern part of the
construction site. Wrecksites related to the
southern channel would be much younger.
They were more likely to be encountered in
the southern part.
In designing a strategy two straightforward
principles took a keynote position:
the line of action should tune to the
planning of construction;
priority should be given to the most
important sites.
However straightforward these principles may
be, the practical appliance is very
problematical. Nevertheless some a priori
choices were made regarding both issues.
The Planning of construction

The planning of construction was such that
the disposal site would be excavated in three
phases [fig. 121. Excavation would be carried
out by suction-dredgers in a breaching
technique. In the first phase the holocene
deposits would be removed to a depth of
about 12 m [working depth and disturbance
approximately 18 m: resulting water depth
Zee
12 m, due to spill]. In this phase dredging .-> ,..
Homien
would be carried out in continuous shifts,
7 x 24 per week. Three dredgers would be
involved, with a weekly production totalling
800.000 m'. In view of creating shelter for the
dredgers it was preferred to commence
excavation in the northern part. The dredged
holocene material was to be used in the body
of the dike around the disposal site. In the
second phase the main part of the area would
be deepened to 28 m. The extracted mix of
pleistocene and holocene sediments would be
used to strengthen the outer part of the dikes.
In the third phase the inner side of the dikes
would be dredged to the correct cross-section
by means of cutter-suction dredgers. During
P R E L I M I N A R Y RESEARCH
- the latter two phases on-site work would be
limited to 5 x 24 hours per week.
The whole procedure, and especially the tight
time-schedule, implied that it would be much
easier to shift activities and thus
accommodate archaeological discoveries at
the beginning of construction rather than at a
later stage.
-
[Fig. 121 The most important sites

Schematic representatlon of the To decide on the relative importance of
techniques and order of excavation of unknown sites is virtually impossible. The
the d~sposalsite. In Phase 1 the bulk situation, however, was thus that a priori
of the Holocene material is removed. decisions had to be made as to determine what
The fine sands are used in the body of kind of sites were to be deemed important in
the surrounding dike. In Phase 2 a this particular context. It is fully realised that
suction-dredger is used to remove the these decisions are of a contestable nature.
deeper Pleistocene deposits. These Considerations significantly affecting
coarser sands are used to reinforce decision-making at this stage were
the embankment. Phase 3 is the final that only those sites would be taken
phase in which the inner fringes are into account where this would be
finished to the appropriate cross- technically feasible under the
section. prevailing circumstances;
In de eerste fase van her werk wordt that older sites would be deemed
bet merendeel van de Holocene more important than younger ones.
afzettingen verwijderd. Dit fJne zand As a result the area of concern was limited to
wordt gebruikt als kern van de the subatlantic gully fillings. This meant that
ringdijk. In de tweede fase wordt her no archaeological support was needed during
bassin met een diepzuiger op diepte the second phase of construction. During the
gebracht Het grovere Pleistocene third phase proper dealing with
zand dat daarbij vrij komt wordt archaeological discoveries would be most
gebruikt ter versterking van de problematical as there would only be limited
oeverzone. In de derde fase wordt de possibilities to shift dredging activities. From
binnenkant van bet bassin netjes an archaeological point of view the emphasis
afgewerkt Ook dan wordt er nog was thus on phase 1.
Holoceen sediment vergraven, maar Sand extraction was planned to begin in the
het doen van archeologische northern part of the area. The first section of
waarnemingenis dan vrijwel niet the dike to be constructed would create some
meer mogelijk. shelter for the dredgers. Bearing in mind that
the oldest known navigation channel by-
passed the area just to the North and
considering the fact that it would be more
likely to encounter a wrecksite related to that
channel in the northern part than anywhere
else this decision was readily endorsed. It
would, after all, be preferable to discover any
important sites as soon as possible.
Furthermore it was quite clear that attention
could only be given to shipwreck sites
containing sufficiently substantial structural
remains. Small items would unquestionably
go unnoticed. For proper planning it was
essential to know what exactly could be
recognized in time and into what categories
the possible discoveries could be classified.
To devise a method of timely detection in
accordance with the proposed method of
sand-extraction a series of tests were run on
January 23 1986 at a nearby dredging site.
Several systems of acoustic detection were circumstances and a very tight time-schedule
put to the test, while objects of differing sizes quick removal for study elsewhere is to be
were lowered in the breach. A UDI Obstacle preferred. For research it is of course
Avoidance Sonar mounted underneath the preferable to remove a find as integrally as
frontside of a stationary suction-dredger was possible, surrounding sediments included.
found to satisfactorily register any objects Taking this into account and also bearing in
protruding more than 1.5 m from the mind that removal of any overburden will
o~~tcropping sediments. Within the limits set make such operations incomparably more
by the available technology it would thus be simple a detailed plan was framed for each of
possible to detect significant shipwreck sites the given alternatives [Cemeente Rotterdam
as soon these started to uncover. Wreckage in et al. 19861. Only the last alternative was left
structural cohesion measuring 5 x 7 m or open-ended. In a case like that too many
more can be detected before actually coming variables are involved and decisons have to be
loose, provided that the monitor is properly postponed to the very last moment when
watched. Sites containing fragments of a technical problems, the cultural importance
smaller size only will, however, remain and all factors that can be summarized with
unnoticed. the term cost-effectiveness can best be
In consequence it was proposed to mount this assessed.
system onto the dredgers. Detection of an In all cases it was to be the on-site presence of
anomaly on the sonar screen was to be diving archaeological staff that was to
followed by three consecutive actions: guarantee the quick and responsible
monitoring of the anomaly would be assessment necessary for ad hoc decision
continued for 15 to 30 min. to see making. Their expertise was also needed for
whether indeed it represented a the reception, documentation, conservation
stationary object; and research of the finds.
dragging the breach with a grapnel All in all the preliminary survey showed it to
from a small boat would start while be highly likely that important discoveries
the anomaly was being monitored in would be made. A realistic line of action was
order to establish direct contact with deployed in accordance with the proposed
the remains; technique of construction. The costs of
shifting of dredging activity would be satisfactory archaeological guidance of the
commenced as soon as the grapnel got project were estimated at dfl. 1.500.000 of
stuck, in order to allow for diver- which the greater part [dfl 1.100.000] was to
inspection. be reserved for delays and shifting of the
The inspection serves technical as well as dredgers. It is to be kept in mind that large
archaeological ends. It is to be carried out by obstructions may cause this kind of expenses
an experienced diving archaeologist. It allows whether they are researched archaeologically
to assess whether there is any real obstruction or not. dfl. 200.000 was to be spent on
hindering continued sand extraction and it archaeological staff and research, dfl. 100.000
also allows preliminary assessment of any for the necessary sonar equipment and another
archaeological values involved. Technically dfl 100.000 for other eventualities.
six alternatives have been anticipated:
fragmentary, loose or largely 1.7 CHANGES IN PLANNING
decomposed wreckage; The strategy outlined in the plan of
part of a ship's bottom or side with action formed the basis for all decisions.
heavy timbers, wooden fastenings and There was however one essential point where
strong longitudinal cohesion, strategy and reality did not meet from the very
measuring up to 5 x 10 m; start. The contractor to whom the construction
part of ship's bottom or side, lightly was allocated decided to use cutter-suction-
built, longitudinal cohesion in strakes dredgers for the sand extraction not only in
only, measuring up to 5 x 10 m; phase 3 as demanded, but also in phase 1. For
ship's bottom or side, heavily built, the kind of sediments involved the cutter-
measuring up to 7 x 17 m; suction-dredger is normally too expensive an
ship's bottom or side, lightly built, instrument.
measuring up to 7 x 17 m; From a technical point of view and with
larger entity or complete ship. respect to the tight time schedule this was
As the possibilities for prolonged on-site considered to be a favourable decision. For
research in a situation like this are very the detection of archaeological sites this
limited due to adverse, unstable decision had grave consequences. Unlike the
pontoon of a suction-dredger, a cutter-
suction-dredger is not a stationary instrument.
Even if it dredges in a breaching technique it
will still sweep to and fro constantly. The
turning cutter-head will cause turbulence that
will to some extent blurr the sonar. More
serious however is the fact that the constant
motion will constantly affect the picture that
it shows. Monitoring of changes in the
breach-profile thus becomes an extremely
tiring job as it necessitates constant watching
of the screen [7 x 24 hours a week].
Even when one of the dredgers was equipped
with an obstacle avoidance sonar all sites
were detected by the destructive cutter-head
itself. For one thing this meant considerable
damage to the remains, for another it meant
that smaller and less resistent items went
unnoticed. The scale of objects that were
detected was thus larger than originally
envisaged.
1. Wrecksite SL 1
1 .I Circumstances of discovery
1.1.1 The first hit
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand extraction
1.2.1 The ship
1.3 Analyses
1.4 Evaluation
1.4.1 The site
1.4.2 The ship
2. Wrecksite SL 2
2.3 Analyses
2.4 Evaluative considerations
3. Wrecksite SL 3
3.3 Analyses
3.4 Conclusions
4. Wrecksite SL 4
4.1.1 The first hit
4.1.3 Considerations and decisions
4.1.4 Clearance
4.2.1 The ship
4.3 Analyses
4.3.1 Wood species
4.3.4 Copper alloys
4.3.5 Coal
4.4 Evaluation
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 The site
4.4.3 The ship and its construction
4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and ship type
4.4.6 The cargo
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck
4.5 Conclusion
5. Wrecksite SL 5
5.3 Analyses
5.4 Discussion
6. Wrecksite SL 6
7. Miscellaneous finds
[Fig. 131
Map showing the outline of the Slufter
and the distribution of finds againstthe
background of the 1985 depth
contours.
Dieptekaart uit 1985met daarop de
begrenzing van de Slufter en de
verspreiding van de vindplaatsen.

1.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F 1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
DISCOVERY After the aforementioned channel had
been dug the cutter-suction-dredger Hector
1.1.1 The first hit went on dredging in the northern part of the
Shortly after midnight, in the early Slufter. The area where the wreck was hit
hours of May 4 1986 the pump and cutter of upon was not to be in exploitation for quite
the cutter-suction-dredger Hector got blocked some time. In keeping with the plan of action
for the first time by wood that turned out to be the spot was dragged with a grapnel from a
wreckage. Its position was x 60.228 and small boat. Later on, on May 24, a bottom
y 438.23 1 [Dutch National Grid coordinates] search was organised. Volunteer divers that
[fig. 131. The obstruction was as solid as to regularly assist the underwater archaeological
repeatedly block the cutter again. After more unit of the Ministry of Culture were mobilised
than five and a half hours of delay the Hector. for the purpose. The water was quite clear that
had to be moved back. At the dump-site quite day, amounting to about 2 to 3 metres under
a few items were observed, such as pulley- water visibility on the bottom, and systematic
blocks, pieces of rope and lengths of chain. visual inspection of an area covering
Part of those items [i.e. only the chain] were approximately 3,500 mZcould be carried out.
collected later on. Others are said to have Most of the channel had, however, filled in.
disappeared into private collections. Remaining depth was only 8 to 9 m and no
The incident occurred on one of the very first wreckage protruded from the even bottom of
days of on-site work. The Hector was loose sand.
dredging in an easterly direction. From the In short all information on the site one could
Gat vat2 de Hawk it was on its way to the area go by was that at a depth of more than 14 m a
in the North where sand-extraction would wreck had been hit at spots as far apart as
begin. The itinerary chosen would make the 40 m [according to guesses by the dredging
most of the shelter that the shoals in the area personnel and the construction inspectors].
could give. Waterdepth had been near zero The fragments that had been lifted made it
and Hector directly broke in to a depth of quite clear that the wreck was that of a post-
17 m. It was at that depth that the cutter hit medieval vessel of considerable size. All
wreckage. The dredger got stuck and had to fragments that could readily be identified
back off for clearing. The ensuing delay had pointed to the upper deck structure in the
caused the channel to fill in so it had to be bows. It was assumed to be highly probable
cleared once more. All through the day loose that most of the vessel remained.
pieces of timber kept blocking the pump. It
was, however, only the next night that the 1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand
original spot of hitting was reached once extraction
more. Instead of its original depth of 17 m the As mentioned before the area around
dredger was lifted to a depth of 14 m and wrecksite SL 1 was not to be dredged for
could pass the sensitive area without further some time. The possibility that the discovered
delay. As soon as the cutter was thought to be wreck was a complete or near complete ship
clear it was lowered to 20 m. In the early and fell into category 6 of the plan of action
morning it hit again. Planking rose to the was to be considered seriously. The wood was
surface and drifted away. A windlass came up in very sound condition and the wreck might
floating and was lifted onto a barge. A cause a serious obstruction for the dredgers.
collection of small stuff was collected from To assess both the extent to which this would
the cutter and the pump. For convenience' be the case and its cultural importance it was
sake this first site was called SL 1. thought that the planned diver inspection
should anyhow take place. First however one
would have to get rid of the tremendous

overburden of loose spill sand. To
accommodate for this the order of sand
extraction was adjusted. The cutter-suction-
dredger Triton was to dredge in the vicinity
from mid-summer onwards. In the original
planning of the work it was to furrow
forwards and back again so as to cover the
whole area systematically. This method
however was changed. TI-itonwas instructed
first to dredge a trench around wrecksite SL 1
so as to create overdepth were the overburden
could temporarily be dumped [fig. 141.
1 .I .4 On-site inspection
To remove the overburden itself, a
more gentle instrument than the cutter-
suction-dredger was chosen. A so-called
prop-wash deflector, mounted on the diving
vessel Ursus 11, was used [fig. 15, 161. This
vessel belongs to the Ecuador. diving team
from the isle of Terschelling. Both the ship
and the team have repeatedly assisted in
archaeological work. Inspection was carried
out on 19,20,21 and 22 September 1986. The
wreckage proved to occur at a depth of
approximately 18 m. As the Triton had not
dredged beyond 17 m it was impossible to
wash the overburden into a surrounding
trench. The wreckage could not be cleared of
overburden over areas measuring more than
4 m in diameter. To be able to correctly direct
the prop-wash and to get a clear picture of the
extent of wreckage the site was systematically
probed with a 6 m water probe that was
lowered from the surface. It consisted of a
length of 1" steel piping fitted with a coupling
and fed through a flexible hose. It sank into
the sediments by its own weight and any
obstruction could be readily noticed by the
man handling the hose from the surface. The
wreckage proved to have lost its structural
integrity.
During a total of 18 inspection dives in
successive prop-wash-pits it was established
that all wreckage consisted of deck-structure.
It also became evident that the structure faced
downwards, i.e. that the wreck had been lying
upside down. It rested on a tough clay layer
that was covered by an erosion layer
containing loose objects. It was decided to lift
loose pieces. They were cleared with an air
lift [fig. 171. Apart from structural remains
parts of the ship's rigging and inventory were
brought up.
Diving in the pits was seriously hampered by
a layer of liquified silt that had formed over
the deepest parts of the Slufter, due to three
dredgers continuously running. In fact the
density of the murky water gradually

increased towards the bottom. Divers had
problems to weigh themselves down. Working
with the airlift brought some temporary relief.
Individual dives were not extended beyond
30 min.
1.2 DESCRIPTION O F T H E
RECOVERED REMAINS
1.2.1 The ship

Some of the timbers recovered could
be reassembled to form what is probably part
of the starboard fore deck area. Although
various figures show these elements
assembled they are first described .
individually.
Fastenings
The fastenings consist of treenails, iron bolts,
iron spikes and iron nails.
The treenails were mostly of softwood but
some were oak. The diameters were between
25 - 31 mm although one piece of what is
probably a wale was fastened with treenails
32 - 34 mm in diameter. They are roughly
finished some being relatively rounded in
section but others being more octagonal.
Some are left plain but others were tightened.
In many instances this was done by cuts that
[Fig. 141 were caulked. More common still was the use
Dredging-plan around wreck-site SL 1. of a deutel [central square wedge]. The former
Snedeplan rand SL 1. examples were cut several times across the
head, presumably with a chisel. The pattern
[Fig. 151 and depth of the cuts varied. Two or three of
Diving vessel Ursus 11. the cuts were rammed with caulking material
Onderzoeksvaartuig Ursus I1 van het [perhaps moss]. Also, in some cases a thin
Duikream Ecuador [foto IPL]. hardwood pin about 30 mm long and 4 lnln
thick at the head was driven into the treenail.
[Fig. 161 In one case the pin was driven into the centre
Schematic representation of a prop- of the cross-cuts but in another it was driven
wash-deflector. off-centre and clear of the cuts altogether.
Werking van een prop-wash. The mean diameter of the iron bolts is 21 mm.
The iron is square in section but chamfered
[Fig. 171 along the edge. The bolts had a definite head
Schematic representation of an airlift. i.e. not merely widened through being driven.
Werking van een airlift. They were clenched over a washer.
The spikes and nails were square shanked,
[Fig. 181 ranging in size from the smaller nails of 4 mrn
Examples of iron fastenings from SL 1. square up to the larger spikes of 15 mm
From top to bottom: iron bolt SL1 A89 square. The latter are also chamfered along
[diameter 21 mml iron bolt SLl A6911 their edges like the bolts. They all have
[diameter 21 mm] large iron spike SLl similar facetted heads and flat, slightly
A6912 [13 x 13 mm]. rounded chisel shaped ends [fig. 181.
Bij de bouw van het schip zijn ijleren
pennen, nagels en spijkers gebruikt. Frames
Depennenhebbeneendoorsnedevan SLl T75. A futtock 190 x 18 x 11.5 cm
21 mm. De hier afgebeelde spijker is 13 trapezoidal in cross section. Towards the foot
mm vierkant. it gradually tapers and curves slightly in two
directions. In view of this shape it is probably

from the bow or stern if not a cant frame as
such [fig. 191. At what is presumably its head
it js pierced by two iron bolts. The hull planks
were fastened by treenails 30 mm in diameter
that were cut flush on the inboard surface.
There are also several nail holes on both
inboard and outboard surfaces.
SLl T106. Futtockof 147 x 18.5 x 11 cm
tapering at one end to 10 x 16 cm. At the head
it is cut with a rebate. In this case a treenail
projects from the inboard surface which is
wedged with a deutel. There are also nail
holes but less than in T75. There is one iron
bolt at the foot.
SLI T107. Futtock of 143 x 13 x 11 cm. Its
curvature corresponds with that of T75. At the
head it ends in a flat butt. Just below this is an
iron bolt. The plank fastening treenails are
also cut flush on the inboard surface as in T75
except for one. Where this treenail projects,
iron stain and concretion indicate the grain of
a ceiling plank [stringer?].
SLl T108. Futtock 122 x 18 x 12 cm. Heavily
damaged, with the head being cut where a
fork in the timber occurred. There are no
treenails in this timber, only bolts and nails.
SL1 T109. Short section of a futtock 18 x
13 cm in section. The treenails fastened both
inboard and outboard planking.
All of these timbers are oak and three have a
certain amount of sapwood remaining. None
are complete, all showing shipworm attack at
the feet due to their inverted position on the
sea bed.
Outer hull planking

SLl T45. A plank, maximum width-of
21.5 cm and 4 - 4.5 cm in thickness which is
curved and shaped in a manner that indicates
a position next to the stem or stern post
[fig. 201. Apart from the shape, on its inboard
surface are the marks of the timbers to which
it was fastened that ran horizontally across the
stem or stern post. On the outer surface at the
edge of the pointed end there is a mark where
suggesting it fitted into a rabbet or was
secured with a batten. There is also a rebate
which may be a repair. There are two nail
holes that could have fastened a patch. On
both sides of this plank there are also former
nail holes that have been plugged with wooden
pegs. Other fragments of what are presumably
hull planks also show these plugged nail holes
on both faces. The average thickness of the
planking in the straight body of the hull was
around 6 cm in thickness. Lead tingle or
repair patch 24 x 7 cm with small nail holes,
that might have been used as a temporary
patch on either hull or deck planking.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
SLl T104. A thick timber that is probably
part of a wale 23.5 cm wide by 9.5 cm in
thickness. It had been fastened with treenails
and still has some of the caulking material on
its edges. The treenails have been tightened
by being cut, caulked and pinned in the
manner described above [fig. 211.
Ceiling
Four fragments of thick planking which in the
absence of caulking would seem to be from
inboard. One is damaged but of the other
three, two are 23 cm and the other is 38.5 cm
in width. Their thickness ranges between 9
and 11.5 cm so they are probably stringers.
They are fastened with iron bolts, nails and
treenails. A rebate in one of them suggests it
might be a beam shelf. Below the rebate is
what appears to be a treenail hole that was
[Fig. 191 started then abandoned. In the same piece a
Funock SLl T75. treenail hole passing through the plank has
De zitter SL 1 T75. Het inhout is been plugged with an off-cut of a treenail.
vermoedelijk uit het voorschip
afkomstig. Erzijn twee ijzeren pennen Knees
doorgeslagen. De huid is bevestigd SLI T78. A hanging knee 165 cm in height
geweest met houten pennen die aan but incomplete due to teredo attack at the foot
de binnenzijde van het inhout vlak zijn [similar to the frame timbers]. The horizontal
afgesneden. arm has been damaged and is incomplete. It is
well finished but the grain direction of the
[Fig. 201 timber from which it was cut was not ideal. It
Outer hull plank SLl T45. also included areas of sapwood. It is rebated
Huidplank SL1 T45. Deze plank die op to fit against and partly beneath a deck beam
een van de stevens aangesloten moet and was fastened to the hull and the beam
hebben, vertoont een aantal bijzondere with iron bolts. Four in the lower arm and a
kenmerken. Aan de buitenzijde is bolt and two large spikes in the upper arm.
duidelijk te zien waar de plank in de The uppermost bolt projects 29 cm beyond the
stevensponning sloot. Aan de binnen- back of the knee. The next two project 25 and
zijde zijn de afdrukken zichtbaar van 23.5 cm respectively. This indicates the top
de horizontale banden, inhouten die bolt passed through the main wale. The lower
dwars over de steven bevestigd waren. arm is rebated to a depth of 3.5 cm,
Aan weerszijden zijn spijkergaarjes re presumably to fit over stringers and the shelf
ontwaren die met houten pennetjes [fig. 221. At the end of the bolts passing
zijn afgedicht. Dat is oak bij de overige through the lower arm there is concretion that
huidplanken het geval. bears the cast impression of the hull planking.
SLl T21. Hanging knee which is much more
[Fig. 211 of a grown timber although of much rougher
Treenail which has been cut, caulked finish [fig. 221. Height is 116 cm. The arm is
and pinned. 74 cm in length. The lower arm is rebated also
De kop van houten treknagels is to fit over stringers. Two bolts and two spikes
ingesneden en gebreeuwd. Bovendien fastened the lower arm. The upper arm is not
is er een houten pennetje ingeslagen rebated but merely flattened to fit against the
[for0 IPLI. deck beam. It was fastened to it with two
bolts, three heavy iron spikes and three
[Fig. 231 smaller nails. In the outer face there is a
Inverted hanging knees SLl T95 and shallow hole [15 mm] presumably where a
S L l T96. Twee verticale knieen treenail hole was augered through the futtock
waarvan het lijf onderdeks was for a hull plank.
aangebracht en het korte gedeelte een SLl T98. Fragment of a hanging knee, also a
Iuikhoofd gesteund heeftlfoto IPLI. suitably grown timber like T21 but the upper

arm is very thin. The head was rebated to fit
around the beam but the arm itself being so
thin was merely flattened against the beam in
a similar manner to T21 [fig. 221. It is
fastened in a similar manner to the other
hanging knees.
SL1 T93. The upper fragment of a knee with a
deep rebate probably also for a beam. It also
has a shallow rebate cut out of the crown and
on one side has indications that there were
planks set vertically against it. Although it is
also presumably a hanging knee [the
fastenings are the same in principle as the
others] it would seem either the beam was
deeper or the knee was set higher relative to
it. The slight indication of adjacent planking
suggests it might have been positioned at the
junction of the hold and cabin areas [fig. 221.
SL1 T48. Upper fragment of a hanging knee
similar in shape and finish to T75.
SLl T95 and T96. Two elbow shaped knees
with their surfaces flattened. They were
positioned horizontally with the short arm
vertical to support a hatch structure
[figs. 22, 231. They were fastened with large
iron spikes and in one case with an additional
bolt. The angle of the knees reflects the
camber of the deck and the slight inward lean
of the hatch structure. The lower arm ran
between the hatch and the side, the heel of the
knee butting against the side.
SLl T97. Knee from grown timber which is
either a lodging knee or, in view of the
shallow depth of its long arm, a standing
knee. It was fastened with three bolts and
spikes [fig. 221.
Waterway, beam shelf, deck beams and

deck planks
SLI T63. Two loose pieces of timber that are
likely to be part of the waterway [fig. 241.
They are 8.5 - 9 cm in thickness and the piece
which is preserved for its full width is 30 cm.
The sectional shape is a parallelogram. Bolts
passed through them horizontally and
fastened through the full thickness of the hull.
Sloped dove-tail rebates were cut into the
inboard edge to retain the half beams but their
ends were also nailed in place. In line with the
rear of these rebates the waterway is slightly
bevellecl downwards. Along the bevel is a
mark and a line of nail holes indicating the
edge of a plank. This suggests that in this part
of the ship there was a gutter between the
outermost deck plank and the bulwark. In one
of the pieces similar to T63 there are holes
[6 x 6 mm] in the side opposite the rebates.
These are probably the holes from large
spikes fastening through the futtocks
supplementing the bolts.
SLl T74. A large curved piece of grown
timber rebated for a main deck beam and two
half beams. It is well finished but includes
traces of sapwood. The main beam rebate is
flared on both sides whereas the smaller half
beam rebates are straight on one side. It was
bulted and nailed through to the futtocks.
Next to the beam it has been built up on one
side with a thin filling piece, corresponding to
the top surface of the beam, so that the deck
plank would bed flush onto it.
SLl T80. Damaged piece of deck beam fitting
the rebate in T74. A good quality timber but it
has had to be built up at the edge with two
small fillets of wood to provide flush bedding
for the planks [fig. 241. Nail holes in the top
surface are from the nails that fastened the
deck planks. There are also various tool
marks. Where it has broken, there is the edge
of a rebate, probably for a carling or hatch
coaming for a companion way. There were
apparently no knees reinforcing this beam,
being only retained by the dove tailed rebate
in the shelf.
There are two holes in the beam, one probably
for a deck fitting, the purpose of the other is
doubtful as it apparently does not pass
through the deck plank. Several nail holes in
[Fig. 221 [Fig. 241 the side of the beam and a mark on the under
Knees from SL 1. Individual timbers from the deck and side indicate partition planking.
Knieen. Oe verticale knieen SL 1 T78, waterway assembly. SLl T80 is a deck There are also several peculiar oval holes
SL 1 T21 en SL 1 T98 zijn aan de beam. SL1 T99 is described as a stringer, which deserve special attention. They are not
onderzijde door paalworm SLl T63 as part of the waterway, SL1 in any way connected with construction itself
aangevreten. Aan de bovenzijde is er T l l O might be the end of a wale. and they might be associated with the
een sponning ingekapt waar zij op de Onderdelen van de dekconstructie. transport of the baulk of timber prior to its
dekbalken aansluiten. SL 1 T97 is Hoewel de onderdelen sterk beschadigd conversion. In that case the holes could be left
mogelijk een horizontale knie. Zie voor zijn was her mogelijk de onderlinge by the dogs, large staple-like spikes used to
SL 1 T96 fig. 23. samenhang te reconstrueren. Zie stabilise logs which have been bound together
hiervoor fig. 27,28 en 62. In de in rafts for transport downriver [fig. 2.51.
zwaluwstaartvormige inkepingen in SL 1 These holes also occur on one of the other
T63 hebben halve balken gerust. Ook de loose timbers, probably also part of a beam.
dekbalk SL 1 T80 is met een zwaluwstaen Some of those holes have been plugged with
afgewerkt. Twee vulstukjes waren nodig soft wood and flat wedged in the manner of a
om de dekplanken te ondersteunen. In treenail [fig. 261.
het oppervlak van een aantal van deze SLl T77. A deck beam, virtually complete,
onderdelen zijn merkwaardige gaten which is 4.68 In in length [4.65 m true
aangetroffen die soms ruw met houtzijn horizontal distance between ends]. At one end
afgedicht Zie hiervoor fig. 25 en 26. is a dove-tail where it was let into the shelf.
The other end is damaged. On one side
[probably the aft side] there are bolt holes
where the upper arms of the hanging knees
were fastened. The upper side bears the nail
holes from the deck planks. There are four
blind holes in the upper side, evidence for
deck fittings of some kind. On the [aft] face
1.61 m from the side there is a rebate
presumably for a carling. Presumably there
was a corresponding rebate at the other end of
the beam but damage has removed all trace of
it. On the fore side on both sides there was a
small iron hook, which might be associated
with internal partitioning, for which there is
some evidence in the form of nails holes
under the beam. On the same side as the
hooks there is a small repair piece let into the
edge of the beam.
SLl T99 and SLl TI 13. SLI T I 13 is the
outermost deck plank [margin plank] that was
recovered. Associated with it was an oak
timber that lay above: T99. Together the two
timbers appear to function as a waterway
[fig. 271. The interface between them was
well waterproofed with a luting compound of
oakum and tar. The lower plank is slightly
thickened where the oak timber is located.
The outer edge of the plank is roughly cut but
generally follows the shape of the shelf piece
below. Aft of T99 the plank is not preserved
for its full width but luting on the upper
surface indicates there was another timber
overlying it in the same manner. Both the
timbers were nailed and bolted to the beams.
T99 is rounded in section with a raised lip on
the outer top edge [fig. 241.
SLl T I 14. A deck plank preserved for its
whole length of 6.85 m. It was nailed to each
deck beam in a regular pattern: four nails in
the form of a square and one centrally placed
similar to thefive on a gaming dice. This
plank was positioned at the end of the vessel
and its foremost end is bevelled accordingly.
Its top surface is marked where it fitted under
a waterway or such like. In the cabin area the
plank was painted on the under side in a
greylblue paint except where passing over the
beams. It therefore accurately records the
beam spacing in this part of the vessel. In the
same way it indicates the position of partition
planking.
The nail pattern along the rest of the length of
the plank also indicates the spacing of the
beams in the hold area, although the actual
widths can only be roughly determined. On
the edges of the deck planking there are
remains of oakum and tar caulking generally
extending for half the depth of the plank.
There was very little gap between them and in
one case the caulker had driven the caulking
iron into the extreme edge of the plank and
duly caulked the resulting split by mistake.
Some of these elements are shown
reassembled in fig. 28.
There were other loose fragments of deck
planking recovered including a stealer and a
piece with a semicircular hole which
corresponds to the diameter of the pump tube.

[Fig. 251 zijn die duiden op de wipe waarop her
Hole in deckbeam SL1 T80, presumably hour in ruwe vorm is vervoerd [Fig. 281
associated with dogs. [foto IPL]. Reassembled elements of SL 1: clamp
€en van de gaten die in het SLl T80 and waterway assembly SLl
onderschrift van fig. 24 aan de orde [Fig. 261 TI13 and SLl T99.
kwamen. De gaten hebben niets te Some of the holes which are Een aantal van de beschreven
maken met de constructie van her associated with dogs have been onderdelen van SL I zijn hier weer in
schip, maar er is we1 een verklaring plugged with wooden pegs. Some of hun oorspronkelijke verband
voor. Hetjaarringonderzoek wijst uit these are flat wedged like treenails. aaneengevoegd [foto IPL].
dat het hout afkomstig is uit Duitsland. €en aantal van deze Spannkeil gaten
Vermoedelijk zijn de omgezaagde zijn afgepropt [foto IPL]. [Fig. 291
stammen in grote vlonen Unidentified timber SLl T79. Its shape
stroomafwaarts langs de rivieren naar [Fig. 271 resembles that of a tiller.
de kustgevoerd. Om de stammen tot The end of SLl T99 in position above €en balk die doer denken aan een
een stijf vlot aaneen te binden werden the margin plank SL1 T113. The luting helmstok. Het stuk is echterzeer ruw
erpennen ingedreven. In het Duits material can be seen along the seam. afgewerkt.
worden diepennen Spannkeil Her eind van SLI T99zoals het boven
genoemd. De veronderstelling is nu dat de buitenste dekplank - het lijfhout-
deze gaten zijn gemaakt ten behoeve past Her breeuwwerk is zichtbaar
van Spannkeile en dat her dus sporen [foto IPLI.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 41
All the planking is Pinus sylvestris and 5.5 cm
in thickness.
SLI T102. A small piece of what appears to
be coaming for a small companion way.
Miscellaneous or unidentified timbers

SLI T100. Fragment of beam with rebate. A
piece of softwood is nailed into the rebate.
SLI T I 0 1. Timber with a rabbet along one
edge pierced by bolts, spikes and with two
staples on one side. There is a trace of tar in
the rabbet.
SLl T I 10. Part of a narrowing thick plank
with a dished depression at one end. It is
pierced with spikes and a bolt and has
caulking material along both edges. Opposite
the side with the depression there are marks
indicating it was positioned against frames.
The fastenings corroborate this. On what
would be the outer surface there is a small
repair patch let in over a large knot [fig. 241.
SLI T105. The end of a piece of timber with
two dished surfaces similar to that on the end
of T110.
SLl T I 11. Fragment of timber with bolts
passing through it in two planes. One edge is
slightly rounded.
SLI T20. Small timber, nail fastened, with
two flat sides and the other two rounded. One
of the flat sides has luting.
SLI T79. A large timber of good quality
surviving for a length of 2.30 m. At the
damaged end there were 5 through-bolts with
indications that they were fastened over a
series of stepped plates or iron straps. The
only other fastening is a bolt near the other
end passing through the timber in the other
plane [fig. 291. The undamaged end is roughly
bollard shaped and the whole timber is
slightly curved. It is similar in shape to a tiller
[depending on the vessel type] but it is rather
roughly finished and may have another
function.
Windlass
The windlass is made from a single piece of
pine 4.23 m in length with a diameter of 47.5
cm. It is of the handspike type with two sets
of handspike holes on each side of the pawl
rim which are cut in line. The pawl rim is a
series of notches cut into the windlass barrel,
the back face and the sides of each are faced
with iron. The barrel was originally octagonal
but has been rounded off by heavy wear
particularly on one side. The ends are conical
where the windlass rotated in the bits
[figs. 30, 311.
A3) [Fig. 301 Pump
Windlass SL1 A5. It is made from a single SLl A13. A section of pump tube was
piece of pine. recovered 75 x 20 cm with a bore of 11.5 cm
Het spil of braadspil van SL I is gemaakt [fig. 321.
uit BBn stuk grenen. Oorspronkelijk was
8; het spil achtkantig, maar de facetten zijn Hook

. ' in her gebruik afgesleten. De beide S L l A55. Iron hook with an eye at the crown
einden lopen uit in konische tappen. Er [fig. 331.
zijn twee series vierkante gaten voor de
handspaken in uitgekapt[foto j.a.1. Standing rigging
Strap of iron in the form of a square and
[Fig. 311 circle, probably a mast head strap. The square
Detail of windlass SL1 A5. part, fitting around the head of the mast, is
In het midden van het spil zijn paltanden 12.5 x 12.5 cm. The round part, binding the
uitgehakt. De onderzijde van iedere foot of the top mast, has a diameter of 16 cm
paltand is afgezet met een ijleren plaatje [fig. 341.
[foto i.a.1. A total of four deadeyes were recovered.
Three are of the same type and size, teardrop
[Fig. 321 shaped, three holed and bound with round
Fragment of a pump tube, SL1 A13 section iron bar. Two of these still had
A441 Een deel van een houten oomokoker fragments of the rope lanyards in the holes.
The other deadeye had three holes in one line
[fig. 351. Associated with these is a strap of
iron 900 x 70 x 10 mm, pierced for bolts. It is
likely to be a chain plate [fig. 361.
Two lengths of hawser laid rope 32 and
38 mm in diameter. They are served with 6
mm twine and tarred and are fragments of the
SLl A67. Masthead strap shrouds.
Stuk beslag dat vermoedelijk gediend
heeft om een steng met een mast te Running rigging
verbinden [foto IPL]. SLl A64. Single sheaved block [wood
sheave, iron pin] with iron binding and a hook
[Fig. 351 at one end [fig. 371.
Deadeyes SLl A3, SLl A39, SL1 A44 and SL1 A38. Cheek of a block, the binding was
SL1 A40. probably a rope strop [fig. 381.
Jufferblokken [foto's IPL]. SL1 A58. Fiddle block with iron binding and
a hook at one end. One of the cheeks has been
[Fig. 361 repaired [fig. 391.
SL1 A43. Part of a chain plate SL1 A60. Single sheaved block with a
Puttingijzer [foto IPL]. flattened crown, called a sheepshead block.
On each side above the swallow protrudes an
iron hook [fig. 401. Originally the tapered
shafts on these hooks interlocked. One of the
C.?'
hooks, however, was broken. The shaft is
reused to keep the other hook in place, a set of
pins being driven through a hole through both.
The broken hook was reforged in order to
lengthen it and to create a new barbed shaft,
which was driven into the block's wood
[fig. 411.
SL1 A65. Fragment of a small iron bound
single sheaved block with 10 mm rope still
roved through it.
SL1 A37. Knight head, single sheaved. The
head is a chamfered square in section and
flares upwards finishing in a moulded edge
[fig. 421. Through the base there are through
holes cut at right angles to the sheave which
are presumably for its anchorage. At the
mouth of each hole there is a rebate for an
iron strap to which the knight was probably
bolted. The holes seem to have been cut to an
oval section and show signs of wear but this is
unclear.
SLI A5 1. A traveller consisting of an iron
ring served with thin line, then covered with a
piece of leather which is sewn around the
outside edge. It is of the type with a hook set
in the middle of a shackle [Lees, 1984,371
[fig. 431. The ring is 3 1 mm thickness and
32.5 cm in diameter [which would indicate a
sprit diameter of 26 cm: 415 of the traveller's
diameter].
Apart from the metal pin of A64, all the pins
and sheaves of the blocks are of wood, some
of the pins may be Lignum Vitae.
Chain
SLl A7. 4 links with a D-shackle which has a
square pin and a swivel link.
SLI A8. Two lengths of chain joined by a
D-shackle and totalling ten metres in length.
SLl A9. 7 links of chain.
The association of this chain with the ship is
not clear as the windlass is of a type used with
hemp anchorcable rather than chain. The
presence of the swivel links and shackles
suggests this may be part of the mooring
chain of a wreck marker buoy. The task for
marking wrecks in this area was the
responsibility of the Commissarissen van de
Pilotage.
Equipment and fittings

SLI A76. Two jacks with chamfered wooden
shanks with a ring bolt on the side. The top
and bottom were sheathed in iron. They are
concreted together by the degraded iron
mechanism. This consists of a toothed bar of
iron set in a rebate on the inside of the shank.
The foot of the bar was turned flat, being
placed under the object to be lifted. It was
cloven in shape similar to a crow bar. The
jack was operated by a handle turning a gear
wheel that raised or lowered the bar. A similar
example from the first half of the 19th century
is shown in Maarleveld [1983, 241.
SLI A68. Three pieces of a grindstone
39.5 cm in diameter and 7.5 cm in thickness,
with a square hole for the axle. It has chisel
marks on the sides and is smooth on its outer
surface. This suggests it was a grinding wheel
for sharpening blades as opposed to quern
stone [fig. 441.

. . zetten. De bovenkant is als een bolder
w
.. '
.
,
. . afgewerkt [foto IPL].
. .
[Fig. 431
[Fig. 371 [Fig. 411 SLl A51. Traveller with shackle and
SL1 A64. Single-sheaved block. SLl A60 has undergone a major repair hook.
Enkelschijfsblok met buitenbeslag. after one of its hooks had broken off. Een zogenaamde travelaar. Het is een
Toen de schaapskop voor ijzeren ring waar touw omheen
[Fig. 381 conservering uiteen werd genomen gewonden is, waarna het geheelis
SI1 A38. Cheek of a block scored for a bleek dat 6en van de twee haken die bekleed met leer. Aan e6n kantzit een
rope strop. oorspronkelijk van weerszijden op een haak en twee ogen. Hiemp werd de
Wang van een stropblok [foto IPLI. lange veer in het middendammetje onderzijde [halsl van een voorzeil
verankerd waren ooit was afgebroken. gebonden. De ring was rand een
[Fig. 391 Het gebroken eind is opnieuw boegspriet of kluiverboom gemonteerd
SLl A58. Long tackle or fiddle block, uifgesmeed, waarbij oak weerhaken en met een val kon zo het voorzeil naar
iron bound and hooked. zijn aangebracht Vervolgens is die buiten worden gebracht [foto [IPL].
Vioolblok. Een van de wangen is haak iets lager dan oorspronkelijk in
gerepareerd [foto's IPL]. het blok aangebracht. [Fig. 441
SLl A68. Grindstone
[Fig. 401 [Fig. 421 Slijpsteen [foto IPLI.
9 ' SLl AGO. Ram's head block. SL1 A37. Knight.
Schaapskop. Enkelschijfs knechtje. Dnderin zijn er [Fig. 451
e haaks op de richting van de schijf SL1 A5011. Stave of a wooden bucket.

gaten in gekapt om de knecht vast te Duig van een emmer of kuip [foto IPLI.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 45

SLI A5011. A stave of a wooden bucket Table 1
[fig. 451. SL 1
SLI A.5013. Wooden tool handle, probably Number of Number of Heartwoodl Date of
belonging to SLI A76 [fig. 461. Sample no. Structural element rings sapwood rings sapwood boundary last ring
SLI A59. An iron shod wooden shovel
[fig. 471. 1 Ceiling plank 197 - -
SL1 A69/1. An iron hinge possibly from a 3 Hull plank 190 - -
cabin door [fig. 481. 6 Waterway 120 - -
2 Ceiling plank 146 -
Inventory 7 Waterway 101 - -
SL1 A57. Copper alloy bowl, the handle of 5 Ceiling plank 93 - -
which was riveted to the side [fig. 491. 4 Frame timber 59 17 42
SL1 A8 1. The Ijd of a copper alloy [possibly
brass] container [fig. SO]. Table 2
SLI A90/1, 2, 3,4. Four pewter plates with SL 1
identical touch marks [fig. 511. Found stacked
together and pierced by an iron bolt, probably Sample no. Hamburg Weserbergland Lower Saxony coastal area
during the wrecking or dredging process.
They are Dutch, made of English metal
possibly in North Holland. They show the
marks of reasonably heavy use.
SLI A83. A porcelain saucer with blue and
white design. Unmarked on the base [fig. 521.
SL1 A5014. Rim sherd of a wide salt glazed
earthenware shallow bowl [fig. 531.
SLI A5015. Several small sherds of an
earthenware vessel with a shiny green glaze
on the inside. The fabric is buff coloured with
coarse gritty inclusions [shown reassembled
in fig. 541.
SLI A.5012. Fragment of a green glazed red
earthenware tile with fragments of mortar
adhering, probably from the hearth [fig. 551.
1.3 ANALYSES

The application of the
dendrochronological method on ancient ship's
timbers provides a powerful tool in dating.
This, however, is not its only, nor its greatest
asset. It also provides information that is vital
to a proper understanding of the timber trade
as well as the timber choices made in
shipbuilding. The principles of the method,
the methodological problems and the
procedures followed during the Slufter-
research are briefly outlined in Appendix I.
As an aid in understanding the statistics given
in the text the reader is advised to read the
appendix first. The reference chronologies
that were used in the analysis are also shown
there.
Sampling
Since it was impossible to record these ship's
remains in situ the association of the different
timbers was inferred during the research.
Some timbers were brought up by the

dredgers, others were lifted from the site by
divers during the on-site inspection. From
these more or less loose timbers seven
Period Possible area of origin samples were taken. Three are of ceiling
planking, two of waterways, one of a futtock
1580 - 1776 Hamburg and one of a hull plank [table 11.
-
1526 1715 Lower Saxony coastal area or Weserbergland
1591 - 1710 Weserbergland, Hamburg or Southern Germany Dating
1548 - 1693 Hamburg Of the seven samples only one had sapwood.
1573 - 1673 Weserbergland, Hamburg or Southern Germany This sample with sapwood [4] -the sample of
1557 - 1649 Weserbergland, Hamburg, Lower Saxony coastal area or Southern Germany the futtock - could not be dated, at least not
- - with the chronologies at hand. The number of
rings [58, of which 17 were sapwood] is too
small for a good synchronisation because the
chance of random correlation is too great. In
other words the sample-curve fits at different
Schleswig-Holstein Southern Germany Low Countries places on different standard chronologies. The
ring pattern also showed an irregular growth
pattern probably not reflecting the
climatological signal.
In the histogram of fig. 56 the date of the las't
ring of each sample, the length of each ring-
pattern and their relative position is
represented.
Three mean site-chronologies could be
produced. Ceiling planks [ l ] and [2]
synchronised [t = 8.47, GL = 67.1 [99.9%]],
waterways [6] and [7] synchronised [t = 7.23,
GL = 67.1 [99.0%]] and the sample of the hull
plank [3] synchronised with waterway [6]
[Fig. 461 [Table 21 [t = 3.78, GL = 63.0 [99%]]. Surprisingly hull
SLl A5013. Wooden tool handle. 200 =mean of sample 1 and 2 plank [3] did not match with waterway [7].
Handvat, vermoedelijk behorend b i j 300 =mean of sample 6 and 7 Ceiling plank [5] synchronised with sample
b i n van de w e e gevonden 400 =mean of sample 3,6 and 7 [4] from wrecksite SL 3 [t = 9.14, GL = 65.9
dommekrachten [foto IPL]. Sample 5 is dated by sample 4 of SL 3 [99%]]. This very high t-value suggests that
(t = 9.14, GL = 65.9 (99.0)) the two timbers have the same area of origin
[Fig. 471 Sample 7 is dated by sample 6 [a t-value higher than 10 means that the
SL1 A59. lron shod wooden shovel (t = 7.23, GL = 67.1) timbers are cut from the same tree]. On this
Houten schep met ijzerbeslag [foto's Overzicht van de verschillende basis, it is possible that SL 1 and SL 3 contain
IPLI. herkomstgebieden per houtmonstar remains of the same ship. This point will be
van SL 1. De mate van overeenkomst further considered below.
[Fig. 481 tussen de jaarringcurve van een Closer inspection of the histogram of fig. 56
SL1 A6911. lron hinge. houtmonster en de referentie- suggests that sample [ I ] of a ceilingplank is a
Scharnier [foto IPLI. chronologie van een bepaald gebied repair, because of the gap of 6 1 years between
wordt uitgedrukt i n de Gleichlaufigkeit the last ring of this sample and last ring of
[Fig. 491 (maat voor de parallel-variatie tussen sample [3], a hull plank. However, one has to
SLl A57. Copper alloy bowl. twee jaarringcurven) en de t-waarde consider the fact that all the samples of this
Een gee1koperen pan waaraan een (een getransformeerde correlatie- timber-complex are from planks.
handvat heeftgezeten dat met nieten coefficient). Hoe hoger beide waarden As economical use of timber in shipbuilding
bevestigd was. des te beter passen de curven op requires each log or bole to be converted into
elkaar, tanminste statistisch gezien. several planks of varying width and thickness
Een statistische overeenkomst moet and considering the further trimming of a
altijd visueel worden gecontroleerd. plank carried out when fitting it, a difference
of 61 growth rings, which is only about 6 cm,
is not a great deal.
Another point that argues against the
interpretation of sample [ l ] as a repair is the
fact that sample [ l ] and [2] have a very high
correlation and therefore originate from the
same area. This might indicate that the
timbers belonged to the same cargo and so
have the same felling date. Whether the same
is true for the whole complex of timbers is
another question. The difference in area of
origin of the timbers [see below] suggests that
it is not. It is possible that the timber was used
from stocks held in the shipyard which could
explain the different origins and felling dates
but this seems unlikely. Nevertheless the
felling date of the youngest dated sample,
assuming it is not a repair, is the closest we
could get to the building date of the vessel.
The actual felling date of the youngest dated
sample must be estimated, since this sample is
incomplete, i.e. without sapwood. In the case
of samples of German origin this means that
one has to reckon with a mean sapwood
allowance of 20 years. Because there are no
dated samples with sapwood one assumes that
the last ring of the youngest dated sample is
the closest to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary. Adding this estimate to the last ring
of sample [ l ] gives a date around or after
1796 A.D. Since an unknown number of
heartwood rings is missing this date should be
interpretated as a terminus post quem. In this
case it is of no use to state any confidence
interval at a certain probability level, because
of the unknown number of missing heartwood
rings.
To assess the building date is a problem in its
own right. The relationship between the
felling date and the building date is
influenced by several factors: was the wood
immediately transported after felling? How
long did it take to transport the wood? Was
wood stored in yards or used immediately?
Was the timber seasoned and/or dried? Some
of these questions could be answered
tentatively. If the suggestion is right that we
are dealing here with a tjalk or smak like ship
type, then we could infer that she was built in
a small yard. These yards probably had
neither the financial resources to maintain
large stocks of seasoning timber, or facilities
and space for storage over the period of time
this would take. Storage and seasoning would
be restricted to a minimum. This makes it
highly likely that the ship would be afloat
within say two years after felling the trees,
which gives a building date around or after
1798.
Origin of the timbers

The restricted application of a reference
chronology to a geographical region was
mentioned above. During the investigation
not all the existing chronologies were

available and so this limits the conclusions
one can draw on the origin of the timbers.
It is possible that better matches would have
been achieved with one of those not used,
such as the Polish, Danish, Norwegian or both
Swedish curves. Another aspect is that there
are areas of forest where timber was obtained
for ship-building for which chronologies do
not yet exist.
Every sample [or mean of samples] has been
run against the available chronologies.
Sometimes samples synchronise with more
than one standard chronology, while the date
stays the same. On the basis of statistics it is
not possible to match a sample to a certain
area of origin. Neither, in some cases, can a
preference be made on the basis of visual
examination. The Hamburg-, Weserburgland-
and South-German chronologies for example
are very similar. Another possibility can
occur, namely that a timber comes from an
area between one or more chronologies. When
this is the case it is not possible to tie down
the sample to a particular chronology.
In table 2 the statistics are given for matching
positions between samples with the same date
and different chronologies. Samples [7] and
[5] are not dated by any chronology but by
other samples. The area of origin is thus
[Fig. 531 assumed to be the same as that of the sample
SLl A50/4. Rimsherd of an earthenware it is dated with. The samples of ceiling planks
bowl. [ I ] and [2] could be visually related to the
Randscherfvan een ondiepe kom [foto Hamburg chronology. The sample of the hull
IPL]. plank [3] fits visually a little better on the
Lower Saxony coastal area chronology. The
[Fig. 541 sample of waterway [6] gives a good fit on
SLl A5015. Part of the handle of a green three chronologies: that of Hamburg and those
glazed coarse earthenware vessel. Weserbergland and southern German. It was
Scherf met groen glazuur[foto IPLI. impossible visually to discriminate between
[Fig. 501 them. Since sample [4] of wreck SL 3, by
SLl A81. Lid of a copper alloy [Fig. 551 which sample [5] is dated, matches with
container. SL1 A5012. Green glazed tile with several chronologies: the Weserbergland,
Koperen deksel dat niet op de pan mortar adhering. Hamburg, Lower Saxony coastal area, and
past. Groen geglazuurde tegel met South-Germany chronologies, the same
metselspecie. applies to sample [5] of SL 1. Visually the
[Fig. 511 curve of SL 3 [4] fitted best on the
SL1 A90/1,2,3,4. Pewter plates. Weserbergland, Hamburg and Lower Saxony
Een stapel van vier tinnen borden was coastal area standard chronologies.
doorstoken geraakt met een ijzeren In short the wood comes from different areas
pen. De borden vertonen veel in the more eastern parts of West-Germany
snijsporen en behoren vermoedelijk tot and the Lower Saxony coastal area.
het kommaliewant en niettot de lading.
[Fig. 521 Several samples of caulking and
SLl A83. Porcelain saucer. luting materials were submitted to John
Blauwporceleinen schaaltje [foto IPLI. Evans, Head of Department of Natural
Sciences at North East London Polytechnic.
Initially the samples were investigated by
scanning electron microscope to assess their
general make-up. They prooved to be structure remaining approximately where it
composed of a mixture of hair, possibly wool, had originally settled, other parts of the hull
vegetable matter, including petal fragments, drifting off. Flotsam and jetsam must have got
and a binder [fig. 571. No hemp fibres were dispersed wide and far. The main wreckage
found. Subsequently the samples were must have sunk in a tidal gully blocking the
extracted with a series of solvents. The tides and thus starting off a process of
various extracts were investigated by a range scouring. The localised erosion has caused the
of chromatographic techniques, including thin remains to dig into the older sediments only to
layer and gas chromatography. The results of be covered again after their blocking effect on
this phase of investigation indicated that the the tides had been sufficiently reduced.
binder in all cases consisted of a pine pitch.
Known weights of each sample were ignited 1.4.2 The ship
to constant weight in order to estimate the During the course of the recording of
amount of mineral fraction, i.e. [mainly] the the remains from sites SL 1, SL 3, and SL 5
clay component. The clay content ranged the many similarities between them fostered a
between 47 and 53% [as opposed to a suspicion that they might originate from one
14 - 18% range for SL 4 samples]. and the same vessel. As more detailed
As lime was sometimes used with pitch as a analysis proceeded the accumulating weight
waterproofing agent the mineral residues were of evidence made this seem increasingly
examined for calcium carbonate, the likely.
compound of slaked lime [calcium hydroxide] One of the strongest indicators was the
with carbon dioxide. None of this was found, dendrochronological analysis of SL 1 and
so lime had not been used. SL 3. Not only was there a high correlation
between the ring patterns of the two
1.4 EVALUATION assemblages, which suggests the timber came
from the same area, but the estimated felling
1.4.1 The site dates were only three years apart.
The remains at wrecksite SL 1 were The remains from SL 5 have not been dated
encountered at depths between 14 and 18 m. by this method. Many characteristics of the
Part of the 'observations' were made through timbers and fastenings, however, exhibit
the crude mediation of the dredging strong similarities to those of SL 1 and SL 3.
instruments. The site has been accessible for The four types of fastenings: treenails, iron
on-site inspection to a very limited extent and bolts, spikes and nails, are to all intents and
this only at the very last stage of its clearance. purposes identical in all three assemblages.
No detailed soil profile or site map is Not all types are present in every case but
available. Nevertheless the orientation of the those that are crossmatch exactly with regard
ship's remains could be firmly established, as to size, shape and general condition. For
well as the fact that the early holocene - example bolts in all three cases have the same
subatlantic boundary locally occurred at a chamfered cross section. The nails in all three
greater depth than in the surrounding area as cases have the same facetted heads with
shown by the geological survey. In square shanks. Treenails with caulked cuts,
combination these factors shed some light on some with oak pins were also found in planks
the process of site formation. from all three sites.
A substantial part of the upper structure of the The general appearance of the timbers in all
wrecked ship must have sunk upside down as three cases is very similar, the oak frame
a coherent whole still containing part,of the timbers closely corresponding in size. A
ships inventory and fittings. It seems likely fragment of pine deck planking from SL 5 is
that the ship has rolled over first and that the the same thickness as those of SL 1. A deck
hull was broken apart at a later stage, the deck beam from SL 5 [SL5 TI51 matches those of
S t r u c t u r a l element
CEILING P L A N K
H U L L PLANK
WATERWAY
CEILING PLANK
WATERWAY
CEILING PLANK

SL 1 with regard to size, curvature, and
general appearance. It has the same smooth
well finished surface, shows a similar nail
pattern from the deck plank fastenings on its
upper side, and has a dovetailed end for
location in a shelf very similar in size and
shape to the rebates for half beams in the shelf
piece from SL 1. Hull planks of SL 1 and SL 3
have former nail holes filled with small
wooden pegs.
Finally, considering the parts of ship's
structure represented by the timbers from the
various sites: those of SL 1 consist
predominantly of deck elements, while those
of SL 3 are all hull timbers. SL 5 is also hull
structure barring the deck support beam and
the fragment of deck plank. Therefore they
are complementary in this respect, something
that would be rather unlikely were they
[Fig. 561 wrecks of separate vessels. This suggests that
Histogram showing the date of the last it is one hull that was dismembered and
treering of each sample as well as the became scattered during the wrecking
length of the treering patterns and their process. In support of this possibility, the
relative position. deck structure of SL 1 was found lying deeply
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van buried and upside down. It is well preserved
SL 1 ten opzichte van elkaar en de and was still an extensive coherent unit when
datering van de buitenste jaarring van first found. The presence of a number of
elk monster. De bomen zijn in 1796 of kor7 artefacts from the cabin as well as rigging
daarna omgehakt W e mogen aannemen elements and deck fittings, suggest that this
dathet schip binnen twee jaarna deze was not a part of a deck torn from a hull
veldaturn is gebouwd: in of fond 1798. during wrecking. Rather the opposite is more
likely, i.e. after sinking the hull came to lie
[Fig. 571 upside down after which sections of the hull
Scanning electron microscope image of were torn away. The distance between the
caulking sample showing hair, possibly sites [see fig. 131 is not inconsistent with this
wool. hypothesis as wreck structure can become
Elekbonenmicroscoopvergroting van her scattered over an area of many square
breeuwmateriaal. Het bleek re bestaan kilometres.
uit haar, plantenresten en een While it is not possible to prove that these
bindmiddel, maar hennep [touw ofwerkl assemblages are from the same vessel, the
ontbrak [foto John Evans]. weight of evidence makes this more likely
than that two or three vessels of similar type,
size and date sunk in such close proximity.
Construction
In discussing the construction of what will be
treated as one vessel, the framing system
cannot be positively determined due to the
fact that none of the hull timbers were
connected or articulated in any way. However,
there is evidence of the planking system in
SLI T45. On the basis of its shape, curvature,
fastenings and the marks of the timbers to
which it was fastened, this is almost certainly
from the bow. The various factors suggesting
this are discussed below.
Fig. 58 shows the principle of its position
relative to these timbers and the stem. The
mark along the end of its outer surface

indicates that it either rested in a form of
rabbet in the side of the stem or more likely,
that it was nailed to the inner surface of the
stem. A similar arrangement is seen in a
Tjalk-like vessel, 17 m in length and 4.5 m in
breadth, that wrecked in the mid 19th century
and was found in the former Zuiderzee at lot
E46 in East Flevoland in The Netherlands
[figs. 59, 601. It is a method of planking well
suited to ships with round bows and round
sterns and it is seen in many of the various
related types. Numerous examples of this
general hull form appear in contemporary
paintings and prints, for example, a kof
zeijlende bij de wind drawn by Groenewegen
[I7891 [fig. 611.
As observed above several former nail holes
on this same plank are plugged with wooden
pegs. These holes resulted from the temporary
clamps that were used to hold the planks
together during construction. This technique
was applied where the planking was erected
in advance of some or all of the frames. As
the frames were placed and fastened, so the
clamps were removed and the nail holes
plugged. It is as characteristic of Dutch
shipbuilding technology as is the method of
framing round bowed vessels illustrated in
fig. 58.
As described, some of the timbers recovered
were able to be reassembled to form what is
probably part of the starboard fore deck area
[fig. 62, also fig. 281. These were: the curved
beam shelf SL1 T74, deck beams SL1 T80
and T77, deck planks; SLl TI14 and T116,
and a margin planklwaterway assembly SL1
T113 and T99. The beam shelf has a close
parallel in another tjalk-like vessel also found
in the polders of the former Zuiderzee at lot
M40 [Oosting, pers.comm.1. This vessel sunk
some time around 1815 and was 19 m in
length and 4.5 m wide. The shelf piece of
SL 1 was rebated to accept the dovetailed
ends of beams and half beams as shown in fig.
62. Its context was confirmed by the nail
patterns in the plank above and by the paint
on the underside of the plank. These also
indicate the beam spacing which is relatively
close, around 5 1 - 6 1.5 cm for the first four
from the bow [which includes half beams] and
between 70 and 108 cm for the five main
beams aft of them.
The spacing of the beams and their narrow
depth is seen in many illustrations and plans
of small round hulled merchant sailing
vessels. An oil painting by J.C. Dahl, dated
1829 and cited by Cederlund [I98 1,291 in his
discussion of the Alvsnabben wreck shows a
galjoot with closely spaced beams that are

[Fig. 601
The bow at E46.
Detailopname van de binnenzijde van
de boeg van hetschip op E46[foto
RIJPI.
[Fig. 611
Contemporary kof.
Kof zeijlende bij de wind,
Groenewegen, 1789.
[Fig. 621
Reassembled deck structure from SL 1:
beam shelf SLl T74, deck beam SLl
[Fig. 581 T80, waterway assembly consisting of
Hypothetical reconstruction of bow SLl TI13 and SLl T99.
planklstem assembly of SL 1. Een aantal elementen kon weer in
Reconstructie van de boeg. De oorspronkelijk verband worden
huidplanken rusten op de binnenzijde samengevoegd. Hierzijn die
van de voorsteven. elementen weergegeven die de
opbouw van het dek in het voorschip
[Fig. 591 illustreren. Opvallend is de kromme
Excavation of a tjalk-like vessel in dekweger waar de dekbalken invallen.
Eastern Flevoland at lot E46. The vessel Voorrszijn bet lijfhout en het
shows an arrangement of planking that binnenboord te herkennen. Zie ook
is similar to SL 1. fig. 28.
Tjalk-achtig schip op kavel E46in
oostelijk Flevoland. Ook hier rusten de
huidplanken op de binnenzijde van de
voorsteven.

n case o f ,
:ries.
e wreck a also similarly steeply cambered to those of function associated with the bow, in particular
1 to be ren SL 1. The plan of a smak of 1777 by Van the traveller which would have run along the
lue. It wa Konijnenburg [1913, fig. 231 again shows bow sprit for setting a jib sail. The
e operatic very closely spaced beams. Both these sheepshead block [SLl A601 is also an
:d by arch examples also show the arrangement of indicator of the bow area: it was used for
1 would bt carlings between alternate pairs of beams and hoisting the head of a foresail.
studied af then only in part of the vessel. A similar The recovery of several finds that are likely to
arrangement is suggested by the rebates in the have come from a cabin area might on the
learance sides of the deck beams of SL 1. other hand suggest the stern. However, there
om the m Another drawing from the same volume could be a cabin at both the bow and the stern.
1 archaeol [Konijnenburg: fig. 221 shows the section of a In most types of these vessels the stern cabin
ad been rc kof of 1830 in which the beams are of similar was under a raised deck. In the structure
removinl shallow section to SL 1 as well as being illustrated above this is clearly not the case,
for furthe closely spaced. whereas paint and panelling seem to confirm
niques, !t The waterway assembly [fig. 621 formed of a the cabin-like nature.
involved lipped margin plank with a curved stringer
'Y of the a above it is unusual. However, of the many Caulking and luting
'pt inforn; vessels excavated so far, few are well It is interesting to note that during the analysis
)r the ope preserved at this height so comparative of caulking materials no remains of oakum
tight tin material is limited. The section of the oak were found. Oakum is a caulking material
furdy cha stringer shows that the bulwark structure composed of hemp fibres, usually derived
to clear tumbled inwards in the manner of many of the from tearing apart old or faulty rope. Its
:gligible 1 small round ship types. Other pieces found at absence is remarkable as oakum is usually
Dment wii SL 1 presumably represent a waterway of a cited in any description of the caulking
utter-suct more usual type i.e. they are of oak and have process. It may, however, have been used far
of the ovc rebates cut for the half beams. The two types less than is commonly assumed.
floating s cannot be reconciled but this inconsistency is
111 wreck: not problematic as the nature of the deck Ship type
ge grab If structure could have changed along the length It can be seen from the above that the ship
rance had of the vessel between the cabin and hold from SL 1, SL 3 and SL 5 conforms in key
It of the I areas. As described, it appears that in the aspects to vessels of the Dutch shipbuilding
Ieyond th latter configuration a gutter was left between tradition but before attempting to ascribe the
use explo the outermost plank and the bulwark. This remains to a particular type, an overview of
was C ~ O S , would be consistent with a position in the small merchant vessels of this general form is
and volu middle of the ship. necessary. This overview is not a
ollect an! The position of the main hatch, necessarily aft classification of types or an exhaustive
'. During
of the series of main beams as indicated by documentation of their characteristics. Rather
the deck plank also left a fairly wide area of it is intended as a contribution to the
the coal
ugly little deck between it and the bulwarks. This is discussion on the relationships between the
XI.The 11, shown by two of the knees described above various types of ships with round bows and
alfofit w [SLl T95 and T961. Similar hatch knees were round sterns, which are far less well defined
found in a boeier-like vessel, 17 m in length than is commonly assumed.
mably ~t1
remains and 4.20 m wide, wrecked at the end of the From the constructional elements recovered it
ed in the 17th century in the Zuiderzee at lot F34 is evident that SL 1 was a round bowed
shown ir [figs. 63, 641 and another vessel also from the vessel. Although the evidence is lacking, it is
ckage wa polders, found at lot 0 2 7 1 [Oosting, pers. presumed that the stern was similarly formed.
comm.]. Many Dutch ship types share this
1 two sm:
The latter also shows a hatch knee placed characteristic form, the bluff bow and round
as fitting:
almost alongside a hanging knee, while in F34 stern being a product of building vessels that
gging ele
they are placed in the centre of the space are a compromise between carrying capacity
lsiderati, between the hanging knees supporting the and sailing qualities. Other characteristics of
gangway between the hatch and the bulwark. these ship types are a round stem post,
reckage 1
The latter are like SL1 T97. The hanging straight stern post and flat bottom. A type
of the hu
knees that bind the deck beams of F34 are embodying these qualities is the tjalk, which
quite clea
)nStructic similar to SLl T78 [fig. 22, T78]. - in iron - still survives today and for that
The recovery of the windlass is one of the reason similar vessels are referred to as being
;. Instead
factors reinforcing the interpretation of this tjalk-like for convenience, as for example
?re restor
assemblage as that of the bow. In addition those found in the polders noted above as
many of the rigging elements also suggest a having similarities to SL 1.
i SLUFTE

This does not mean that SL I was a tjalk.
Other vessels with strong similarities in form
were used for a wide variety of purposes.
Some served on inland waters, such as the
poon, the Brabantsch beurtschip the
Zuidhollandsche gaffeltjalk and the Vriescl?e
tjalk. Others operated on the open sea like the
Izoeker., the buis and the galjoot. In addition
there were many that sailed both inland
waters and the open sea, such as the smak, the
kof and the Vlaarnsche pleit. This versatility is
worthy of comment. It is often remarked that
the qualities of this hull form, in particular the
flat bottom, made them eminently suitable for
trade in the shallow inland seas.
This is certainly true but their full bows also
took the sea well without plunging or dipping
too deep, and enabled them to operate
succesfully in both spheres. This was cited by
the masters of the tjalks that were still trading
in the early decades of this century as being
one of their positive qualities [Loomeyer,
1980, 841.
Because of the strong similarities of form
between these types, defining their various
characteristics is difficult. The names of the
various types were used over a long period, at
least from the 17th to the 19th century. While
names remained the same it is certain that
many aspects of the vessels themselves did
not.
For instance the galjoot is known to have
gradually changed in hull form and rig during
the eighteenth century [Van Beylen 1970-73,
2, 3081. An extreme, yet cautionary example,
cited by McGowan [I98 1,321 concerns the
boeier- originally a two masted vessel, which
dropped out of use towards the end of the 17th
century. By the mid 18th century the name
[Fig. 631 had come to mean a round sterned craft used
A wreck that was excavated at lot F34 for pleasure sailing.
in Eastern Flevoland shows hatch Another example is that of the kof which
knees which are very similar to those came to mean two different types of vessel
found at S L 1 . that were in use at the same time. One, the
De knieen SL I T95 en SL I T96 die zijn smaller to medium sized inland and coastal
afgebeeld op fig. 22 en 23zijn verwerkt trader, the other a large sea going form.
geweest in de constructie van een Table 3 shows data taken from newspapers in
luikhoofd. Bij de opgraving van een the northern provinces in the period between
scheepswrak op kavelF34 in oostelijk 1743 and 1798 in which ships were advertised
Flevoland kwam exact dezelfde for sale [Loomeyer 1980, 151. The type and
constructie aan het licht Her gaat the length of the vessel was given. The two
daar om een boeierachtig vaartuig dat distinct types of kof show clearly. The small
17 m lang en 4,20 m breed is. Het is te kof was sometimes differentiated from its
dateren op het einde van de 17e e e u w . larger relation by being referred to as
kofschuite, kofschipje, and kofke, where the
[ F i g . 641 suffix je and ke means small. The big kofs had
Detail of hatch structure F34. a slightly sharper underwater hull form to
Het luikhoofd van F34 in detail improve their sailing ability, whereas the
[foto's RIJP]. smaller kofs retained more similarity to the
A R C H A E O L O G Y O F T H E SLUFTER
2 in case c
weries.
the wreck tjalks. The main difference between the latter Table 3
ad to be P was the greater depth of the kof and the
tinue. ~t v greater length to breadth ratio of the tjalk. Length in meters Tjalk Smak Kof
rice Opera That they were close in general characteristics

)red by an is illustrated in the reference made by one -
10 12 X
tat would Jochum Jans in 1781 who was offering his 12 - 14 X XXX
14 - 16 X XXX
e studied vessel for sale, describing it as a tjalk or
kofschip [Loomeyer 1980, 161. 16 - 18 XX X X
18 - 19 XXXX X
Clearan, This strong similarity between the various
From the types is another aspect of the problem. Le 19-20 XXXXX XXXX X
ed archae Comte [I83 1, 121 calls the smak the sister of 20 - 21 XXXXXXXXXXX X
had been the kof. In support of this, in a survey of ship XXXXX X
masters living in the Veenkolonieen [a former XXXXX XXXX

3f removi
"or furtt peat digging area in the south west of the XXXXX
province of Groningen] a ship named the XXXXX

:hniques,
re involve Eendracht is listed as a kof later smak
Iity of the [Van Koldam et al., 19791. Although the two
cept infor types were obviously similar, there were
itor the O[ differences. The smak has a triangular
he tight t~ helmport transom with the jigger mizzen mast Tot.
Sturdy cl: stepped onto this structure just forward of the

Staatje met afmetingen van tjalken,
ed to clea head of the rudder. To further complicate the
issue, an illustration by Groenewegen [I7891 smakken en koffen, gebaseerd op
negligible
advertenties in noordelijke kranten
lipment u shows a vessel he refers to as a smak or a
met ten verkoop aangeboden schepen
cutter-su, tjalk. The stern is smak-like so this either
(Naar Loomeyer. 1980, 151
t of the 0. implies that the structure was not exclusive to
:floating smaks or that tjalk was already becoming a
"1 wrecl general term?
Uge grab , From the above it is evident that caution must
arance ha be exercised in defining the characteristics of
Int of the the various types, let alone in attributing Table 4
beyond t archaeological remains to a specific type.

Even if this can be done, which as Cederlund Tjalk Smak Kof Kofje
I use expl,
t was cho points out is a necessary preliminary step

s and volt [1981, 161 it is often not possible to draw a
collect ar clear distinction between them. This is
e. Durine nowhere more clearly demonstrated than
f the coal when considering the many vessels of related
ingly littl types that have been discovered in the polders
jed. The t [the former Zuiderzee].
lalf of it \ The degree of preservation in many cases is
~mablyit remarkable but even where the majority of the
:remains hull remains it is still impossible to ascribe it
lted in the to a particular type. Hence the appellation
shown i tjalk-like or boeier-like. A contributary factor
:ckage w, is that in many of these wrecks a major
h two sm proportion of the structure at deck level is
as fitting missing.
k i n g elf Because all these types were the product of
the same ship-building tradition hull form and
"iderati construction technique are not diagnostic.
(reckage . Aspects of rig, deck configuration, and hatch
of the h~ structure etc., being connected with the
quite cle: purpose to which the hull was put also had an
Onstructic influence on how the vessel was classified.
s. Instead On the question of size several factors are of
ere res to1 help. The one preserved deck beam indicates
a breadth of around 5 m adding an estimated
40 - 50 cm for the thickness of the hull

timbers. The ends of the beams are fairly sterns. On the evidence available it is
square implying they were from a position at dangerous to attempt to be more definite.
or near the main breadth. This is not at all
unlikely for, eventhough this beam is from
fairly far forward the sides of this hull form
were relatively parallel. The length to breadth
ratio of the tjalk was around 4.9:l. This would
indicate a length of 24.5 m for SL 1 which
would seem too long compared to the
maximum of 21 - 22 m for tjalks in fig. 61
above. Of the other types the length to breadth
ratios were commonly between 3.9: 1 for
smaks and 4.1 : 1 for sea going kofs [Loomeyer
1980, 181. This would give a length of
between 19.5 m and 20.5 m. Sea going kofs
were of the order of 24 - 28 m while the
smaller type was around 12 - 16 m and 19 m
at the largest. This suggests SL 1 is unlikely
to be a kof. The types commonly around
19 - 22 m in length and 5 m in breadth
include the smak, the hoeker and the galjoot.
The hoeker at this period was common in the
south of Holland while the smak was built in
the north in large numbers. Table 4 shows
ships built in three towns in the province of
Groningen during the period from 1738 to
1805 [taken from Van Koldam et al. 1979,
43-47]. This is not assumed to be
comprehensive but can be taken as a good
indication of the number built of the various
types.
Wrecked off Rotterdam, the hoeker might be a
likely suspect. The trade from the ports in the
northern provinces being largely directed
towards the Baltic. However, a certain amount
of coastal traffic makes a northern provenance
for the vessel quite plausible. An interesting
pointer might be the pewter plates found on
the site. Their touch marks show them to be
made out of English metal and of a type made
in the north of Holland around the end of the
18th century. The other finds also fit this
general period and accord with the mean
felling date of 1793 indicated by the
dendrochronological analysis of SLlJSL3
timbers.
A contributary consideration is the probable
north German origin of the wood of SL 1 and
SL 3. While one cannot be definite, this
suggests a northern rather than a southern
built vessel as most of the timber for the latter
was brought down the Rhine from the south
German forests.
In conclusion, while the smak might seem to
be the most likely type to which this ship
belongs, all one can say in the light of the
foregoing discussion is that it belongs firmly
in the Dutch tradition of small merchant
trading vessels with round bows and round
A R C H A E O L O G Y O F T H E SLUFTER 57
[Fig. 651
Map showing the profile of the newly
dug Hindergat shortly after operations.
Dieptekaart van het Hindergat, kort
nadat hetgegraven was.

2.1 CIRCUMSTANCES OF hole 30 mm in diameter.
DISCOVERY SL2 T4. A V-shaped floor timber probably
Just like wrecksite SL 1 wrecksite SL from near the stern. There is a rebate across
2 was discovered at the very beginning of the foot on one side. It is pierced by a large
sand extraction. Cutter-suction-dredger Triton number of treenails [fig. 661.
had started its work to the south of the Slufter SL2 T5. Fragment of keel 3.2 m long 30 cm in
location. As the Slufter would block the Gat depth. The breadth is uncertain due to
van de Hawk a new passage for the tides had splintering. There is moss luting in the rabbet
to be created. The new channel was to cut for the garboard which was held in place with
through the Hinderplaat, a sandbank that runs iron nails. The angled end is the skeg i.e. the
parallel to the coast and it is subsequently projection protecting the foot of the rudder.
called the Hindergat. The stern post had been treenailed down to
On May 28 1986 the Triton got stuck in a the keel and at this point there is the mark of
wreck in the position x 59.216 and y 436.719 an iron bracket or heel plate that reinforced
[fig. 131. The cutter was lifted and some the connection with the stern post
heavy, characteristic ships timbers were lifted [figs. 67,681. On the under side there is a
with it. The site lies just at the fringe of the treenail hole possibly for securing a shoe or
projected channel, at a depth of approximately false keel. However, with its rounded cross-
10 m. After the timbers had been cursory section this seems unlikely and it may be
examined it was decided that the site would concerned with construction.
be spared during further dredging activity. SL2 T9. Timber with treenail holes badly
Any on-site inspection would be postponed as worn, probably part of a futtock.
the site would probably be covered in spill SL2 T10. Plank 172 x 9 x 3 cm fastened by
sands. During soundings that were to be nails 10 mm square. They are on average
carried out to establish the development of the placed on every 30 cm along its length
Hindergat as a tidal gully the wrecksite would [fig. 691. On what was the inboard side there
frequently be inspected and if erosion would is moss luting around the nail holes [fig. 701.
locally occur inspection dives could be SL2 T11. Possibly part of a small beam
organised [fig. 651. 70 x 11 x 9 cm, has one nail hole 9 mm. Badly
On July 6th, however, during a clearance damaged.
operation of the Hindergat the Triton struck SL2 T14. Short plank fragment with 4 nail
the wreck again. Two days later the same holes and moss luting on one side [fig. 711.
thing happened. No material was collected. SL2 T15. Thick plank, 80 x 19 x 7 cm,
The wreck clearly caused a substantial possibly a wale or stringer, with an unwedged
obstruction. Soundings carried out in May treenail 35 mm in diameter. Near the treenail
1987 showed the site to have been totally on one side is a 10 x 10 mm nail hole that has
covered in sediments. As the site was not been plugged with a square wooden oak peg
under any further threat it was left to be for [figs. 72,731.
the present. SL2 T18. Badly damaged fragment of timber
with an angled end. Has a rebate running
2.2 DESCRIPTION O F T H E across it and possibly one sunning along one
RECOVERED REMAINS side though this may be dredger damage.
The recovered timbers, were badly SL2 T19. Large thick plank
damaged. Only those with significant features 230 x 13 x 4.5 cm. At one end there was a
are described. All were of oak. scarf joint fastened by nails and sealed with
SL2 T1. A badly damaged piece, moss luting, some of which remains [fig. 741.
68 x 28 x 10 - 11 cm. Judging by its size and There are also nail holes along the length of
knotty character it may be part of a V-shaped the plank irregular in pattern. Depressions in
floor timber. In the centre there is one treenail the surface indicate a nailhead of around
ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 59

40 mm in diameter [fig. 751. On the reverse
side to the face of the scarf there was moss
luting over the whole surface. Possibly a
repair.
SL2 T23. Splintered fragment, probably of a
beam. Iron stained luting on one side. Some
nail holes in the other face.
SL2 T20. Heavy iron bar fairly square in
section, 6 x 6 cm and 1 m long; possibly the
shank of an anchor.
2.3 ANALYSES
After the first examination the timbers
were stored in a pond that was specifically
dug for the purpose. During a violent winter
storm the dam between this pond and the by
then extended dredging pit was broken and
most of the recovered material was lost. This
leaves us with a very fragmentary picture of
the wreck. No dendrochronological or other
analysis could be carried out.
2.4 EVALUATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

The ship was obviously heavily built
with rough and crooked timbers. No datable
finds were found associated with it and no
dendrochronological dating was carried out.
The most distinguishing feature is the moss
that was used as caulking material. In Dutch
shipbuilding moss caulking was common
until around 1600. By then the technique went
out of use for merchant craft. Fishing boats of
the North Sea coast were, however still
caulked with moss well into the 19th century.
With its keel, its overall dimensions and its
V-shaped crutches the ship cannot readily be
identified with either of these shiptypes.
The fastenings that were used, 30 mm
treenails and 10 mm square iron nails suggest
a substantial vessel but they were a common
combination and they remained standard
fastenings in many countries over a long
period and for vessels of widely differing
size. The bias in favour of nails for the plank
fastening is interesting but there is not enough
material to know whether they are
representative. The treenails in the floor
timber SL2 T 4 [fig. 661 show they were not
used exclusively. They also show that
treenails were used to fasten the frame
timbers fore and aft. This suggests an early
date, stylistically supported by the iron heel-
plate bracket. Also crutch shaped floors are
common in ships prior to the early 17th
century when such pieces were relatively easy
to obtain.

van een stuk ijzerbeslag met een
breed uitgesmede veer. Mos en vorm
van het ijlerwerk pleiten voor een
vroege [middeleeuwse] datering.
ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

[Fig. 701
Detail showing nail hole and moss
luting.
Detailopname van een van de
spijkergaten. Ook hier is bet mos dat
als breeuwselis gebruikt goed te
herkennen [foto p.s.1.
[Fig. 711
SLZT14. Plank fragment.
Ook aan deze korte plank is veel mos
bewaard gebleven [foto p.s.1.
[Fig. 721
SL2 T15. Plank fragment,
Oit plankfragment is dikker dan de
overige huiddelen. Mogelijk is bet een
berghout. Naast de treknagel is een
gaatje afgedicht met een vierkant
houten propje [spijkerpen] [foto p.s.1.
[Fig. 731
Detail of SL2 T15.
Detailopname van de treknagel en de
spijkerpen [foto p.s.1.
[Fig. 741
SLZT19. Thick plank.
Deze plank loopt uit in een /as. Ook
hier is ruimschoots mos gebruikt als
breeuwsel en als pakking.
[Fig. 751
Detail of SL2T19 showing nail holes
and nail head depressions.
Deze plank is met grote spijkers
bevestigd geweest. De koppen van de
vierkante spijkers tekenen zich in bet
bout af. Zijzijn ongeveer 4 cm in
doorsnede [foto p.s.1.
ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

3.1 CIRCUMSTANCES OF had the edges beaten to form a roughly
DISCOVERY octagonal section.
During the night of July 30th on July Nails and spikes with square shanks of around
3 1st 1986 the cutter-suction-dredger Hector 5 mm and 10 mm respectively. The nails have
encountered wreckage between x 59.4271~ a faceted head [fig. 761.
438.127 and x 59.4231~438.123 [fig. 131. All Into the surface of some of the planks small
wood was brought ashore. Coming back to the wooden pegs 5 mm square had been driven.
same general area on August 2nd more These may be to fill former nail holes. This is
wreckage was found. Progress in sand- probably associated with the Dutch technique
extraction was not really delayed by the of construction in which temporary clamps
remains and no on-site inspection could be were nailed across the edges of adjacent
organized. All wreckage recovered had been planks to fasten them until the frame timbers
severely chopped by the cutter-suction- had been fitted.
dredger.
3.3 ANALYSES
3.2 DESCRIPTION O F THE
RECOVERED REMAINS Dendrochronological analysis
All the timbers from this site were The timber of wrecksite SL 3 was
brought up during dredging operation by a brought up solely as the result of dredging
cutter-suction dredger. They are badly activity. The individual pieces were therefore
mutilated and as a result it is often difficult completely out of context and with the
even to identify the type of the particular relationships to each other destroyed. It was
piece. In general they consisted of frame only their close proximity that indicated they
timbers and inner or outer hull planking. were from the same vessel. As none of the
Relationships between them were impossible timbers recovered exceeded 1 m in length
to establish. Most pieces were less than one only broad assessments of their type andlor
meter in length. function could be made. In such
The planks were around 5 - 6 cm in thickness. circumstances the selection of samples was
Some are around 9 cm thick and are more or less predetermined by the work of the
presumably stringers or wales. The frame cutter-suction dredger. Only the few unbroken
timbers included some short lengths from and unsplintered pieces were suitable for
which samples could be cut for dendro- dendrochronological analysis.
chronological analysis. The sectional The principles of the method, the
dimensions varied from 13 - 11 cm up to methodological problems and the procedures
21 x 17 cm. The larger ones presumably being followed during the Slufter-research are
frame timbers from lower in the hull. briefly outlined in Appendix I. As an aid in
All the timber is of oak and fastened with understanding the statistics given in the text
treenails, iron bolts, spikes and nails. The the reader is advised to read the appendix
treenails are hand finished and around 30 mm first. It also features the reference
in diameter. They were tightened by cutting chronologies that were used in the analysis.
into it with a chisel or such like and then
caulking the cut. The cuts are sometimes Dating
crossed as in fig. 76, but others are less Four samples have been analysed, of which
regular. Sometimes a thin wooden pin was three were presumably frame timbers and one
driven into the centre of the treenail at the was probably a ceiling plank. Table 5
junction of the cuts. summarizes the results. The histogram of
The bolts are between 20 - 30 mm in fig. 77 shows the date of the last rings and the
diameter, the majority of which are 20 mm. relative position of the samples to each other.
They are fashioned from square bar which has Two frame timbers [I] and [3] could be
matched to form a mean curve [t = 4.60, Table 5
GL = 74.2 [99.9%]]. Against this mean curve SL 3
the other frame timber [2] was able to be
matched [t = 4.51, GL 63.1 [99.0%]]. Sample Sample no. Structural element Number of rings Number of sapwood rings
[2] is the only sample with sapwood
[12 rings] as is indicated in fig. 76. One line
of reasoning would be to add the sapwood 3 Frame timber 110 -
allowance of 20 sapwood rings for wood of 4 Ceiling plank 214 -
German provenance and arrive at a felling
date of 1789. However, from the relative
position of the samples we may conclude that 2 Frame tirnbe; 127 12
the end ring of sample [3] is probably very 1 Frame timber 134 -
close to the heartwood/sapwood boundary.
Samples [3] and [2] belong to the same timber
complex, first because they form a mean
curve and secondly because they are dated by Table 6
the same samples of SL 1 [see below]. SL 3
If the histograms of SL 1 and SL 3 are
considered together [fig. 781 it becomes clear Lower Saxony Schleswig-
that the dates of both assemblages are Sample no. Hamburg coastal area Weserbergland Holstein
congruent. Also the would-be repair of t GL(%) t GL(%) t GL ( O h ) t GL(%)
SL 1 [ l ] attains a normal position in the
histogram. Still the gap between SL 3 [I] and
SL 1 [3] exists, but the most likely
explanation is that due to the way the timber
was worked the samples shown in the diagram
below SL 3 [I] are missing a great deal of
heartwood. Equally plausible purely on a
dendrochronological basis are the alternative
explanations of re-used timber or extensive
repair. This reinforces the point already made
concerning the SL 1 assemblage; that samples
from the frames are the most useful for dating
purposes.
To date the timber complex we could establish
a mean heartwood/sapwood boundary
according to Baillie [1983, 56, after Hollstein,
19801 of the two samples, which gives a good
estimate of the felling date. This mean
sapwood boundary thus estimated is 1773.
Added to that the sapwood allowance of 20
years gives a felling date of the timber
complex of 1793 + 5 following Eckstein
[1974, 351. Using Hollstein's [1965, 191
interval estimate of 11 - 34 sapwood rings at
the 95% probability level, the felling date lies
between 1784 - 1807. Yet this range can be
narrowed down by adding the minimum
[ l l years] of the interval estimate to the
endyear of the youngest dated sample [3] and
the maximum [34 years] to the oldest dated
sample [2] with sapwood [fig. 781. In this case
it seems better not to take the oldest dated
sample [I] but the oldest dated sample with
sapwood [3]. The resulting interval than
becomes 1788 - 1803. A building date around
1795, based on the same arguments as
presented for SL 1, can be established.

Origin of the timbers
As stated before and shown in table 6 sample
[4] synchronises with several of the standard
Heartwoodlsapwood Date of Period Possible area of origin chronologies. The highest correlation is with
boundary last ring the Weserbergland chronology. The
correlations taper off from the Weserbergland
1777 -
1668 1777 Hamburg in northern, southern and western direction.
1771 -
1558 1771 Weserbergland, Hamburg, Lower Visually the curve fitted best on the
Saxony coastal area or Weserbergland, Hamburg and Lower Saxony
Southern Germany coastal area standard chronologies. The other
1781 1655 - 1781 Hamburg samples have been dated against samples of
1765 1632 - 1765 Hamburg SL 1 [table 71. Since samples [ l ] and [2] of
SL 1 gave the best match with the Hamburg
chronology, the same is assumed for samples
[I] and [3] of SL 3 [fig. 79 and table 61.
These results incite the conclusion on purely
dendrochronological grounds, that SL 1 and
SL 3 are remains of the same ship. The date of
the timbers from SL 3: 1793 as the most likely
Southern Germany Low Countries Western Germany felling date, within the time range 1788 -
t GL(%) t GL(%) t GL(%) 1803 and 1795 as the building date. As for the
provenance of the wood: all the timbers came
from West-Germany, roughly from the area
along its northern and eastern borders.
Surprisingly none of the timbers had their
provenance along the western fringes of
Germany, where much timber is known to
have been obtained.
Table 7
SL 3 3.4 CONCLUSIONS
The suggestion that SL 1 and SL 3 are
Samples 2 and 3 are dated by the mean curve of sample 1 and 2 of SL 1, part of the same vessel is supported by the
with the following results: fact that SL 1 is mainly deck structure and
SL 3 mainly hull structure. Although the sites
Sample no. t GL (Oh) were 1.075 km apart this is by no means
improbable. Large sections of structure can
break away during the wrecking process and
be transported many kilometres from the
original site of disaster. If such units are not
Sample 1 is dated by sample 3 I t = 4.60, GL = 74.2 (99.9)) further broken apart, movement will continue
until they are no longer subject to the motive
forces of wind, current and wave action. This
[Fig. 761 may occur when they get firmly stuck onto an
Two treenails from SL3 that have been obstruction, such as a beach, or a shoal or a
tightened by being cut and caulked. In rock outcrop. In that case the remains will be
one case it has been further secured subject to strong mechanical forces and their
with a thin wood pin [below right]. disintegration is likely to continue.
Below left is the facetted head of an Alternatively they reach a position where due
iron spike. to shelter or depth of water the elements are
Twee treknagels die zijn ingesneden no longer sufficient to move them, a position
en gebreeuwd. In de linker is that is where the wreckage might continue to
bovendien een houten pennetje degrade but is also liable to get embedded into
gedreven. Het staat rechts onder the sediments. The dynamics of shipwreck do
afgebeeld. Daaronder is een vierkante not contradict the hyphothesis of the remains
spijkerkop weergegeven. at SL 1 and SL 3 being part of the same
vessel, whereas it is strongly supported by
features of the timbers themselves which have
been evaluated in the section devoted to
wrecksite SL 1 [paragraph 1.4.1.
S a m p l e No. Structural element 1 5 SO 1600 16 5 0 1700 17 5 0 1
I I I
I I I
FRAME TIMBER
CEILING PLANK
FRAME TIMBER
F R A M E TIMBER
FRAME TIMBER
C E l L l N G PLANK
C E I L I N G PLANK
FRAME TIMBER
FRAME TIMBER
HULL PLANK
WATERWAY
C E I L I N G PLANK
WATERWAY
C E I L I N G PLANK
[Fig. 771
Histogram showing the date of the last
rings, the total numer of rings in each
sample as well as the relative position of
the samples.
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van
Sf 3 ten opzichte van elkaar en de
datering van de buitenste jaarring van
elk monster. Met een verticale balkis de
grens tussen kernhout en spinthout
aangegeven. De datering van de groep
monsters ligt op of rond 1789.
[Fig. 781
The histograms of SL 1 and SL3
combined.
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van
Sf 1 en SL 3 ten opzichte van elkaar en
de datering van de bliitenste jaarring van
elk monster. Uitde combinatie van de
histogrammen van SL 1 en Sf 3 blijkt dat
de dateringen van de twee groepen
monsters elkaar overlappen.
[Fig. 791
Visual match of mean curves from SL 1
and SL3. Both are shown against the
Hamburg standard chronology.
a = Hamburg standard chronology
b = mean curve of samples SL 1 [ I ] and
SL 1 121 c = mean curve of samples S L 3
111. SL 3 [21 and SL 3 [31.
Synchrone ligging van de gemiddelde
curve van Sf 3 t0.v. Sf 1 en van de
gemiddelde curve van Sf 1 t0.v. de
Hamburg standaardchronologie. Een
getekende jaarringcurve geeft loodrecht
op een lineaire tijdas de jaarringbreedtes
[logaritmischl weer. De zo ontstane
punten worden door lijnen verbonden.

[Fig. 801
Dredging plan as altered due to the
discovery of SL 4.
Het snedeplan van de c.2. Triton,
vergelijk fig. 14.

4.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F The picture that emerged was that of a carvel-
DISCOVERY built vessel standing upright in the sediments,
orientated approximately north-south. A
4.1.1 The first hit rough sketch is given in fig. 82. One of the
The discovery of the first wrecksite ship's sides protruded from the sand wall. But
[SL 11 led to changes in the order of sand for two holes cut into it by the cutter-suction-
extraction [fig. 141. In accordance with the dredger it was in extremely good condition. A
adjusted planning the cutter-suction-dredger wale could be felt, protruding no more than
Triton was engaged in digging a channel 1.5 cm from the rest of the planking. Only the
around wrecksite SL 1 when during the night very top of the ship's side was damaged by
of August 24 upon August 25 it hit another Teredo attack. Although the side turned
wreck [fig. 801. This happened in the position inwards on both ends no stem or sternpost
x 60.244 and y 438.023 [fig. 131. During the was observed. At the spot where the dredger
previous shifts it had intermittently been had damaged the wreck, the hold had been
hindered by wreckage and coal blocking its emptied and could be entered. For the larger
pump. Accordingly the screen of the sonar part it was filled to the brim with large lumps
that had by then been mounted was attentively of coal. The top of the site as encountered was
watched. During the afternoon of the 25th and thus more or less a flat surface of coal. Part of
the morning of the 26th as much sand was the other ship's side, a bulkhead and remains
removed from the wrecksite as possible. The of deckstructure with a hatch could be
dredger could undercut the wreck which had recognised. The raised timbers showed a few
its top at around 1I m of depth. When the iron and some yellow-metal fastenings.
dredger was moved it was surmised that the
wreck stood well out of the dredging breach. 4.1.3 Considerations a n d decisions
On the evidence presented above it
4.1.2 On-site inspection was surmised that the ship was built at the end
On-site inspection proved much more of the 18th century at the earliest and around
successful than on wrecksite SL 1. The 1850 at the latest. It would measure over
conditions however, were no less apalling. On 20 m, it carried a cargo of coal and it was
the night of the 28th the wreck was buoyed. virtually complete. This preliminary
On the following days a series of inspection assessment was extremely important, because
dives was made by a group of six divers it was the basis on which to decide what was
belonging to or associated with the to be done with the wreck and these decisions
underwater archaeological unit of the had to be taken quickly. True to the line of
Ministry of W.V.C. First of all the gradient of action that had been deployed in advance it
the slope in front and above the wreck was was decided to archaeologically abandon the
checked for reasons of safety of the divers. SL 4 site as such. Arguments for this were
Torches were unnecessary equipment as their - its relatively young date and - the fact that
beams could not be seen in the murky water. the potentially important site SL 1 still
Gauges could not be read and all diving had to awaited archaeological attention.
be surface controlled. Observations could Furthermore the unstable situation of the
only be made groping. As the aim of the sediments and the depth of up to 18 meters
action was solely a preliminary assessment of would make on-site research fairly
the site no accurate measuring was attempted. problematic, both in terms of the technical
Overall dimensions and a general impression approach of the work and in terms of safety of
of shape and condition of the vessel contained working conditions. In view of the tight time-
in the wrecksite was all that was endeavoured. schedule [only four more weeks were left for
Moreover, a whole series of loose bits and on-site work at SL 41 it had been decided in
pieces were raised [fig. 811. advance that such an effort would only be

7 the ceili made in case of highly exceptional
:tween th discoveries.
ere proba With the wreck abandoned archaelogically it
) to and ir
still had to be removed to enable construction
what are to continue. It was agreed that the necessary
lvaged as clearance operations would be scrupulously
monitored by archaeologists and that any
tll plank1 parts that would be brought to the surface
I the port :
could be studied afterwards.
naining v(
rtraighr b, 4.1.4 Clearance
-e approx: From the moment the site was
.48 cm = abandoned archaeologically the problem of its
he bilge ti handling had been reduced to the technical
e [lO"]. T problem of removing obstacles which caused
[king are 4 a nuisance for further construction. The
Along th chosen techniques, the time-schedule and the
:s of five expenditure involved were not anymore the
planks sh, responsibility of the archaeologists, who were
-6cm[2 just being kept informed in order that they
just befor might monitor the operations.
Irn of the In view of the tight time-schedule and the
presumably sturdy character of the wreckage
13 112"l 1
7 cm [3": it was decided to clear the site in a way which
n in sectic combined a negligible risk of damage to the
ickness is dredging equipment with good prospects of
the resul success. The cutter-suction- dredger Triton
planks as removed most of the overburden of sand
Two met1 whereafter the floating sheerlegs crane
itinction I Taklift I lifted all wreckage onto a sea-going
i recovere
barge with a huge grab [fig. 831. Alternative
te that the options for clearance had been to dredge a
as more d deep hole in front of the wreckage and to let it
nd some ; slide to a depth beyond the projected depth of
ge, i.e. tht the Slufter or to use explosives and a grab.
also conf The method that was chosen enabled a crew
Is in the d of archaeologists and volunteers to assist on
the barge and to collect any items of interest
t of the h~
Ir T I 4 in 1 that might emerge. During the preparatory
dredging much of the coal was dredged to the
poard to tl
dump and surprisingly little of the ship's
d itself is
icm [2"].
inventory was raised. The hull itself proved so
lportion o sturdy that about half of it was raised as an
integral unit. Presumably it represents the
: whereas
southern part of the remains as sketched in
1 1/4"]. P
fig. 82. It is illustrated in the cutaway
n the area
perspective drawing shown in fig. 85. The
)ttom whe
other half of the wreckage was raised as loose
rnon on sl
timbers together with two smaller
o below.
assemblages as well as fittings such as a
m planks
windlass and some rigging elements.
/with' an
. ~also
t alc
1 produce
With all the wreckage lifted onto the
level. In 1
barge and the forepart of the hull preserved as
by this trt
an integral unit it was quite clear that careful
~ulkingm
documentation of its construction could still
-he outer
yield interesting details. Instead of simply
lo bevel :
removing them, they were restored to the
her edge.
LOGY OF
[Fig. 811
Loose timbers were raised.
Bij de duikverkenning werden losse
delen omhoog gebracht.
[Fig. 821
Sketched plan and section of S L 4 as
drawn during on-site inspection.
Schetsplattegrond en doorsnede van
de vindplaats.
[Fig. 831
After the site had been abandoned
archaeologically it was cleared for
construction purposes with a huge
sheerlegs crane and a grab.
De vindplaats werd geruimd met een
grote knijper.
[Fig. 841
The salvaged section of SL 4 on the is /let vervolgens naar de werkbasis [Fig. 851
barge prior to being craned off onto a vervoerd. Het hout is afgedekt met Cutaway perspective drawing of the
flatbed trailer for transport to the natte jute zakken om te sneluitdrogen port side showing the approximate
compound. It is swathed in w e t te voorkomen [foto IPL]. extent of the structure that survives as
hessian sacsto prevent rapid drying. an intact unit.
Toen bij de ruiming een groot deel van In deze perspectieftekening van de
bet voorschip als Ben geheel boven bakboordszijde is goed te zien hoeveel
kwam is besloten dit alsnog re er in verband behouden is.
documenteren. Hier staat het op een
zeegaande ponton. M e t een dieplader

archaeologists care. Even though the remains were of a similar length. The tabling of the
were obviously severely maimed by the foremost and aftermost scarfs was angled
operations it was decided to henceforth down towards the stern and presumably, so
handle them with care. The elements were did the central scarf. This is not clear from the
carefully wrapped in soaked Hessian sacking surviving assemblage but judging from the
and great care was taken not to damage them deep rounded section of the keel and the lack
any further [fig.84]. They were put ashore of evidence for fastenings, there was no false
with a mobile crane and shored and supported keel or shoe. Without such protection the
in an upright position in a spot where they lower arm of a scarf usually sloped down aft
could be studied at leisure, the aim being to as it was less liable to damage and leakage.
record as much constructional detail as There are no keys or hooks in any of the
possible and to put this information in its scarfs and this is reflected in the number of
correct historical and cultural context. stopwaters [now missing]. These, as their
name implies, were for preventing the passage
4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE of water along the faces of the joint but they
RECOVERED REMAINS also acted as keys and improved the
longitudinal strength of the joint. In the
4.2.1 The ship central scarf there are four in the surviving
The hull can be described as wood 1.06 m of tabling. The joints were fastened by
fastened in that the inner and outer planks are clenched iron bolts 19 - 20 mm [3/4"] in
mainly held to the frames with wooden diameter [in one case 25 mm [I"]]. These and
treenails. The main structural elements are the stopwaters are irregularly placed. There
fastened with iron bolts. The various types are are some horizontal fastenings: a small roved
noted in the description of the timbers they bolt in the lower arm of the midship joint,
fasten, with additional discussion of treenails possibly associated with construction. In the
below in the context of repairs and in aft section under the deadwood there is a
paragraph 4.4.3. small treenail [25 mm [l"]] vertically
upwards but it does not seem to fasten the
Keel deadwood.
Only the fore section which was not preserved
for its whole length [fig. 861 survives in Apron and Deadwood
cohesion with the other structure. Aft it ends No sections of the stem or sternpost have
at a scarf joint although this is damaged and survived. The only element of the stem
incomplete. The corresponding section of the assembly left in situ is the lower section of the
joint was salvaged as a loose timber [also apron. This lies above the keel and is scarfed
shown in fig. 861. As it runs forward the keel to the single piece of deadwood and fastened
becomes progressively more damaged and to it with treenails. At its forward end it
ends just aft of where it would have scarfed terminates in an angled butt [fig. 861. It is
onto the stem. Other short sections of the keel strongly fastened by the keelson/keel bolts.
survive broken off at scarf joints. The number The stern deadwood was similar to that of the
of joints represented indicate there were at bow but more substantial. The foremost
least 4 pieces. Analysis of the wood identified 2.68 m survives; one broken fragment and
all the pieces as birch [see paragraph 4.3.11. two pieces in the dismembered assemblages
The keel tapered slightly in both directions of structure.
either side of the midship section. Its
dimensions are shown in table 8. Hawse pieces
Several very eroded timbers were recovered
The section remaining in place would have that were attached to large lumps of
been between 7.5 - 8 m in length [around 24 - concretion. After removal of the surface cover
26 feet]* depending on the nature of the scarf of compacted sand it became apparent that "As during evaluation this wreck turned out to
with the stem. The overall length would have they were iron hawse-pipes [fig. 871. have strong connections with English
been in the region of 24 - 25 m dependant on shipbuilding it was decided to add some
various factors cliscussed below. Frames imperial measurements in brackets for easy
Heavy oak floors, between 29 and 30.5 cm comparison.
Scarf joints [I1 - 12"] square, are set across the keel on
Although not complete, judging by the angle approximately 58 cm centres [1 ' 11-1.
of the scarf relative to the depth of the keel, Amidships they are horizontal on their upper
the foremost scarf was approx. 1.80 m in surface but their lower surface shows slight
length. The other two scarfs, also incomplete, deadrise. They run out to the turn of the bilge

where they butt against the second futtock.
They are made from one piece except at the
bow where one is formed from two pieces
scarfed together. The intermediate first
futtocks begin clear of the keel and continue
through the turn of the bilge and butt against
the third futtock. The first futtock overlaps the
joint between the floors and the second
futtock, as the second futtock overlaps that
between the first and third futtocks. The result
is a regular system [fig. 851. At the joints the
heads and heels of the timbers are cut at an
angle and accommodate chocks which are
discussed below. In some cases the timbers
were bolted horizontally to each other
forming a paired frame.
Where this was done two 20 mm [3/4"] iron
bolts fastened the adjacent timbers; the first to
the second, second to third and third to fourth
futtock. There were no bolts between the floor
and the first futtock. Representative timbers Table 8
of each type are shown in fig. 88. SL 4
Garboard and limbers Dimensions Width Depth

Amidships, the garboard strake was let into a
rabbet cut 3.5 - 4 cm below the top of the Forward 25.5 cm 37 cm
keel. It did not therefore lie flush against the At aft scarf joint 27 36.5-37.5 (damage precludes accuracy).
bottom of the floors. A thin feather edged of forward section
pine board filled part of the resulting space Midships (approx.) 28 37.5 (11 by 14-15 inches)
and the channel left between that and the keel Aft. reduces t o 25 33
formed the limber passage. Either side of the
midship area where the hull became more 'V' [Fig. 871 T I 4 Midship floor timber Midscheepse
formed the floors were supplemented by Hawse pieces including on the left side legger
chocks or fillers. The garboard lay flush of the picture the iron hawse pipe. T23 Aft floor timber Wrang of legger
against these so a notch was cut to form the Van het dek dat bij de verkenning in uit het achterschip
limber passage. An illustration of the situ nog werd aangetroffen zijn weinig T22 Aft floor timber Wrang of legger
configuration amidships is shown in fig. 89. delen boven water gekomen. Hoog in uit het achterschip
het voorschip heeft deze constructie T30 First futtock Buikstuk
Keelson gezeten waar de kluisgaten doorheen T31 Aft first futtock Buikstuk uit het
The keelson is formed of two timbers 28 cm lopen. Hetzijn ijzeren kokers die achterschip
[ l l"] in width that are bolted through the gesteund worden door horizontale en T8 Second futtock Oplanger
floors to the keel with 32 mm iron bolts. The verticale verstevigingen. Het ijzer is T3 Third futtock Oplanger
maximum combined depth amidships was sterk aangekoekt. Beide kokers zijn T5 Cant timber Oraaispant
about 7 1 cm [28"]. The lower element runs aan de linkerzijde zichtbaar [foto IPLI. T25 Chock between floor and second
horizontally, reducing in depth as it runs futtock Kruisklamp tussen legger en
forward over the rising floors. It ends in a butt [Fig. 881 oplanger
just aft of the foremast [which is stepped into SL 4 Timbers. The timbers shown are T32 Chock between floor and second
the upper element]. The resulting space is representative of their type, being in futtock Kruisklamp Tussen legger en
filled with deadwood. The upper element the best condition and the most oplanger
which also runs horizontal terminates in a butt illustrative of those recovered. They T33 Chock between first and second
above the apron [fig. 861. Aft of the foremast are drawn orientated to indicate their futtock Kruisklamp tussen buikstuk en
the keelson was badly damaged by the approximate position in the hull but oplanger
dredger. One separate piece recovered shows they are not necessarily adjacent
the beginning of a horizontally tabled scarf timbers. Op deze afbeelding zijn een
joint. Both elements would have run at least aantal represenfatieve inhouten bijeen
to a point aft of the main mast. After that one gebracht Ze zijn afgebeeldin hun
or other element must have terminated or oorspronkelijke stand. Het zijn echter
reduced with the rising of the floors towards niet noodzakelijkerwijs opeenvolgende
the stern in a similar fashion as at the bow. of aansluitende inhouten.

Fig. 90 illustrates the assembly of frame
timbers, keelson, apron and mast step, fig. 91
is the same view with floors omitted to show
the deadwood and the composite floor.
Fastening of main structural elements

The iron bolts fastening the keel, floors and
keelson are 32 mm [I 1/4"] in diameter and
were driven downwards, some only through a
floor and the keel, others through both
keelson timbers, floor and keel [fig. 861. This
was a result of the construction sequence and
is discussed below. They did not have a
washer under the head, the flared shape
resulting from driving the bolt home
presumably being adequate [fig. 921. The
lower ends do not appear to have been
clenched over a washer although it is possible
that without the protection of a false keel
these have been worn away. However, some
appear to have ended well above the bottom
of the keel and simply left blind [figs. 86,
92,931.
Cant frames
Ten cant timbers survive on the starboard side
and although they have slumped out of
position they are still correctly orientated as
shown in the plan [fig. 941. The main timbers
are long curved pieces sided between 17.5
and 27 cm and moulded 16 - 22 cm. They
were footed against the apron with shorter
tapered timbers filling the space between
them. The first cant frame was spiked to the
last floor timber and bolted to the short
tapered frame forward. None of the others are
bolted although a cant timber that was
recovered loose has two horizontal bolts,
indicating that at least one pair of cant timbers
a side [possibly from the stern] were paired
[fig. 88, T S ] .
Breasthooks
One breasthook 3.04 m long remains in place
although it has sagged out of position with the
rest of the bow section [fig. 941. Although it
was not very regular in shape it was fashioned
from good quality timber, 39 x 32 crn in
section tapering to the ends. It was positioned
above the end of the remaining piece of the
apron. A slight depression suggests a shallow
rebate over the apron but erosion and damage
make this unclear. It was bolted to the cant
frames by twelve iron bolts and the ceiling
was cut to fit around it. The area between the
breasthooks was planked by short pieces
running parallel to them, one of which
remains in place. The position of the next
breasthook-up is indicated by the angled ends
[Fig. 891
Detail of keel, floor and keelson
assembly showing the limber
passages.
Detailtekening van het samenstel I
kiel, legger en zaathout waarop de

waterloop zichtbaar is.
1 Bilge planks Kimweger
2 Ceiling planks Wegering
3 Limber strake Vullinggang
4 Limber board Vullingplank
5 False keelson Bovenzaathout
6 Keelson Zaathout
7 Floor timber Legger
8 Outer planking Huid
9 Garboard strake Zandstrook
10 Pine board Tingel
11 Keel Kiel
12 Chock Vulklos
13 First futtock Buikstuk
14 Stopwater Keernagel
[Fig. 901
The construction at the bow.
De constructie in het voorschip.
1 Mast Mast
2 Chock Kruisklamp
3 False keelson Bovenzaathout
4 Keelson Zaathout
5 Floor timber Wrang oflegger
6 Chock Vulklos
7 First funock Buikstuk
8 Apron Binnensteven
9 Deadwood Slemphout
10 Keel Kiel
[Fig. 911
The same view with floor timbers
omitted.
Dezelfde tekening is hier opengewerkt.
[Fig. 921 [Fig. 931

Copper alloy and iron fastenings. Bottom of keel bolt showing where the
SL4 A8811, copper bun-end bolt; under side of the keel has split away.
SL4 A8812, SL4 A88/3, copper alloy The bottom of this boltwould have
bun-end bolts; SL4 A117, iron spike; been about 3 cm above the bottom of
SL4 A1 18, iron bolt; SL4 A87, iron the keel.
keelson bolt. Deze foto toont hoe de onderkant van
Bevestigingspennen en spijkers van de kiel bij een ijzeren pen is
koper. koperlegering en ijzer. weggebarsten. Hetgaat om een blinde
pen die bij benadering tot 3 cm boven
de onderzijde van de kiel doorging
[foto IPLI.
of the ceiling planks [fig. 941. The spacing
between the two positions suggests that there
were probably a series of 5 or 6 breasthooks
up to and including the deckhook. Two halves
of what are presumably breasthooks were
salvaged as loose timbers.
Hull planking
On the port side there are 24 strakes
remaining versus 8 on starboard. In the main
or str.uigl~tbody of the hull the bottom planks
were approximately 30 cm in width
130.48 cm = an English foot]. Above the turn
of the bilge they are approximately 25 cm
wide [lo"]. The upper strakes of the outer hull
planking are oak and the lower strakes are
elm. Along the turn of the bilge there was a
series of five thicker strakes. The aftmost in
situ planks show a gradual thickening from
5.5 - 6 cm [2 1/2"] at the garboard up to 7 cm
[3"] just before the turn of the bilge. Around
the turn of the bilge they are approximately
9 cm [3 1/2"] thick, reducing to about
6.5 - 7 cm [3"] up to the wales. They are
shown in section in fig. 95. The increase in
the thickness is not very pronounced and is
partly the result of the reduction in thickness
of all planks as they run round the bow to the
stem. Two metres further forward of this point
the distinction has disappeared altogether.
Planks recovered loose from further aft
indicate that the transition in the middle of the
ship was more distinct. They are 10 cm [4"]
thick and some are distinctly chamfered on
one edge, i.e. the first and fifth bilge planks.
This is also confirmed by the length of the
treenails in the dismembered timbers from
this part of the hull [e.g. those at the end of
the floor T I 4 in fig. 881. The planking from
the garboard to the bilge was 7 cm. The
garboard itself is generally thinner: around
5.5 - 6.5 cm [2"]. The bilge planks have a
high proportion of 35 mm [I 3/8"] diameter
treenails whereas the others are almost all
32 mm [ I 1/4"]. A band of thickened bilge
strakes in the area of the hull that would rest
on the bottom when the ship took the ground
was common on ships of the period and is
referred to below.
All the elm planks are rather roughly finished
or dubbecl witti an adze not only on their outer
surface but also along their edges. There is no
attempt to produce the theoretically vital
caulking bevel. In fact the scalloped surface
produced by this treatment would appear to
grip the caulking medium very securely
[fig. 961. The outer planks of oak higher up
also have no bevel although they are finished
to a smoother edge. There is only one place
where there is a bevel that must have been cut
intentionally and that is at the butt joint on
one of the oak planks.
The wales, also of oak, were 9 - 9.5 cm thick
[3 112" - 3 314-1 but were possibly a
maximum of 10 cm [4"] thick amidships.
Apart from an eroded fragment of the second,
only the lower wale is still in place. Along its
lower edge, where it is proud of the ordinary
plank below, it is carved with a simple
moulding [fig. 951. There were probably a
series of four or five wales: The lowest is
19 cm, probably 20 cm at midships [7 112"
resp. 8-1 in width and the others are likely to
have been the same.
Copper alloy fastenings

The main fastenings of the planking were
treenails. In addition the butt ends were
secured by a bolt set in opposite sides of the
plank [fig. 971. The majority of these bolts are
16 mm in diameter [5/8"]. Most are copper
alloy although some appear to be nearer pure
copper and are larger in diameter: 20 mm
[3/4"] while a few in the bottom strakes are
iron, also 20 mm. These bolts are blind i.e.
they do not pass right through the hull, relying
on friction for security [fig. 921. Those of
copper appear to have been cut from cast rod,
[Fig. 961 [Fig. 981 rolled and then beaten to roughly point the
The adze used to trim the edge of this Comparison of the heads of the copper end. The faceted and split heads suggest they
elm outer plank has left a relatively butt-end bolts and those of copper were driven with an iron hammer. The alloy
rough surface. There is no appreciable alloy. The alloy bolt is still shaped as it bolts were individually cast and the mould
bevel towards the outer edge and on was cast, while the head of the copper marks filed off prior to use. The heads, in
many of the planks still in place the bolt has flattened and split like a much contrast to those of the copper bolts, show no
outer edges of the seam are very close used cold chisel. This is not just signs of being driven with a hammer. As they
together. because the copper is softer. One of were not as ductile as those of copper they
De kant van deze iepen huidplank is the alloy bolts in a loose timber was were probably driven with a wooden mallet to
met de dissel bewerkt waardoor een struck with a maul and the same effect lessen the chance of cracking [fig. 981. There
ruw oppervlak is ontstaan. De kant is was produced with no difficulty. This is one case where this seems to have
niet merkbaar afgeschuind. Vrijwel suggests the alloy bolts were driven happened. Judging by the condition of the
nergens is dit gebeurd. De with a wooden mallet, possibly to broken surface the break is old, certainly
breeuwnadenzijn daardoor bijzonder prevent them cracking. when compared to those broken during
smal [foto IPL]. Het is opvallend dar de geelkoperen salvage. A second bolt had been placed only a
pennen vrijwel onbeschadigdzijn few cm away. The metal of the broken bolt
[Fig. 971 terwijl de roodkoperen stuk voor stuk seemed to be a very porous cast which was
Butt-end bolts. One bolt and one aan de kop zijn gebarsten. Dat ligt niet presumably the reason it cracked.
treenail in the end of each plank. They aan de hardheid o f brosheid van het
were always offset as shown unless metaal. Kennelijk zijn de twee soorten Ceiling
for some reason this was not possible. pen in verschillende werkgangen Eighteen ceiling planks remain in place on the
Bij de stuiken is her uiteinde van iedere verwerkt en zijn de roodkoperen port side and six on the starboard, not
huidplank steeds met Ben geelkoperen pennen voorzichtig met een houten including the limber boards. The ceiling
pen en een treknagel vastgezet Zowel hamer in een voldoende ruim gat planking is oak. There is great variation in
de treknagels als de pennen staan gedreven lfoto's IPLI. width but most of the planks average 26 -
steeds diagonaal tegenover elkaar 28 cm [approximating to 10 and 1I"]. Either
lfoto IPLI. [Fig. 991 side of the keelson there is a run of limber
A flat wedged treenail in a ceiling boards 15 cm [6"] in width and 4 cm in depth.
plank. Treknagelmet wig in een These are supported on small blocks so as to
wegeringplank lfoto IPLI. lie at the same level as the limber strakes
which are 7 cm [3"] thick and 30.5 cm wide
[I foot]. From these the ceiling runs out to the
turn of the bilge averaging 6.3 cm [2 1/2"]
thick. At the turn of the bilge there are three
stringers I0 cm thick.
From there up to the clamp the planks are
again 6.3 cm thick [fig. 951. These dimensions
are those near the midship section. All planks
and stringers reduce markedly in thickness
towards the bow and all except the limber
strake and limber board reduce in width. The
fastenings for the ceiling are treenails, the
majority of which are wedged [fig. 991
although some are left plain. They were
supplemented by iron spikes, mostly square
headed, 9 mm square at the top of the shank
and flat ended [figs. 93, 1001. It is to the
stringers that the thick outer bilge planking
described above would correspond, giving
extra rigidity along the line of the joints
between the floors and the first futtocks. They
are additionally fastened with iron bolts
approximately 20 mm in diameter that were
driven from outboard and clenched over rings
inboard [fig. 1011. The planks from the bilge
stringers upwards seem to have been painted
with tar and it is possible that the whole
ceiling had been originally.
Mast-step and mast

The stump of the pine foremast survives to a
height of 1.40 m where it shows severe
shipworm attack. It is octagonally faceted and
is 40 cm in diameter at the highest preserved
section. It is bound by an iron hoop 25 cm
above the mast step, presumably to prevent
splitting. The mast-step is formed by a block
of elm 91.5 x 28 cm [36" x 1I"] which is
fastened to the top of the upper or false
keelson by six spikes. The rectangular foot of
the mast is stepped into it and also into the
false keelson though only by about 2.5 cm
[I"]. The whole assembly was reinforced by
two slabs of wood bolted to each other
through the false keelson. Fore and aft of the
foot of the mast two blocks of wood were set
into the step filling the excess space.
Transverse channels were cut across the top
into which battens had been nailed to retain
the blocks [fig. 1021.
Beams and knees

The only beams surviving are fragmentary
and none of them remain in place. Many were
from the hold and were not decked over
[fig. 1031. They were spaced 2.83 m apart [six
feet] and rested on a shelf [which is no longer
present]. This in turn rested on a stringer or
clamp 9 cm thick [seen in section in fig. 9.51.

[Fig. 1001
An unwedged ceiling plank treenail
and nearby the head of an iron spike.
Niet alle treknagels in de wegering
B 01 II ; ; ; -./,
"
I;
I f
I; ;, I /\ ,I :?, hebben een wig. Naast deze treknagel
11 II I, '1, is een spijker ingeslagen [foto IPL].
[Fig. loll
The recess impressed into the surface
of one of the bilge stringers by the
washer of a clenched iron bolt.
lndruk van de klinkring van een
geklonken ijzeren bout ofpen in een
van de kimwegers [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1021
The mast-step.
Voor het mastspoor is een blok
iepehoutop bet bovenzaathout
genageld. Het rechthoekige spoor gaal
door en dooc maar is bovendien nog
fwee en een halve cm in het
bovenzaathoutingelaten. Van
weerszijden is het geheel verstevigd
met twee planken die met ijzeren
bouten door het bovenzaathout heen
aan elkaar geklonken zijn Ifoto IPLI.
[Fig. 1031
Beams and knees. SL4 B01, end of hold
beams with iron strap SL4 K1, iron knee
SL4 T26, SL4 T27, SL4 T28, SL4 T29,
wooden knees.
Onderdelen van de dwarskoppelingen
hoog in hetschip. Let op het einde van
een ruimbalk met een ijzeren band die
om een oplangergreep, ijzeren knieen
en houten knieen.

This was moulded along its lower edge in the Beam support pillars or stanchions
same manner as the outer wale. Two mortises in the top of the keelson either
There do not appear to have been any knees side of the foremast step correspond to the
used to retain these hold beams. Instead, an position of the hold beams. Presumably they
iron strap 90 mm in width and 20 mm thick are for the pillars that supported them.
[3 112 x 3/4"] passed around the futtock However, one mortise appears to be partly
against which the beam butted. The futtock covered by the mast step and would not have
was trimmed to accommodate the thickness of been directly below a beam. Also, under the
the iron strap which was then bolted through third hold beam aft [at section 3 indicated on
the end of the beam with 20 mm [3/4"] iron the plan: fig. 941 there is no corresponding
bolts. The beam was also bolted vertically to mortise. There are some nail holes however,
the shelf and this in turn was bolted through so possibly the pillars aft of this point were
to the wale every other timber. located on a sole plate nailed on the top of the
Both wooden and iron knees were recovered keelson.
during salvage as seperate elements and Only one broken stanchion was recovered
appear to be from the the deck-beams [as [fig. 1061. This had a tenon of a size that
distinct from the hold beams]. The shape of corresponds to the mortises in the top of the
the iron knees indicate a horizontally laid keelson. One side of two of the mortises are
shelf above a clamp in the same configuration sloped enabling the tenon on the top of the
as those of the hold beams. This suggests the stanchion to be located in the mortise in the
wood knees were lodged horizontally. This is underside of the hold beam. It could then be
also suggested by the bolt-holes which are all slid sideways into the mortise in the keelson
in the same plane. The latter characteristic is [fig. 1071 and secured by a strip of wood
not diagnostic but hanging knees of wood nailed into the groove. These are missing in
were commonly rebated to fit against the side SL 4 but nail holes attest to their use.
of the beam and not directly underneath it.
The bolts fastening the knee to the hull passed Repairs and miscellaneous features
through the lower arm while those fastening it In a number of places small pieces of wood
to be beam passed horizontally through the have been used in order to fair the run of the
upper arm. Some characteristics were plank. Most common is the placing of a piece
puzzling initially: the channel or rebate cut of oak board against the outer face of a
into one face of the knees, the varying futtock, filling it out to provide a continuous
distance between it and the side of the knee, surface against which the outer plank could
as well as the curved back face of the long rest. A slightly different case occurs inboard.
arm. This became clearer when looking at the Thin pine board was laid under the central
deck-beams. stringer on the starboard side and several of
Two eroded beam ends were recovered during the ceiling planks on the port side in various
the inspection dives [see fig. 81,821, having places to bring them up to the level of those
had slightly flared ends which had been either side. In many cases the pine was only a
bolted horizontally and vertically. The few millimetres thick but in others it seemed
horizontal bolt-holes correspond in principle as though it was used to pack out two inch
to the pattern in the wooden knees, though no planks where two and a half inch planks were
actual matches can be made. Some distance required. In other words the filling was
from the end of the beams on the upper side is required under the outer planking due to a
a shallow rebate or channel into which a deficiency of the frame timbers, whereas
longitudinal beam appears to have been inboard the deficiency was with.the planks.
bolted. The channel corresponds to that in the This may partly be due to the progressive
wooden lodging knees. The knees are of reduction in thickness of the planks towards
various sizes and appear to have been paired, the bow noted above or it might result from
explaining the varying depth between the repair.
channel and the edge of the knee. The
longitudinal timber rebated into the top of the Outer hull planks
beam would appear to a side binding strake On examining the outer surface of loose
described by Andrew Murray in 1863, frame timbers there are many treenails that
although he described it as a feature of naval have been cut off flush with the surface. This
ships [see glossary]. A hypothetical varies considerably from one timber to
reconstruction of hold and deck-beam another but preliminary examination suggests
structure is shown in fig. 104. The deck this is most common in floor timbers. Some of
elements are shown reassembled in fig. 105. them may be a result of the ceiling being laid
[Fig. 1041
Reconstruction of deck and hold beam
stucture.
De ruimbalken en dekbalken waren op
deze wijle bevestigd. De vorm en
constroctie van het dek en de
dekbalkweger kan worden afgeleid uit
de vorm van de ijzeren knieen.
[Fig.1051
Elements of deck structure
reassembled.
Dekbalken en horizontale knieen die op
elkaar aansluiten [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1061
A stanchion placed in one of the
mortises on top of the false keelson.
Although the stanchion fits it is not
known whether or not this is its
originial location.
De ruimbalkenzijn ondersteund
geweest door een stut die ermet een
dook in ingelaten was en die ook in
een gleufje in het bovenzaathoutzat
opgesloten.
before the garboard and lower strakes were
fitted. Alternatively it indicates repair. If
outer hull planking was replaced this would
necessitate cutting the treenails that had
fastened the old planks flush to the frame
before fitting the new ones. Prior to this they
would have been drilled out to ease removal
of the plank. In SL 4 there are indeed several
cases where this was done. This is indicated
where the auger had penetrated a few
millimetres too deep as well as slightly off
line, leaving a shallow hole in the surface of
the timber and the old treenail [fig. 1081. In
some cases the pattern of flush treenails is
consistent with the number one would expect
to fasten the old planks i.e. one or two per
strake on each frame but there is great
variation and if this is associated with repair
not all planks were replaced. The other
indication that some of the planks are
replacements is that many of their treenails
are blind. There could be several reasons for
this. Some of the original treenails were blind
but the majority are through-fastened. If the
ceiling was already in situ [as it might be in a
minor repair] there would be no need to fasten
all the new treenails right through. To provide
an effective connection a treenail only needs
to be a little longer than twice the thickness of
the plank.
Fig. 109 shows treenails that fastened the
garboard and adjacent strake which are blind,
one of which cuts the primary treenail that
fastens through to the ceiling. On the next
floor forward there is a treenail that is cut
flush both above and below, signifying at
least that either a ceiling plank or an outer
hull plank had been replaced. According to
Murray [1863] the grip of even a 6" [15.2 cm]
treenail is substantial [most of those seen in
broken frames are between 20 - 30 cm long].
Table 9 lists the results of some experiments
into the resistance of treenails to a sheering
force.
It can be seen that there is not a great deal of
difference in the force resisted. The treenails
were observed to move about 112" [12 mm]
before sheering. These figures are an average
of several experiments. The maximum force
resisted by a 1 112 inch treenail in a three inch
plank was 4.1 tons [Murray 18631.
Through-fastening every new treenail would
mean piercing existing ceiling in double the
number of places and weakening it. Seeing as
it was also important to hull strength this was
obviously undesirable. Fig. 1 I0 shows
SL4.110, a blind treenail that was wedged in
its nose. The wedge tightened the treenail as it
was driven against the end of the hole rather
like a modern rawlbolt. This method of
treenailing is described by Tideman
[1861, 3671 although it is not stated whether it
is specifically a Dutch technique. His
publication predates his prolonged stay in
England [Dirkzwager 19701. No other cases
have been found among the several blind
treenails seen loose or in fractured timbers.
Two cases were found where a treenail hole
had apparently been started, then abandoned
after 3 - 4 cm and filled with mortar.
Around several treenails or treenail holes
there are traces of tar indicating that tar had
been poured into or applied around the mouth
of the hole. Several treenails recovered loose
or from damaged timbers are black,
suggesting that they had been dipped in tar
prior to being driven. This technique is very
old and known to have been widely used in
Scandinavian shipbuilding. As there are a
Table 9 relatively small proportion of these treenails
they could be additional fastenings or part of
Diameter of treenails (inches) Average stress before fracture in treenails a repair.
fastening in 6 "resp. 3" planks (tons) If the present skin is the second, it was in
6" 3" place long enough itself to need repairs.
Alternatively the repaired planks are original
planks left in place when others were
renewed. In many cases a crack has developed
from the end of the plank either stemming
from the bolt, which was only a few
[Fig. 1071 [Fig. 1091 centimeters from the butt end, or the treenail
A method of fitting and securing deck Diagram showing blind secondary in line with it. The cracks run from the butt
stanchions [pillars]. treenails fastening what is probably a past the bolt and usually to the nearest treenail
De stutten zijn vermoedelijk op deze replacement plank [garboard]. The in the line of the crack, so some could have
wijze geplaatst. through treenails that fastened the occurred as the treenail was driven. In some
original plank have been cut flush. The cases these cracks have been caulked
[Fig. 1081 secondary treenails are usually driven [fig. 1111 one of them fcr a length of a metre.
Illustration of the shallow auger holes at a completely different angle and as There are other repairs to the outer planks in
left in many of the timbers after the here often cut through the old ones. the form of Dutchmen [small repair patches].
treenails had been drilled out. The Schematische weergave van de These are small rectangular fillets of wood let
remaining part of the treenail was then bevestiging van een - vermoedelijk - into the plank and nailed in place. In one case
cut flush and the new plank fitted. later ingezette plank in de zandstrook. the repair is to the corner of an oak plank and
In veel inhouten zijn ondiepe De blinde treknagels zijn secundair. De is fastened with 4 small iron nails. Another on
boorgaten waargenomen die her door en doorgaande treknagels the edge of an oak plank is fastened with one
gevolg zijn van het uitboren van waarmee de oorspronkelijke plank was large iron spike. Both these patches are only
treknagels. Het restant van de nagel bevestigd zijn glad weggekapt. In veel some 2 cm thick. Underneath the latter was a
werd glad weggekapt, waarna de gevallen zijn de secundaire treknagels treenail which was very close to the edge of
nieuwe plank op z'n plaats werd in een volstrekt andere richting the plank and it is possible that a crack
gebracht. geboord dan de oorspronkelijke die net between the treenail and the edge necessitated
als hier nogal eens doorsneden the repair. Two other repair patches of elm, let
worden. into elm planks, are both fastened with two
copper alloy spikes [fig. 1121. One is a repair
the full thickness of the plank, the other is a
Dutchman let into the plank like the other
two. Being close together and so similar, they
were probably fitted at the same time. Other
spikes of the same type have been noted on
loose timbers and possibly originate from the
same repair. The other two being differently
fastened and both sitting proud of the surface
of the plank are presumably repair[s] carried
out at different times.
There are two other repair patches in the
edges of planks that are similar but larger.
One of them was fastened with two square
pegs [fig. 1131. This was a loose find but can
only have been done either before the plank
was fitted or after the adjacent plank had been
removed. The latter is more likely and if so is
additional evidence of a repair program that
entailed replacement of some planks and
repair of others. Square pegs of the type noted
here occur in other instances as well as
dowels of 12 - 17 mm diameter but these
appear to be for filling nail holes etc. and are
not fastenings. A good example is a case
where a hole for the butt-end bolt of a plank
was being drilled into the futtock of a paired
frame. The auger encountered one of the
horizontal bolts, so the hole was plugged and
another hole drilled for the bolt on the other
side of the plank [fig. 1141. In a similar case a
hole for a butt-end bolt was drilled too near
the edge of a timber and was then plugged
with a small square peg of elm.
In another interesting case a stealer has been
fitted presumably in between two planks
already in situ. One of these planks has had to
be cut back to accommodate the stealer,
shown by two treenails of the in situ plank
that were cut in the process [fig. 1151. The
normal method of fastening a stealer is with a
spike at the end and a treenail on the next
frame back. Had the stealer been cut any
thinner it would have been too narrow to
fasten in this manner without splitting.
There is little suggestion of repair to the main
structural timbers. In the bow the regularity of
the framing system breaks down but this may
be more a result of the change in the shape of
the hull. There is one chock in this area that is
so large as almost to be a short futtock. It
might be the result of economy but
alternatively it could be a repair. Rot often
started around these chocks which might have
necessitated cutting away the ends of the
adjacent futtocks as well, thus requiring a
much larger replacement. Another chock
nearby also looks as though it is a
replacement but in this case this is because it
looks much newer than the surrounding
timber. It is well shaped and does not appear
to include sapwood [unlike many of the
others].
Both chocks look as though they were
covered in lime which was sometimes used as
a preservative. If they are repairs it can only
have been effected after the removal of the
--
-
[Fig. 1101 prople Deze sturk a aangebracht op
- Treena~lsand wedges of varlous types een gekoppeldspant en hetrs mogeli/k
-
-- Treknagels, w~ggen,deutels en houten dat de boor op een ~lzerenpen
gestoten 1s Men heeft vervolgens de
twee koperen pennen en da twee
treknagels ~ndit geval aan dezelfda
A crack that has started at the bun-end zrlde van de gang aangebracht
bolt and ran back to the treena~lhas [foto IPLl
been caulked In the same manner as a
[Fig 1151
Een scheur die van een koperen bout Drawing showing a stealer fitted
naar een treknagel loopt is op dezelfde between two existing planks. Part of
wijze gebreeuwd als een gewone naad the upper plank is cut away, as shown
[foto IPL]. by the two treenails cut in the process.
This was done in order to maintain
[Fig. 1121 enough width in the stealer so it could
A plank repair patch which is notthe be fastened without fear of splitting.
full thickness of the plank is usually Deze insteker is kennelijk tussen twee
known as a Dutchman. eerder aangebrachte planken gezet.
Een half houtje. Van de bovenliggende plank - en de
treknagels waarmee die bevestigd is -
[Fig. 1131 is een stuk weggekapt Dit was nodig
A repair patch on the edge of a plank omdat de insteker anders niet
fastened with two square wooden voldoende bread gemaakt kon worden
pegs. om erzondergevaar van scheuren
Een ingezet stukje dat met twee houten pengaten in te boron. Hetgaathier
-;-
. .-.-
#.
2,
c- -.
--. -
. pennetjes langs de zijkant van een overigens niet om een reparatie. In
7, ;-. C . L.
plank is vastgezet [foto IPL]. paragraaf 4.4.3. wordt
-P-
beargumenteerd dat deze insteker, de

- - [Fig. 1141 uiterste vlakgang naast de kim, als
An intended hole for the butt-end bolt allerlaatste huiddeelis aangebracht.
- plugged with a small dowel. This is a In fig.95is hetplankno.6.
bolted frame and the auger probably
encountered one ofthe cross bolts
fastening the futtocks so the butt-end
had to be placed in the other side of
the plank.
Rechtsonderis een gat dat
vermoedelijk geboord is voor een
koperen pen afgedichtmet een houten

ceiling, leading to the question as to whether
some or all of that is also a replacement? This
is quite possible and those with the pine
filling under them may be replacements. If
this is the case one might expect more of the
chocks to have been replaced at the same
time. Rot especially occurred when they
included a thick layer of sapwood as did many
of those in this vessel.
Windlass
Fragments of a windlass, badly damaged by
Teredo, consisting of the pawl bitt and one
side of the barrel including the pawl rim. The
barrel is octagonal with a pine whelp on each
facet and these appear to have been covered in
sheet-iron. The diameter of the barrel, not
including the whelps is 42.5 cm. There are --...
-.. . ..--- .
two sets of intersecting handspike holes on lli

each side [fig. 1161. Both axles were
recovered and these are heavy square section
bars. One end was located in the end of the
barrel, on the other end which projected
beyond the cheeks, were warping heads one
of which was recovered. The surviving parts
are reconstructed in fig. 117. In the absence of
purchase rims it would appear to be an
ordinary handspike type, rather than a
mechanical patent type worked by pump
handles. The rebates on the top of the pawl
bitt are probably for a strongback, a beam
running between the cheeks.
Standing rigging
SL4 A02. Deadeye with iron binding. The
block is 16.3 cm. It is fairly well preserved
with one link of chain still attached to the
binding [fig. 1 181.
SL4 A02b. Deadeye with iron binding [fig.
1191. The block has some worm damage and
mechanical damage [salvage] but is generally
well preserved. It is larger than A02, the block
being 21.4 cm in diameter. The lanyard holes
show a fair amount of wear.
A99. Deadeye with iron binding, the same
size as A02b, with apparently two concreted
chain links.
SL4 A69. Iron binding of a deadeye with a
link of chain still attached. The chain link is
140x 8 2 x 20mm.
SL4 A41. Iron strap turned to retain the pin of
a shackle.
SL4 A93. Similar to A41 but preserved for a
greater length and includes a bolt 25 cm from
the shackle.
SL4 A54. Length of flat iron with two bolt-
holes, one at the preserved end and the other

[Fig. 1161 [Fig. 1181
Part of the windlass barrel showing the SL4 A02, deadeye.
whelps, handspike holes and the pawl Een jufferblok metijzerbeslag.
rim. In the foreground lies the end of
the other side of the barrel with the [Fig. 1191
iron axle. SL4 AOZb, deadeye.
Gedeelte van hetspil. De ijzeren Een jufferblok met ijzerbeslag.
verstevigingen of kiezen, de
spaakgaten en de paltanden zijn goed [Fig. 1201
te zien. Op de voorgrond ligt het SL4 A54, probably part of a chainplate.
andere uiteinde, waarbij de ijreren as Vermoedelijk een puttingijzer [foto IPL].
zichtbaar is.
[Fig. 1211
[Fig. 1171 SL4 A01, double block.
Reconstruction of the salvaged parts of Een goed bewaard gebleven
the windlass. dubbelschijfs stropblok met houten
Reconstructie van de geborgen gelagerde schijven en een metalen as.
onderdelen van het spil.
36 cm from this, with part of the bolt still in
place. Both bolt heads seem to have had
washers under them. On the opposite side of
the bolt head is a fragment of an oak outer
plank 6.3 cm thick [fig. 1201.
This and the two fragments above [A41 and
A931 are parts of chain plate assemblies. The
lower deadeye was chained from its iron
binding probably down to a wale where it
connected to a shackle in the top of the strap
or plate which was bolted through the side of
the hull.
SL4 A75. Large thimble, heavily concreted,
approximately 7.5 cm across internally.
Possibly for a stay.
Running rigging
SL4 A01. A well preserved double sheaved
block scored for a rope strop, with wood
sheaves [probably Lignum Vitae] and a metal
pin. It was taken apart for conservation and
the sheaves proved to feature a yellow metal
bearing. There are several marks on one cheek
CC, R F l l and what looks like a makers mark
[fig. 1211.
SL4 A03. A single sheaved block bound with
an iron strap and crowned with a hook
[fig. 1221.
SL4 A04. Single sheaved block scored for a
rope strop, similar in shape to A01. Heavily
concreted but otherwise in reasonable
condition.
Cargo and ballast

As established during the on-site inspection
the hold of the vessel contained large lumps
of coal. A large quantity of it was salvaged
along with the other remains. A sample of it
was kept [fig. 1231.
Compacted in the limbers of the recovered
part of the ship flint shingle was found.
Ballast as such does not seem to have been
present. The predominant material between
the floors was coal- dust. It is possible that a
few large flint nodules, found in the vicinity
of the wreck had also been on board, although
association is not certain.
Miscellaneous
This section includes small finds, fastenings
recovered loose, samples and other categories
not included above and is sub- divided
according to material type.
Ceramics
SL4 A09/2. Rim sherd of an earthenware
vessel, possibly a strainer, three holes below

thickened rim. Outer surface decorated with
curved lines in yellow slip. Inner decoration
of dragged yellow and red slips [fig. 1241.
SL4 A09/8. Six sherds of a red earthenware
pot or bottle. The fabric has coarse gritty
inclusions. The wall thickness of 9 mm near
the base thins rapidly to 2.5 mm at the
shoulder [only 75 mm higher]. Clear [salt?]
glaze from just above the base on the outer
surface and on the entire inner surface. Shown
reassembled [fig. 1251.
Clay pipes
Three intact bowls were found as well as
fragments of two others and several stem
fragments [fig. 1261.
SL4 A26. Plain bowl with rouletted rim.
Possibly Dutch mid 18th century. If so
probably intrusive.
SL4 A27. Plain bowl, rouletted rim. Dutch
late 18th century. Heel mark: GN [Gerrit
Nobel] 1768 - 1870180.
SL4 A105. English moulded decoration.
Inscribed Munchester- Unity.This pipe
belongs to a large group of pipes decorated
with masonic emblems appearing in a wide
variety and in immense quantities from the
mid 18th century onwards. The form of the
bowl developed in the second quarter of the
19th century and production of these pipes
continued into the 20th. The occurrence of a
text together with several symbols on the side
of the bowl indicates a date early in the
second quarter of the nineteenth century. The
oval form of the stem is caused by intensive
use of the mould, indicating that this pipe is
of low quality.
SL4 A106. 2 fragments of a small plain bowl
of 19th century shape.
[Fig. 1221 [Fig. 1251 SL4 A107. 5 fragments of a decorated bowl,
SL4 A03, single iron bound block with SL418, sherd. 19th century. Poor quality, flawed in firing.
hook. Van de scheepsinventaris en het
Enkelschijfsblok met buitenbeslag en daartoe behorende aardewerk is Bricks
haak. bijzonder weinig gevonden [foto IPL]. SL4 A08. Six pieces of red clay brick very
eroded.
[Fig. 1231 S14 A l l . 16 bricks or part bricks of various
Some of the large lumps of good types and sizes, including 3 complete yellow
quality coal recovered with SL 4. The Dutch [IJsselsteen] bricks in good condition.
on-site inspection showed that a large Others are extremely water worn and are of
quantity was still in the hull when various pink and red clays.
discovered.
De lading bestond uit grote kolen Glass
[foto IPL]. SL4 A100. Wine bottle base, light olive green
thick metal. Deep kick-up, no visible pontil
[Fig. 1241 mark [fig. 1271.
SL4 A09/2, rimsherd. SL4 A101. Wine bottle-neck and upper body.
Scherf van slibwerk kommetje Light olive green metal, thin in the body and
[fotok IPLI. with a heavy square string rim [fig. 1271. Not
part of A100.
SL4 A102. Two body fragments similar metal
to above but slightly different colour.
SL4 A102b. One base fragment; brown metal.
Metal
Copper/copper alloy
SL4 A25. Small copper button with a raised
pattern on the front. There is a text around the
rim of the reverse which is illegible due to
pitting of the metal [fig. 1281. It was found
between the floor timbers just aft of the
foremast.
SL4 A1 5. Body of a cast brass barrel tap, the
actual tap spigot of which is missing
[fig. 1291.
Copper and copper alloy fastenings are shown
in fig. 92.
Lead
SL4 A57, 1911, 1912. Rolled sheet lead
fishing-net weights. One is 11.5 cm long with
a fragment of rope still within it [fig. 1301.
SL4 A62. A tapering lead weight attached to
two iron rods one of which passes down the
centre of the weight and is held in place with
a split pin [fig. 1311.
Iron
SL4 A48. A small grapnel with some rope
still adhering [fig. 1321.
SL4 A72. Three links of stud-link chain
[fig. 1331. Various other lengths of the same
size and type of chain were found and are
probably parts of the anchor cables. The
original link length was around 165 mm
[6.5"].
SL4 A 63, 68 and 90. Objects that are similar
to A62 but the weights are of square section
iron [fig. 1341.
Several bolts and spikes have been illustrated
in fig. 92.
Wood
SL4 A5 1. Barrel stave: 85.4 x 11.8 cm across
the centre and 11 mm thick, split into three
pieces [fig. 1351. There are no indentations or
iron-stain to indicate iron hoops and no other
marks of any kind. There are tool marks on
the inner surface.
SL4 A118. Stave of a cylindrical canister
made from a hardwood 52.5 x 9.5 x 0.8 cm.
The outer surface seems to have been tarred.
SL4 A23124. Two fragments of an oak plank
with markings [fig. 1361. Wooden fastenings
have been illustrated in fig. 110.
[Fig. 1261
Clay pipes.
Vijf pijpekoppen. De middelste links
heeft bet hielmerk van Gerrit Nobel,
de onderste links is een Engelse
versierde pijp.
[Fig. 1271
Bottles.
Glazen flessen.
[Fig. 1281 [Fig. 1301

SL4 A25, copper alloy button SL4 A57, SL4 1911. SL4 1912. lead
Koperen knoop [foto's IPLI. weights.
Visloodjes. Dergelijke nehrerzwaringen
[Fig. 1291 worden op veel scheepswrakken
SL4A15, barrel tap. gevonden lfoto PLl.
Bronzen tapkraan waaraan hetzwikje
ontbreekt.
Textile
SL4 A52. Brown silk square found between
futtocks at hold beam level. Almost complete
apart from one hole.
Leather
SL4 A13. Part of a shoe [upper heel].
Stone
SL4 A 12. A grindstone, three quarters
complete, of light grey crystalme rock
[fig. 1371. The shaft was 44 mm square and
on one edge of the hole is a fragment of wood.
The area around the shaft is ironstalned. It is
27.2 cm in diameter and 8 cm thick. There are
tool marks on the radial surface while the
outer surface has been worn smooth and
slightly concave. This suggests it was used
vertically for grinding blades rather than
hor~zontallyfor gr~ndinggrain.
Animal bone
SL4 A20. Butchered rib, probably bovine, cut
across both ends [22.7 x 3.5 x 8 cm].
Samples
Various samples were taken for identification
or analysis. Where this has been completed
the samples are evaluated in section 4.3.
SL4 S1. Caulking between port side outer hull
planks. SL4 S2. Environmental sample from
between floors. SL4 S3. Environmental
sample from between floors. SL4 S4. [A88141
Head of a copper alloy butt-end bolt, broken
during salvage. SL4 S5. [A88151 Head of a
copper alloy bolt, with a break that does not
look modern. SL4 S9a. Coal concreted to
ceiling planking. SL4 S9b. Sub sample of 9a.
SL4 S10. Fine silt and clay above flint
shingle.
SL4 S 11. Flint shingle blocking the limber
passages of the floor timbers immediately aft
of the foremast. It was also spread over the
garboard strake in a shallow layer 1 - 1.5 cm
thick. Above this lay an organic silt
[sampled]. Above this and sealing both was a
layer of coal dust 4 - 5 cm thick that had
filtered down passed the limber board into the
space between the floors. SL4 S112a. Coal
dust from between the floors overlying S10.
SL4 S 112b. Sub sample of S 112a.
SL4 TS 1-26. Wood samples. SL4 S27-S37.
Wood samples.
Some remarks on association

As a proportion of the objects that must have
gone down with the ship the number of finds
retrieved is small. Like many others in a busy
channel the wreck site was contaminated both

Table 10 by earlier and more modern material in the
SL 4 years following its sinking.
Together with the nature of the site and the
No. Element Position Species circumstances of salvage this makes it
impossible to prove or disprove association
TS 1 False keelson midship Quercus sp. (oak) between many of the objects and the ship.
TS2 Keel midship Betula sp. (birch) Cautionary examples include some of the
TS3 Garboard midship starboard Betula sp. pottery, a piece of boiler clinker and a modern
TS5 Outer hull plank lower midship port Ulmus sp. (elm) shoe that were raised with loose timbers from
TS6 Outer hull bonom lower midship port Ulmus sp. the site. The association of the bricks is also
TS7 Outer hull bonom midship Quercus questionable. Some are complete and in good
TS8 Treenail midship plank port Quercus sp. condition while others are fragmentary and/or
TS3 Treenail midship starboard Fagus sp. (beech) very water worn. The latter appear to have
TS9 Deutel from sample 8 Quercus sp. been exposed on the seabed for a long time in
TSlO Treenail midship port plank Quercus sp. contrast to another hard edged fragment that
TSll Wedge (punch) from treenail sample 10 Quercus sp. looks suspiciously like a modern fire-brick.
TS12 Wedge (punch) from treenail sample 10 Ulmus sp. The most striking example is a plastic tea-
TS13 Filling (under plank) midship starboard Quercus sp. strainer that was embedded in compacted sand
TS15 Filling (under bilge stringer) starboard forward Pinus sylvestris(pine) in one of the hawse-pipes. This is probably
TS14 Repair ("Dutchman") port outer plank forward Ulmus sp. the result of the ship having become
TS16 Mast step keelson forward Ulmus sp. periodically more or less exposed. The
TS17 Foremast Pinus sylvestris vintage of the strainer would be consistent
TS19 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. with seabed disturbance that must have
TS20 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. occurred at the time of construction of the
TS21 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. Maasvlakte in the 1960's. Other objects that
TS23 Keelson midship Quercus sp. the wreck probably caught are the lead net
TS22 False Keelson midship Quercus sp. weights and perhaps the small grapnel. One of
TS24 Floortimber midship Quercus sp. the clay pipes would appear to predate the
TS25 Futtock forward Quercus sp. English pipe [SL4 A1051 found in the wreck
TS26 Chock midship Quercus sp. by about 75 years. The approximate date has
yet to be established but its presence is not
Keel samples Betula sp. very surprising considering the number of
Garboard, port side Ulmus sp. ships passing this area in any one year. The
Garboard, starboard side Betula sp. amount of debris and general rubbish on the
Garboard, loose plank Ulmus sp. seabed would have been appreciable long
before SL4 sunk.
[Fig. 1311 [Fig. 1341
SL4 A62, lead weight attached t o iron SL4 A63, SL4 A68, SL490, weight and 4.3 ANALYSES
rod with a split pin. fittings.
IJzeren staaf met een loden gewichtje. Een vierkantijzeren gewicht en enige 4.3.1 Wood species
Hetzou deel uitgemaakt kunnen daarbij behorende ijzeren appendages. Analysis of wood species was
hebben van een unstes Het lijkt een grove uitvoering van het performed by Peter Stassen, Ministry of
voorwerp dat i n fig. 131i s afgebeeld W.V.C., under the supervision of dr. P. Baas,
[Fig. 1321 [foto IPL1. Rijksherbarium at Leiden. The collection of
SL4 A48, a grapnel. slides and catalogues of the Rijksherbariurn
Een klein dregje m e t touwlfoto IPL]. [Fig. 1351 were used as comparative material for
SL4 ASl, barrel stave. identification. Samples of wood for species
[Fig. 1331 Duig. analysis were taken from several
SL4 A72, three links of stud-link chain. constructional elements of SL 4.
Enkele schakels mannetjesketting [foto [Fig. 1361
IPLI. SL4 A23124, plank with markings. Procedure
Plank met merktekens [foto IPL]. First the samples were boiled in water for
over an hour, after which they were cut with a
[Fig. 1371 razor-blade in very thin transversal, radial and
SL4 A12, grindstone. tangential sections. These sections were then
Slijpsfeen van lichtgrijs kristallijn bleached and rinsed several times in fresh
gesteente [foto IPL]. water and then mounted on a slide embedded
in KARO, a corn syrup which keeps the
samples in good condition for several years.

For the examination a binocular microscope Table I 1
was used. The magnification factor used for SL 4
the transversal sections was 40, for the
tangential sections it was 100 and 250 - 400. Sample no. Structural Number Number of Heartwoodl
The radial sections were magnified 200 or element of rings sapwood rings sapwood boundary
400 times, while a magnification of 600 times
was used for examination of some of the Floor
epithelial vessels on the end grain. Floor
Funock
Results Hull plank
The results of the analysis are shown in Keelson
table 10. After 25 samples had been analysed Hull plank
a further four samples were taken. This was Hull plank
done to establish whether all sections of the Hull plank
keel and both garboards were birch as the first Stringer
results suggested.
In general the wood species identified appear Table 12
to be northern European and Mid-European
species. No obvious non European species sample no
were found although oak, elm, beech and
birch all have closely related species in North 3 t = 7.15
America which are difficult to distinguish. GL= 69.9 (99.9%)

The statistics for the mean curve of
4.3.2 Dendrochronological analysis floors of SL4. The background of the
statistics is clarified in Appendix I.
Sampling Mate van overeenkomst tussen
The salvage of the SL 4 shipwreck was monster SL4 (3) en SL 4 (9) uitgedrukt
performed with a large grab. As a result only in de t-waarde en de Gleichlaufigkeit.
part of the hull was recovered as an integral Uit beide curven is een gemiddelde
unit. A large number of timber were raised curve samengesteld. Beide monsters
individually. To preserve the integral unit of zijn genomen van de spanten.
hull structure for survey purposes eight of the
total of nine samples were taken from loose Table I 3
timbers. The ninth sample was taken from a
stringer that was still connected to the main sample no. 5 6 7 8
structure. However, the relationship of the
timbers to the structure with regard to type 5 not at issue t = 16.08 -
and function was obvious. So this sampling GL = 76.6
procedure was perfectly valid.
The principles of the dendrochronological not at issue t = 4.64 t = 7,32
method, the methodological problems and the GL = 68.6 (99.9%) GL = 64.3 (99.9%)
procedures followed during the Slufter-
research are briefly outlined in Appendix I to not at issue -
which the reader is referred as an aid in

understanding the relevant statistics. The
reference chronologies that were used in the not at issue
analysis are also discussed there.
The statistics for the mean curve of the
Dating hull planks of SL4
Of the nine samples, eight have been dated Mate van overeenkomst tussen
[table 111. It was not possible to date sample monster SL4 (5), SL4 (61, SL4 (7) en SL4
[4] of the stringer, although it had enough 0.De vier afzonderlijke curven
rings [I581 and a regular ring pattern. This konden worden gecombineerd tot een
indicates its area of origin was outside the site-chronologie. Alle vier de monsters
area covered by the standard chronologies zijn genomen van huidplanken. Dit
used. It was possible to build up two mean vormt een ondersteuning voor het idee
site chronologies [tables 12 and 131. The one dat verschillende structurele
consists of samples [3] and [9], both floors, elementen een verschillend
and the other of samples [5], [6] and [8] and herkomstgebied hebben.

to a lesser extent [7]. All these samples are of
hull-planks.
The high t-value between samples [5] and [6]
Date of Period Possible area means that they are made out of the same tree.
last ring of origin Since sample [5] and [6] are taken from two
hull planks which had been broken loose this
England conclusion is not necessarily significant.
England Each of the two site-chronologies is built up
England from structural elements of the same type.
Weserbergland or Southern Germany This supports the idea of a different
Weserbergland, Southern Germany or Western Germany provenance for different structural elements.
Weserbergland or Southern Germany Three of the samples contained sapwood, as is
Hamburg indicated [by the vertical bars] in the
Weserbergland or Southern Germany histogram [fig. 1381. In the histogram the
- relative position of the samples, their length
Enkele kenmerken van de monsters and the date of their last annual ring are
van SL 4. Weergegeven is om welk shown. The samples with sapwood are all
structureel element het gaat, totaal from frames: sample [2] with 19 sapwood
aantal jaarringen, aantal spinthout- ring, sample [3] with 10 sapwood ring and
ringen, overgang kernhout-spinthout, sample [9] with 19 sapwood rings.
periode die her monster beslaat in To get the best estimate of the felling date of
kalenderjaren en de mogelijke the complex of timbers the mean of the
[Fig. 1381 herkomst. heartwood/sapwood boundaries is taken and
Histogram showing the relative to that is added the mean sapwood allowance,
position of the samples, their length according to the method suggested by Baillie
and the date of their last annual ring. [1983, 36; after Hollstein 19801. Although
The heartwood-sapwood boundary is sample [2] could not be matched with samples
also indicated. [3] and [9] their English provenance suggests
Histogram waarin de datering van de that they could be treated as one timber
monsters naast elkaar is gezet. Elk complex. This in turn means that they can be
blokje geeft de lengte van het treated as belonging to the same timber
jaarringpatroon weer en eindigt bij de shipment with the same felling date. The
buitenste jaarring. Ook de grens van mean sapwood allowance for timber of
het spinthout is aangegeven. English origin is 30 years [Hughes et al.,
1981, 3831, so the estimate of the felling date
[Fig. 1391 is 1836, with a probability of 95%, that the
Histogram showing the estimated true felling date lies between 1829 and 1854
felling date. [see fig. 1391. The reasoning behind is as
Histogram waarin is weergegeven de follows. Of a sample of 175 recent oaks of
kapdatum en het 95%
betrouwbaarheidsinterval van de
monsters SL 4 121, SL 4 131 en SL 4 191.
De procedure gaat als volgt in zijn
werk: door bij de gemiddelde kernhout-
spinthout-grens van de drie monsters
het gemiddelde aantal spinthoutringen
van Engelse bomen op te tellen komt
men op een kapdatum van 1836. Het
gemiddelde aantal spinthoutringen van
Engelse bomen van 30 ligt met 95%
zekerheid tussen de uiterste waarden
19 en 50 ringen. Door de 19
spinthoutringen op te tellen bij de i MOST LIKELY
I FELLING DATE
kernhout-spinthoutgrens van monster I
121en de 50 spinthoutringen bij de I( >;

: I M E A N SAPWOOD ALLOWANCE ,838
kernhout-spinthoutgrens van monster : YEAN
.. . SAPWOOD
............................,.... ..., . , .......................
...................................................................... . ...
BOUHOARV
191 ontstaat het 95% ,854
LATEST
betrouwbaarheidsinterval voor de POSSIBLE
I I
datering van de groep monsters. 1800 lalo 1010 ,830 ,840 1850

Northwest England and Wales with complete Table 14
sapwood, the number of sapwood rings were SL 4
counted. It appeared that with a probabilty of
95%, the felling date of an oaktree lies Sample England Hamburg Weserbergland Southern Germany
between 19 and 50 years after the no.
heartwood/sapwood boundary [Hughes et al.,
198 1,3831. In this case we have three samples
with sapwood. By adding the 19 years to the
heartwood/sapwood boundary of sample [2]
and the 50 years to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary of sample [9] the 95% probability
interval is established.
The building date of the vessel governed by
the same variables considered for SL 1 might
lie within two years after the felling date, i.e.
around 1838. Combining this date with the
date of wreckage of the ship, based on the
find of an English clay pipe, which is dated at
the beginning of the second quarter of the
19th century, a short working life of
5 - 10 years is indicated. 100 = mean of sample 5 and 6 Overzicht van de mogelijke
200 = mean of sample 3 and 9 herkomstgebieden en de daarbij
Origin of the timbers 300 = mean of sample 5,6 and 8 behorende statistische waarden per
As stated above two mean site chronologies 400 = mean of sample 5.6.7 and 8 monster van SL 4.
could be produced. The mean curve of the 500 = mean of sample 6 and 7 Aangezien de verschillende
floor [9] and futtock [3] and the curve of the standaard-chronologieen onderlinge
floor [2] matched best with the English Of sample 3 and 9 only the main overeenkomsten kunnen vertonen kan
standard chronology visually as well as curve(= 200) is dated ( t = 5.31, een monster op meer dan een
statistically [fig. 1401. GL = 71.0 (99.9)) chronologie tegelijk passen.
The mean site chronology of the hull planks
matched well against the Hamburg,
Weserbergland and South-German
chronologies, but no differentiation could be
made between them [fig. 1411. The sample of
the Keelson [I] could also have a German
origin. It matched with the Weserbergland,
South-German and to a lesser extent to the
West-German chronology. However, the [Fig. 1401
visual agreement was not particularly good Visual match of S L 4 curves and
with any of them. This suggests it was from English standard chronology.
another North European area. Table 14 gives a =sample SL 4 [Z].
the statistics for the samples of SL 4 as dated b = English standard chronology.
against the different standard chronologies. c = mean of sample SL 4 [31 and S L 4 [9]
[= 2001.
4.3.3 CAULKING AND LUTING Twee curves van SL 4, synchroon
MATERIALS afgezet tegen de Engelse
Several samples of caulking and standaardcurve.
luting materials were submitted to John
Evans, Head of Department of Natural [Fig. 1411
Sciences at North East London Polytechnic. Visual match of S L 4 curves and
Like the samples from SL 1 these were Weserbergland standard chronology.
initially investigated by scanning electron a = mean of S L 4 [5], S L 4 161, S L 4 [7]
microscope to assess their general make-up. and S L 4 [El.
The SL 4 samples proved to be composed of b = Weserbergland standard
an intimate mixture of clay, wood shavings chronology.
and a binder [fig. 1421. Just like the SL 1 Gemiddelde curve van SL 4 monsters,
samples the SL 4 samples did not contain any synchroon afgezet tegen de
hemp fibres. standaardcurve van het
Weserbergland.

Western Germany Low Countries Schleswig- Lower Saxony
Holstein coastal area
Extraction with a series of solvents and
subsequent analysis of the extracts by a range
of chromatographic techniques indicated that
the binder in all cases consisted of a pine
pitch.
Ignition of known weights to constant weight
showed the mineral fraction [i.e. mainly clay]
of the SL 4 samples to range between 14 and
18% by weight. No residues of lime were
found.
4.3.4 COPPER ALLOYS

Analysis of copper alloys used for
bolts was carried out by Cathy Giangrande,
Royal Armouries, Tower of London. Her
results are followed by some observations on
the types of fastening used.
Procedure [Fig. 1421
Two butt-end bolts were analyzed using a Scanning electron microscope image
Kevex 0750 energy dispersive X-ray of SL4 caulking material.
fluorescence spectrometer, using a carbon Elektronenrnicroscoopvergroting van
secondary target. The conditions were 55 kV een breeuwselmonster. Het bestaat uit
and 1.8 ma for 400 and 1500 seconds. The klei, houtschilfers en een bindmiddel.
surface of the bolts were cleaned down to Ook hier is geen touw of hennep
bright metal before analysis. The results are lwerkl gebruikt.
shown in table 15.
Observations
The analysis shows the two bolts to be very
different in composition. This indicates that
they were from different batches of
manufacture though not necessarily from a
different source. The proportions of each
metal in the alloys could vary for several
reasons. They were probably made at a
foundry near the shipyard as and when they
were needed. They are still referred to today
as yellow metal. Although this designation
more or less implies that any copper alloy was Table 15
acceptable, various alloys were being tried
during this period. One that proved successful SL4 A8814 SL4 A8815
was Muntz metal, patented by G.F. Muntz

around 1832. This was an alloy of copper, COPPER 70.21
zinc and lead which had a tensile strength of ZINC 6.30
50,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch, or TIN 13.42
about the same as that of bar iron. Neither of IRON 3.14
these bolts are Muntz metal, although bolt ANTIMONY 0.80
8814 has a fairly high lead and zinc content. LEAD 5.50
The lead improved the density and working ARSENIC 0.40
quality and the zinc the casting qualities but MANGANESE tr
with its high tin content 8814 is really a NICKEL tr
bronze. Bolt 8815 with a high zinc content is a BISMUTH -
brass. This is the one that appears to have
cracked when being driven [see paragraph Results: in percentages
4.2.1 on copper alloy fastenings]. As noted
above the main reason is probably that the tr {trace) = 0.01% or less
cast of 8815 is very porous.
ARCHAEOLOGY O F THE SLUFTER

Table 16 Comparative tests on the strength of copper
Blind bolts and iron bolts are interesting in this context.
Into 4" of wood into 6" of wood The tables 16 en 17 give the average strength
of copper and iron bolts of various
Diameter of bolt IRON COPPER IRON COPPER thicknesses. The figures are taken from
Murray [1863]. Only those of the sizes used in
518" (16mm) 3.1 3.3 SL 4 being included here. The figures give the
3.05 3.3 direct tensile force in tons needed to break the
3.05 2.45 bolt or pull it out of the timber. Table 16
3.0 3.0 concerns blind bolts driven into sound oak to
a depth of 4 and 6 inches [ I 0 and 15 cm] with
314" (19mm) 3.1 3.5 the usual drift i.e. they were slightly larger
3.5 3.5 than the hole augered for them. Table 17
3.5 3.9 shows the results of the same test on copper
3.15 3.5 and iron clenched bolts.
Interestingly there is not a great deal of
Table I 7 difference between the adhesion of the two
Clenched bolts metals. The iron being stronger would tend to
spring from the timber before breaking.
Diameter of bolt IRON COPPER In the case of clenched bolts the fastening
failed when the bolt pulled through the
518" (16mm) 6.45 5.75 washer. The small difference between the two
6.45 6.25 metals is because the copper bolts, being
6.0 5.5 softer, could be more efficiently clenched
5.9 5.5 over the washer.
314" (19mm) 7.5 7.0 4.3.5 Coal

7.5 7.0 While the preliminary investigation of
8.0 7.25 the hull structure was being carried out, two
8.75 7.45 samples of the coal were sent to the Yorkshire
Regional Laboratory of British Coal for
analysis.
Table 18 Coal from various archaeological sites has
been analysed in the past. The techniques
SL419b SL4112b used are: petrographic [reflectance] and
Ro class % class OIO 112 class % class % 112 class palynological [spore count]. Through these
techniques the rank and age of the coal can be
determined. From a knowledge of these
parameters in British coals it is sometimes
possible to identify a source.
One sample was collected from pieces of coal
that had been concreted to the stringers and
ceiling planks by the degraded iron
The mean maximum reflectance of fastenings. A second sample was collected
both samples is 79% with a standard from the thick layer of coal dust found
deviation of 0.06. between the floor timbers under the keelson.
The former would obviously represent the
final cargo, whereas the latter could have
accumulated during more than one voyage. If
that was the case and if the coals carried had
come from more than one source this would
show up in the analysis.
The analysis was carried out by Pamela
Spriggs, Yorkshire Regional Laboratory,
British Coal. Her results are presented below
and are followed by some historical
considerations that anticipate the discussions
under 4.4 and 4.5.

Petrographic analysis this will be dealt with at length. Specific
The mean maximum reflectance and the attention will be given to the specific use of
distribution of individual reflectance different species of timber and other
measurements made on one hundred points of materials. A reconstruction will be presented
vitrinite are shown in table 18. of each step in the sequence of construction of
the hull with reference both to the
Palynological analysis archaeological observations and to
The samples yielded a well preserved spore contemporary historical handbooks on
assemblage and both contained the shipbuilding.
stratigraphically significant species This detailed evaluation will be followed by
Endosporites globiforrnis and Dictyotriletes an assessment of the position of this particular
hireticulatus. The samples are considered to construction within the framework of
lie within miospore Zone VIII [Smith and longterm developments in shipbuilding.
Butterworth, 19671 which corresponds to the Separate paragraphs will be devoted to the
lower part of the middle coal measures from short term historical setting of ship and
just below the Aegiranum marine band. shiptype and of the cargo. In a final paragraph
Both petrographic and palynological analysis the historical event and the date of shipwreck
indicate that the two samples were derived will be discussed.
from the same source. From the mean
maximum reflectance value the coal is 4.4.2 T h e site
estimated to have a volatile value of 36 - 39% Although the archaeological site SL 4
expressed on a dry ash free basis. High was abandoned after cursory inspection a few
volatile coal of Middle Coal Measures age is obvious remarks can be made about the
common in Britain and is known to outcrop or process of site formation. The ship's hull had
occur near the surface in the following retained its integrity and was standing upright
coalfields: in the sediments at a depth of between 1 1 m
- Cumberland; - Durham [outcrops near [top] and 15 m [keel]. For one thing this
Bishop Aukland and on the banks of the river means that the ship must have sunk like a
Wear]; - Northumber!and; - South Wales stone in relatively deep water. In the area
[south-east part of the coalfield]; - Lancashire concerned this must have been in a gully.
[south-west part of the field]; - Yorkshire Standing on the bottom the ship must have
[northern part of the field]. blocked the tidal currents. Ensuing scouring
The number of potential sources of the coal must have caused the ship to dig into the
can be reduced by some logical sediments it had settled upon. In view of the
considerations. The three most abundant excellent state of preservation of the ship this
sources in the list are Cumberland, Yorkshire process must have elapsed rather quickly. It
and Durham. Of these three the sources in explains why the ship was found at a depth
Durham and Cumberland are nearest to the well beyond the average depth of the deepest
coast. As the coal was presumably en route subatlantic sediments. It is remarkable that
for a port in the Rotterdam area it is unlikely the gully - which must locally have been as
to have come from Cumberland. In this line of deep as 11 meters - was not documented in
reasoning Durham is considered to be the the historical sources.
most likely source. However, the other British
sources cannot firmly be excluded. 4.4.3 T h e ship and its construction
4.4 EVALUATION 4.4.3.1 Some general remarks

The initial idea that the coal cargo and
4.4.1 Introduction the copper alloy fastenings indicated the ship
The data and analyses presented to be an English vessel from the first half of
above should be integrated into the aggregate the 19th century was confirmed by subsequent
knowledge on historical shipping. The present research.
evaluation is an attempt to do so from For example the fastening of the butt-ends of
different viewpoints and on different levels. planks with one treenail and a bolt in the
First of all some remarks will be made on the manner shown in fig. 97 had become fairly
process of wrecking and the archaeological standard in English shipbuilding in the
site as such. After that attention will be given eighteenth century. The practice may have
to the ship and its construction. As it is arisen from supplementary spikes driven into
especially in constructional detail that the the butt-ends of planks at the bow and the
present study has yielded new information stern which were more likely to start or spring

from the frame. Originally iron was used but with the fact that Polish oak could be obtained
copper was not only rust free but was also not in much greater lengths. The use of the
subject to electrolytic decomposition when shorter English planks at the bow and stern
the hull was sheathed in copper. By the time allowed the long foreign planks to be used to
of building of SL 4 copper or copper alloys best advantage, reducing the number of butt
were in general use even on hulls like this one joints in the hull.
that were not sheathed. Fincham [I8511 writes that oak planks from
Another aspect is wood used in the Danzig [modern Gdansk] were used
construction of the hull. The keel is made of especially for the bottom. It was thought to be
Birch and while this is unusual, Elm or Beech inferior to English oak. English oak was
being more common, it is consistent with the preferred for the frames. Besides inducing the
increasingly wide variety of species used in use of a variety of wood species the scarcity
English shipbuilding during the 18th an 19th of appropriate timber also induced maximum
centuries. In addition to the variety of wood economy. This had a considerable effect on
types listed in table 9 the dendrochronological the methods of converting and using the
analysis has indicated that the oak that was timber. As a result an accepted principle of
used came from at least two sources and framing large hulls - whether they were
probably more. For reasons of comparison a warships or merchant ships -had become
historical list of wood types used in the established in England probably by the
Sunderland built snow Boreas [I8281 is eighteenth century. In merchant ships this
shown in table 19. In a comparable Dutch general method of framing was followed
vessel the hull timber would have been all of almost until the end of the sailing ship era.
oak from European forests, while timber in an This particular framing system and the related
equivalent American vessel might include a sequence of construction are dealt with in
similar number of species as SL 4, English many treatises on naval architecture of the
yards had necessarily to import timber from 18th and 19th centuries. However, many of
all over the world. The demands of both the the authors are writing about their own work
Royal and merchant navies for wood of and naturally tend to use the more impressive
sufficient quality for shipbuilding had long vessels they had built as examples. As a good
since exceeded the supply available from result these treatises show a definite bias
English forests. The problems caused by the towards large warship construction rather than
competitive demands of the charcoal industry, the far more numerous smaller merchant
and the wide variety of other uses to which ships. Another aspect of these works is that in
wood was inevitably put were compounded by seeking to demonstrate the high degree of
poor forestry. Overseas sources were the only skill and knowledge that the work of the
alternative. shipwright demanded, authors obviously
The variety of species, although largely outline procedures and techniques as they
enforced by scarcity, were nevertheless used ought to be carried out and while they
in situations that suited their natural sometimes allude to alternative methods it is
characteristics. For example Elm was used for often implied that the technique or procedure
the bottom planking in SL 4. As well as being being described was the only way of doing
available in reasonable lengths Elm has a very something. The possibility of cross-checking
high resistance to rot. This is, however, only between apparently comprehensive historical
the case as long as it remains wet, so its use documentation on the one hand, and the
was confined to the strakes below the light reality demonstrated by the archaeological
water mark. information on the other is considered to be
The dendrochronological results show all the important.
frames of SL 4 to be of English provenance
whereas the hull planks and keelson are from 4.4.3.2 A reconstruction
German or other European forests. In the hull from SL 4 we have an
This agrees with the historical evidence that example of how construction has been carried
for certain structural elements a definite out in reality in one specific case. It is
preference was given as to their area of origin. especially as a complement and a check to the
David Steel [I8051 referred to the use of East historic documentation that the assessment of
country oak [i.e. the Baltic] for hull planking, the archaeological information is of
except at the bow and the stern where English incomparable value.
oak should be used. this may have been To allow for a comprehensive assessment a
because of its supposed greater strength and detailed reconstruction of the sequence of
durability but may have had as much to do construction of the SL 4 hull is worked out

below. The archaeological observations will Table 19
be reviewed side by side with historical data
as derived from the contemporary handbooks Deck and Hold beams; English and Bremen Oak.
on shipbuilding. The most useful1 treatise in Floors and 1st futtocks; English and Bremen Oak.
this context proved to be A Treatise on Other futtocks and top timbers Eng. Oak.
Marine Architecture by Peter Hedderwick, a False and main Keelson American Oak.
shipwright who ran a shipyard at Leith in Planks: Keel to 1st futtock heads; Eng. Beech &Am. Elm.
Scotland and who had wide practical to LWM Eng. Beech & A m . Elm.
experience. His treatise was published in 1830 LWM to Wales (10.5" broad) Danzic and Eng. Oak
and deals exclusively with merchant vessels. Wales and Blackstrakes Eng. Oak
He makes constant reference to alternative (4 wales and two Black strakes all 8" broad)
practices found in other districts and thus Topsides, Sheerwater and Gunwale Eng. Oak
gives a more accurate impression of the Clamps Eng. & D a n r Oak
variety with which the basic principles of Stringers Danz. Oak
construction could be carried out than is Bilge Planks (inboard) Eng. & D a n r Oak
usually the case. Remainder of Ceiling mixed English &Foreign Oak
Slightly earlier is The Elements and Practice Waterways Eng. and Danz. Oak
of Naval Architecture by David Steel, first Knees Oak
published in 1805. More widely known than 5 Breasthooks Mixed Oak
Hedderwick it became a standard work, its 1 Crutch (no pointers) Eng. Oak
third edition [I8221 incorporating the views
of such authorities as Hutchinson, Snodgrass Wood types in Sunderland built snow
and Seppings. The two agree on the general Boreas of 1828 (see also Lloyd's survey
principles of construction but Hedderwick's in Appendix II)
work is more relevant to vessels of the size of
SL 4 and she was constructed in a manner [Fig. 1431
similar to the way he describes. Plate X from Hedderwick's Treatise
The reconstruction of the sequence of showing the frame timbers with the
construction of SL 4 will be supplemented by chocked joints as well as many
notes from Hedderwick and Steel. References constructional details that are similar
will particularly be made to Plate X of to SL 4.
Hedderwick's treatise [fig. 1431 which Het handboek A Treatise on Marine
exhibits many of the features found in SL 4. Architecture van de Schotse
scheepsbouwer Peter Hedderwick is
Keel een van de historische bronnen die het
Firstly the keel pieces were cut and scarfed. meest geschikt is om de bouw van SL 4
The evidence suggests there were four pieces. aan te spiegelen. Het verscheen i n
The scarfs were tabled horizontally. Steel 1830 en behandelt oitsluitend
specified four pieces for a merchant vessel of koopvaardijschepen. Op Plate X die
330 tons. hier staat afgebeeld is het gebruik van
Hedderwick: the keel should be sided one half kruisklampen weergegeven, maar ook
inch for every foot of the ship's extreme i n andere details komt de bouw van
breadth and the hanging [depth] under the SL 4 overeen met hetgeen Hedderwick
rabbet [should be] equal to the siding;. .. als gangbaar beschrijft I n de evaluatie
According to Hedderwick the dimensions of worden de archeologische gegevens
SL 4's keel which are approximately afgezet tegen hetgeen Hedderwick en
28 x 37.5 - 38 cm [ l l " x 14 112" - 15"] David Steel, de auteur van The
should have been more like 33 x 43 cm Elements and Practice of Naval
[13" x 17"]. Steel however, for a West Architecture uit 1805 vermelden over
Indiaman of 330 tons specifies 12" inches de scheepsbouw i n hun t i j d De
breadth x 13" depth at the centre of the keel, historische bronnen worden dus
tapering to 10 112" at the keellstem scarf and gestaafd aan de archeologische
10" at the stern post. werkelijkheid.
Steel's description assumes a vertically tabled
scarf. Hedderwick's specifications are also for
a vertical scarf but he outlines the arguments
for both side scarfs and flat scarfs:
The seam of the scarph is sometimes laid
horizontally, but oftener in an up and down

way, as it is much stronger in the latter after the stem and stern assemblages are up.
position. But there are various opinions In describing these procedures Hedderwick is
respecting the scarphing of keels. In many the more detailed. The stem and the apron
parts of the west of England, the flat scarph is also had to be made from several sections.
preferred, because it is easier to come at The pieces were shaped and rabbeted [except
should it require caulking, and answers very for the scarfs as in the keel] then assembled
well when covered with a false keel.. . and bolted. The apron was cut so its scarfs
[Hedderwick plate X: FIG. 4. and 5.1. alternated with those of the stem and with
As noted above the flat scarf of SL 4 does not those that would eventually fasten the
seem to have been protected by a false keel. breasthooks. The scarf was cut for the stem
and the keel. Sheers were set up and the stem
Garboard rabbet cut was hoisted and slung in its approximate
Both Hedderwick and Steel describe cutting position. The scarf was then tarred and
the rabbet for the garboard strake except in flannelled after which the stem was joined to
the area of the scarfs. This was left until the the keel. It was carefully adjusted into
sections had been joined. alignment with the keel, bolted and shored.
The keel sections were then bolted together The procedure for the stern post was similar.
after the faces of the joints had been prepared In small ships the transom, fashion pieces and
with a luting compound. Both Hedderwick filling transoms were assembled on the
and Steel proscribed tarred felt or flannel but ground and raised as one unit. In larger ships,
no remains of this were found in SL 4. The the filling transoms were then removed to
bolts were to be large headed and clenched on lighten the load, being refitted later.
rings. The seam on the top surface was then
sealed thus: cut a groove in the upper side of Deadwood
the seam, one inch deep and 112" wide, caulk The small piece of forward deadwood in SL 4
the seam with a strip of flannel, then a thread is merely the tail end of the apron and formed
of oakum on top of it; then fit a piece of dry a ramp for the rising floor timbers. It was
oak into the groove; tar the groove well, and treenailed in place prior to the floors being
drive the piece tight down with a piece of laid and was through-bolted between the keel
tarred flannel under and round it, and fasten and the keelson.
it down with a few copper nails or oakpins.
[Hedderwick] Frames
A similar technique had been in use for With the deadwoods in place the framing was
centuries and has been found in several begun.
archaeologically investigated ships: the The operation of joining together the different
Dartmouth [new keel 16781, Sea Venture [lost timbers in constructing the frames, or the
16091 and the Mary Rose [built 1510, re-built methods taken for that purpose, may vary a
1536, lost 15451. These were all vertically little according to the custom of the place.
tabled scarfs. In SL 4 there was apparently no [Hedderwick]
tarred felt in the scarfs but as noted above Both authors emphasise the necessity of
there are traces of what may have been an avoiding grain cut timber [floors or futtocks
oakum based luting compound. Preventing the cut out of insufficiently curved wood]. SL 4
entry of water also relied on stopwaters, a shows several examples of grain cut or cross-
technique often used for horizontal seams and grained pieces [fig. 88, T3, T30] and this is
when used in a keel scarf also improving discussed in more detail below.
longitudinal strength by acting as a key. First the floor timbers were set on the keel.
When the keel had been bolted together the Steel implies all of them were bolted into
garboard rabbet could be completed. position but often this was not the case even
The keel was set on heavy blocks with in warships or East Indiamen. Hedderwick
treenails driven into them on either side to says this should be done when building afine
hold it absolutely straight. vessel but in his general text he refers to every
other floor being bolted first. In humbler ships
Stem and stern assembly it was sometimes every third or every fourth
The exact distance between the the stem and floor that was placed first. After they were
stern posts was now marked off on the keel, bolted to the keel the futtocks for these floors
then the positions of the floors. were assembled and raised into place. These
Both Steel and Hedderwick state that the timbers were framed great care being taken
deadwood is laid immediately after that with their shaping as it was to these that the
although Hedderwick says it can be left until intermediate futtocks were faired.

In SL 4 from the deadwood aft every third
floor was bolted in place i.e. every third pair
of timbers was framed. Over the deadwood
the system was less regular. Those timbers
that were certainly framed or bolted together
are indicated on the plan [fig. 941. The
aftmost frame timber left in place, a first
futtock, was bolted to the second futtock aft
of it. This shows that the sequence of every
third pair of timbers did not extend for the
whole length of the hull but probably only to
the midship point. Aft of that the frames were
bolted in mirror image. This was because the
floors forward of the midship section were
moulded on the forward side. This is best
explained by the diagram [fig. 1441. The
chocks orfilling under the floor timbers that
increased in size as the floors became
progressively more angled above the
[Fig. 1441 deadwood are illustrated by Hedderwick
Diagram showing the moulded side of [fig. 143: FIG. 351 [see also fig. 88,
frames [shaded] running forward 19 T22, T231.
and aft [A] from the midship section.
Op de plattegrond [fig. 941 is The procedure for raising the futtocks of the
aangegeven welke inhouten aan main frames varied. Steel describes the
elkaar gekoppeld zijn. De gekoppelde system that was used in the Royal and East
leggers en buikstukken zijn naar de India Company yards for large ships. The
ma1 afgetekend en verder in vorm futtocks were cut and assembled on the
gebracht. Het systeem waarin de ground. The cross bolts were secured and the
inhouten vddr de midscheeps zijn chocks were treenailed in place. The whole
afgetekend en aan elkaar gekoppeld, is unit was then hoisted into place with sheers
achter de midscheeps juist in but not without considerable reinforcement to
spiegelbeeld gevolgd. prevent it losing its correct form. First the
chocked joints had quartering [short lengths
of plank] nailed over them. Then a prop or
shore was fixed in the inside of the frame,
fastened at the head and heel with cleats.
Then a length of chain was passed round the
back of the frame.
This was a considerable rigging operation,
although in smaller ships these frames would
have been reasonably easy to handle.
Hedderwick mentions a method for larger
vessels [over 300 tons] that must have been
much easier in the small merchant yards with
a small labour force: For larger. vessels, only
thefirst and second, and third and fourth
futtocks are bolted together on the ground;
but the bolt-holes are all bored, and the bolts
driven when the frames are set up.. .
As they were set up they were supported by
shores and connected athwartships by cross-
pawls: temporary planks of wood nailed
between opposite frames, tying them together
until the beams were fitted.
Harpinslribbands
When the main frames were up, strong strips
of wood were nailed along their outer sides.

These ran from stem to stern and followed the intermediate floors. Through the floors of the
sheer of the hull. They were set at or just built up frames there was already a bolt.
below the level of the floor heads, first and
second futtock heads and the level of the Intermediate timbers
wales and provided support against which the With all the floors bound by the keelson the
intermediate or filling frames could be futtocks of thefilling frames could be erected.
erected. Although temporary they were made Individually set up upon the head of the one
out of good quality timber and carefully below, nailed to the harpins and chocked.
worked so that they formed an even curve. The first futtocks in SL 4 begin about 20 cm
This was important as they were also the from the keel. This was the practice in
guide for trimming and adjusting the outer merchant ships whereas in warships the first
face of the futtocks of the intermediate futtocks were united across the keel by a cross
frames. They were called ribbands where they chock. The merchant ship practice allows
ran along the main frames and were usually water to collect and run to the pumps without
made of fir. Where they curved round to the coming above the ceiling and damaging the
stem and stern post - the cant bodies -they cargo.
were called harpins and were made of oak. ...the heels of the lower futtocks run no lower
First the lower ribbands were nailed to the than to take a treenail in the outer edge of the
outside of the frames at the level of the heads Garboard Strake in each timber. To have a
of the floors and the first futtocks. bolt driven from the outside, and clenched
Alternatively, Hedderwick says two of the upon the Limber Strake through the heel of
bilge planks could be fitted instead. every lower Futtock from the After Hatchway
to the Formast [Steel 18051
The staging [the working platform erected Some of SL 4's limber strake fastenings are
around the ship] was then put up so as to be exactly as described but others are blind bolts
able to fix the upper ribbands [to the heads of driven from inboard.
the third futtocks and at the height of the All the timbers of SL 4, framed or otherwise,
wales and top timbers]. are similarly sided and set close together. In
When the main frames were up, shored, cross- larger and finer ships small pieces of wood
pawled, and the ribbands had been run, the were usually set between the timbers through
intermediate floors were placed. which the bolts passed. This is another aspect
of framing well illustrated in the
Keelson contemporary drawings and models [also
After the intermediate floors were in place the fig. 143 Plate X: FIG. 261.
keelson was fitted. Made of several lengths, The chocked joints of SL 4 are also slightly
the scarfs were arranged so as to alternate different in the manner the timbers are cut to
with those of the keel. There was often an that commonly illustrated. One futtock is
upper and a lower keelson. Where this was the trimmed in an angled butt and the other is cut
case Hedderwick says both pieces were at an angle all the way across [fig. 85, 951.
individually scarfed and bolted as though they In all cases possible to see it is the head of the
were single keelsons. They are currently futtock that is cut this way. Perhaps this made
termed a double keelson or a keelson and a better platform for the upper futtock to rest
rider keelson depending on whether the upper on during building than if they were both left
element ran all the way aft or not. Fig. 145 with one third of their depth as a butt.
shows a plan of the collier Earl of Pembroke This would only apply if the futtocks were
bought by the Navy, renamed Endeavour and still being erected individually. There would
converted for use by Captain James Cook. be no advantage in frames that were pre-
Using straight timbers for the keelson assembled, yet the bolted frames of SL 4 also
assemblage as in the bow of SL 4 would be have this type of joint. A possible explanation
cheaper in both cost and labour than the large is that the futtocks of the bolted frames were
curved pieces shown in this drawing and in being erected in pairs as described by
Hedderwick's plate [fig. 143: FIG. l:'T']. Hedderwick and in this case the system would
Lloyd's surveys of vessels built at this period ease handling. Another factor might be the
and the first half of the 19th century refer to way in which the futtocks were trimmed
the upper element as a false keelson or riding a little at a time until the shape of the futtock
keelson [see Appendix 111. was fair with the mould. It would be easier to
When in place bolts were driven through both do this with the foot cut at an angle as the job
keelsons and the floors to the keel. In SL 4 the could be done quickly and easily with an
keelson bolts were driven through the adze.

Cant frames
At the bow the first cant timbers forward of
the frames proper were bolted and probably
one or two other pairs of timbers were framed
each side both at the bow and the stern. The
intermediate cant timbers were not fastened to
each other but erected in a similar manner as
the filling frames. Set in place supported by
shores, they were then nailed to the harpins
and possibly reinforced with temporary cleats.
Planking
Prior to planking Hedderwick recommended
that the whole outer surface of the timbers be
dressed to a smooth even surface so that the
planks lay solidly against them. In some
places in the SL 4 hull there is a slight lip in
the surface of the futtock at the seam between
planks. This is a common effect of dressing
[Fig. 1451 the timber for each plank individually, as the
A plan of the collier bark Earlof planking proceeded. Although it was.a less
Pembroke 366 tons. Redrawn from an satisfactory alternative to the method
Admiralty draught by David prescribed by Hedderwick we must conclude
MacGregor, showing her as she would that it was done that way.
have been before she was bought into First the outer bilge planks were fitted then a
the Navy and converted for a voyage of few more strakes were fitted working upwards
exploration by James Cook. She was so as to bind the feet of the second futtocks.
built by Thomas Fishburn at Whitby in The wales were begun at the same time
1764. starting with the second from top and working
De collier bark Earl of Pembroke die down as far as possible on the staging.
door de Britse marine werd Staging was then raised so the planking could
aangekocht en verbouwd voor een proceed upwards.
expeditie onder James Cook. Zowelin If the timber used was green the bottom
dit schip als het schip dat Hedderwick planking was left off as long as possible while
op Plate X afbeeldtis voor hetzaathout work proceeded with fitting deck beams.
en het bovenzaathout krom gegroeid Hedderwick says this planking was worked
hout gebruikt. Dat is veelzeldzamer en from the garboard outward to the bilge planks.
duurder dan het rechte hout in SL 4. This was almost certainly the case in SL 4.
The last strake to be fitted would be the one
next to the lowest bilge plank. The stealer
described above [fig. 1151 that had been fitted
between existing planks [as evidenced by the
cut treenails] lies in this position [fig. 95,
plank no. 61.
There are various opinions respecting the
methods of planking the bottom [the hull in
general below the wales] some preferring to
work from the bilge upwards, others to begin
at the wales and work downwards; . . .
[Hedderwick].
Hedderwick recommended working upwards
as the weight of the plank made it easier to fit
closely to the one below. Even when working
upwards it was common to leave out the
strake next to the bilge planking so the chips
of wood resulting from work inside the hull
could fall through. This too was probably
done in SL 4 as very little in the way of
shavings and offcuts were found between the
frames.

Beams was done after the outer planking was
There are many ways of fastening the deck complete. The limber strake [binding the feet
beams to the ship's side, as by wooden for- of the first futtocks] bilge stringers [over the
and-aft knees and iron hanging knees. Others joint between the floors and second futtocks]
have no for aft knees, but have their beams and the beam clamps were fitted first [as with
fastened by dovetailing them into the shelf the wales and outer bilge planks].
and clamps, letting them down one third of
their thickness; and then on the upperpart are Treenails
fastened the two legs of a strong plate of iron, As the stringers and intermediate ceiling
which passes round the timber opposite the planks were fitted the rest of the treenails
end of the beam. [Hedderwick] would now be driven right through from the
The first method is almost certainly the way outer hull planks. The outer planks being
that the deckbeams of SL 4 were fastened. fastened initially with the butt end bolts and a
The alternative method described is similar to small number of treenails.
the hold beam fastening in SL 4 except the Hedderwick: as to the treenailing of the
ends of the beams were not dovetailed bottom and the top sides, it is the general
[fig. 103, 1041. Although the iron knees custom to double-bore each timber on the
shown in the Plate are staple knees their breadth of each strake if it exceed I0 inches
shape, due to the horizontal shelf, is very and to double and single bore all the narrow
similar to those of SL 4 [fig. 143 Plate X: strakes: that is, to double-bore one timber,
FIG. 16,331. A variation is that the shelf and single-bore the next alternately. The size
[fig. 143,33:F] is placed against the clamp of auger for the bottom plank, for vessels of
[fig. 143,33:G] whereas in SL 4 it is placed 100 - 300 tons measurement, is inch and
above it, which would seem more logical and quarter, and for the top-sides inch and eight.
stronger [fig. 1041. [31.75 mm, 28.57 mm].
As the fastenings in SL 4 show many different
Pillars aspects we need to enlarge on the subject.
Once the beams were in place pillars or In SL 4 the outer hull planks wider than ten
stanchions were placed under them for inches [25.4 cm] are mostly double bored as
support. In SL 4 there was probably one pillar Hedderwick specifies, those less: double and
to each hold beam stepped onto the false single bored. Those less than 7" wide
keelson. They could be located in a small [17.8 cm] are single bored. The diameters of
mortise as shown in fig. 107. Alternatively the treenails range from 25 mm to 38 mm but
they could be located on a small step nailed are concentrated at 29 - 30 mm, 32 mm,
onto the top of the keelson. This was often 34 - 35 mm, 37 - 38 mm, [ l 1/8" 1 1/4",
preferred as it avoided cutting into a main 1 3/8", 1 1/2"]. The majority of the holes in
strength timber. More seriously, a mortise also the loose bottom planks are 35 and 32 mm.
acted as a trap for water and was a potential However it is difficult to be certain about the
site for rot. size especially when measuring a treenail that
is flush to the surface of the wood. It is never
Breasthooks and crutches perfectly circular. One reason is that treenails
With the cant frames in position a series of were not initially turned on a lathe but split
large wooden knees were placed across the out of straight grained oak. Sometimes they
bow, binding the stem assembly and the were finished with a circular plane or moot in
forward cant frames. The equivalent members which case they were more evenly cylindrical.
at the stern were called crutches. Both hooks Alternatively they were hand finished with a
and crutches were bolted at right angles to the spoke-shave or drawknife hence the octagonal
fore and aft line. Consequently the arms of section and irregular shape. They were also
those low in the hull ran diagonally across the cut slightly larger in diameter than the hole
frames. The alternative arrangement in the through which they were to be driven. A
stern were timbers that ran diagonally up to selection of treenails is illustrated in fig. 110.
the wing transom. They were called sleepers The grouping into sizes is the result of
or pointers. Sometimes both crutches and measuring several hundred. More certain and
pointers were used. Like deck knees these more significant is the measurement of a
elements were later commonly made of iron. treenail hole i.e. the auger size used. Although
a measurement taken too near the surface can
Ceiling also be misleading. Sometimes the treenail
Neither Steel or Hedderwick is explicit on the was intentionally cut wider at the head as
subject of internal planking but much of it Hedderwick recommends.

. ..treenails should be well rounded, and of climates, being found to shrink and fall out. In
equal thickness from the point to within 114th these ships cutting then caulking the treenails
of their length from the head, where they in the manner of yards in the south of England
should begin to swell a little. By properly was more effective. This latter method was
driving such a treenail, it will draw the plank not found in the hull of SL 4.
close up to the timbers.. . Hedderwick implies the method he used
This and the use of wedges, either at the time himself was the single square wedge: the
or later to tighten them up can distort and most general method used in Scotland is to
enlarge the mouth of the treenail hole. One drive one large plug or punch into the centre
beneficial side effect of the violent salvage of of each treenail, these being made of dry oak,
SL 4 is that there were plenty of loose timbers about 2 112 inches long and 518th~of 314th~
in which either the treenail holes or the of an inch square at the head.
treenails themselves could be examined. Fig. 146 shows two treenails in an oak outer
Calipers were used to measure the treenail hull plank of SL 4, one with a plug, the other
holes at least 2 cm below the surface of sound with punches. The various types are also
or complete timbers and in the centre of shown in fig. 110.
several fractured pieces. In SL 4 the various types are generally
applied according to function. For
Wedging and tightening convenience in describing them, single square
Depending on certain factors such as wood wedges will be referred to as deutels to
variety, position in the vessel and its age etc., distinguish them from punches.
treenails are often wedged or otherwise Deutels and punches are used almost
tightened to further increase their tightness. exclusively on the outer hull planks and the
Its necessity in so many boat and shipbuilding flat wedges almost exclusively in the ceiling.
traditions has resulted in a wide variation in One reason is that square wedges tighten the
methods used. Of the methods used in SL 4, treenail around its whole circumference
firstly there are the common flat wedges, without splitting it and is thus more suitable
found in scandinavian shipbuilding and for use outboard. A flat wedge on the other
throughout Northern European shipbuilding hand splits the treenail across its diameter
both in clinker and carve1 hulls [fig. 991. which could result in leakage as the wedge is
Another common form is the square wedge often nearly as long as the thickness of the
driven centrally into the treenail and common plank. In the ceiling planking this is of no
in Dutch shipbuilding [deutel]. A third consequence. Of the three techniques flat
method seen in SL 4 is the use of several wedges are, however, probably the strongest.
small wedges in one treenail; usually three but This may be the reason for the main exception
occasionally four and in at least two cases to the above, in that outboard the treenails
five. fastening the garboard and first three or four
Hedderwick's description of the latter is strakes of SL 4 are mostly flat wedged. On the
particularly interesting in the context of SL 4: bottom strakes and bilge planks deutels
in the north of England, where an immense predominate, then punches from there
number of vessels are employed in the coal upwards. Hedderwick does say that the
and coasting wade, their vessels are much treenails on the bilge and other round parts of
esposed to striking the ground in going over the ship should be wedged to prevent the
bars in entering and leaving harbours, and in plank from starting over them with strain of
lying on the ground at times wirh heavy caulking. This implies that the others need not
cargoes. The ship builder and masters of such be. Indeed they were commonly left plain for
vessels ought to know well what methods it was supposedly not necessary to wedge oak
answer best to keep their treenails tight, and treenails outboard when new. The wood
prevent the planksfr-om drawing or starting would swell when wet and thus become
over them. Accordingly at these places, and tighter. Inboard this would of course not apply
several others, they tighten the treenails by as long as the ship remained relatively leak
driving three small tapering wedges or plugs free. In SL 4 it was obviously the standard to
rnto the head of each treenail. These plugs are finish a treenail inboard with a wedge. In
made of well seasoned oak, and are about other historic ships known through excavaton
1 112 inches long, and 318th~of an inch such as a cog that sunk off Bossholmen island
square at the head, and drawn to a sharp in the 13th century, the Mary Rose rebuilt
point; they are called punches. 1536, and Sea Venture [lost 16091 wedged
He continues to say that punches were not treenails are in the minority. In theory an oak
favoured in vessels that were going to hot treenail need only be wedged if driving it is

found to be relatively easy. If so it was has a deutel. There are other cases where the
obviously not as tight as it could be and so secondary treenails cut the first at a
was wedged to make it as secure as possible. convergent angle and which from a
The ideal case was a treenail that could only mechanical point of view would seem to be
just be driven through the timbers being far more secure. Certainly some of these are
fastened. Normally the faceted nose of the fortuitous but others by their uniform angle
treenail is driven 4 - 5 cm clear of the timber and the degree to which they cut the first
before being cut off. Fig. 110 includes such an treenail would seem intentional. Examples of
off-cut found between the cant frames of SL 4 blind secondary treenails cutting the existing
[A1 111. However, in some cases in SL 4 the ones can be seen in some of the timbers
treenail obviously proved s o tight it could not shown in fig. 88.
be driven quite far enough, the nose of the
treenail being visible below the surface of the 4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
plank. When this happened it was usually left The consruction of the hull of SL 4 as
unwedged and another treenail was driven reconstructed above illustrates three very
nearby. In at least two cases a treenail in SL 4 important factors in the long-term
could not be driven any farther than the development of large carve1 shipbuilding.
inboard surface of the futtock. The hole in the Firstly, the design of vessels to fullfill a
ceiling was filled by a dummy treenail specific requirement, in this case the carriage
[probably an off-cut] that was duly wedged of bulk cargo. Secondly, as a structure it is a
and so indistinguishable from the genuine good example of the framing system that was
fastenings! Another example was observed in widely used over two centuries in the English
an outboard plank where a treenail hole was tradition but which is poorly represented in
augered right at the edge of futtock. The auger the remaining wooden hulls either afloat or
was deflected off the timber so another was preserved in museums. Thirdly, a factor very
drilled on the other side of the plank and the much bound up with the first two, that of
redundant hole plugged and wedged. timber availability and conversion. A rough
Many of the planks on the outer hull have sketch of this development with emphasis on
treenails of various sizes yet most are wedged these interconnected aspects is given below.
with punches as though all the treenails were The first period of large camel hull building
treated this way irrespective of type and in England was characterised by relatively
condition. A few are left plain and others have round hull sections and complex but flexible
deutels, interestingly, it is often the latter that framing systems where the futtocks were
break the regular pattern. In the context of scarfed to each other in a variety of ways.
this vessel, the punches are probably the Although the basic system was regular,
standard tightening method, while those left variation due to the necessity of repair or
plain or finished in another way have simply through the use of different lengths
probably been fitted at a later date. and thicknesses of the timber to hand appear
The frigate Unicorn built in 1834 and now not have compromised the overall strength of
preserved at Dundee in Scotland also has her the hull [fig. 148, a]. Such systems, even
treenails punched in this fashion and also has when rigidly applied distributed the futtock
yellow metal bolts fastening the butts of the joints evenly over the whole hull. Up to a
planks. point ad-lib repairs would only enhance this
If wedging existing treenails was not thought effect. With a certain amount of strength in
to be sufficient the next course open to the the joints themselves and clamped by heavy
shipwright, short of replacing the plank, was ceiling and stringers fastened through to the
either to drive out the treenail completely and outer hull planking, the result was a strong
replace it or to drive extra treenails. There hull.
was a limit of course as too many would During the second half of the 16th century
weaken the timber. A way round this was to there were marked changes in the hull form of
drive a new treenail partially cutting an old large ships. The section became much more
one. On the port side of SL 4 there are four angular, something that is well illustrated by
examples of this in a small area that are so various contemporary manuscripts. This had
similar in treatment they presumably major implications for the techniques of
represent the same repair. The secondary construction. Any sharp curve in the hull
treenail hole has been augered to cut the first section tends to concentrate the futtock joints.
at a divergent angle [fig. 1471. In all cases the The sharper the curve, the harder it is to find a
second treenail is blind but curiously three out timber that follows the radius of the curve and
of the four are flat wedged while the fourth continues for any distance beyond. The

[Fig. 1461 [Fig. 1471
Outer hull treenails, one with a single Strengthening the plank fastenings.
square wedge - a plug or deutel-the Secondary treenails partly cutting
other with three small wedges or existing treenails at a divergent angle.
punches. h h e r e this is done the secondary
Aan de buitenzijde zijn de beknagels treenails are blind like those illustrated
op uiteenlopende wijze stijf gezet. Oe in fig. 109.
ene toont een gewone vierkante wig of Op deze foto is duidelijk te zien hoe de
deutel, de andere drie kleine pennetjes bevestiging van de huidplanken op een
of deuteltjes [foto j.a.1. gegeven moment verbeterd is door
nieuwe treknagels in re slaan. Oe
nieuwe nagels zijn blinde nagels. Deze
werkwijze is ook weergegeven in fig.
109 [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1481
Comparison of framing systems
showing the major changes that
occurred particularly between the 15th
and the 17th centuries. These are
generalised and not representative of
individual ships.
Bij grote schepen zijn de spanten
opgebouwd uit een aantal inhouten. In
de loop der eeuwen zijn er
veranderingen opgetreden in de wijze
waarop datgebeurde. Dit is een
schematische weergave van de
ontwikkeling zoals die in grote lijnen
tussen de 15e en de 17e eeuw heeft
plaatsgehad.

shipwright therefore has to place the futtock
joints either in the curve itself or not far either
side of it purely because the timber will not
allow otherwise [fig. 1491. With all the joints,
however well scarfed, aligned at the same
heights along its length, the hull would be too
weak. The answer was to change the emphasis
from end to end joints to overlapping timber.
When this is done sufficient hull strength can
be achieved with little or no strength in the
futtock joints and without any horizontal
connection between adjacent timbers
[fig. 148, b]. In fact in this system many of
the timbers did not even butt against each
other, the gaps left between them being called
spurkets.
Characteristic of late 16th -early
17th century shipbuilding in England, this
system was also more economical in the use
of timber. With all the joints concentrated in
the most acutely curved section of the hull, a
high proportion of the futtocks could be
formed out of virtually straight timber. This
may have had little bearing on the
development of this form but its economic
advantages would have been appreciable.
When these ships made their appearance the
timber crisis was yet a century and a half
away but already in Henry VIII's reign there
had been legislation concerning its sale in
response to scarcity. Of various references
made concerning the problem, the most apt in
the context of this report appears in
Harrison's introduction to Holinshed's
Chronicle, [Holinshed 15771:
of cole mines,. . . we have such plentie in the
north and westerne par-tes of our Islande as
may suffice for all the Realme of Englande.
And so must they doe hereafter indeede, if
woode he not better cherished than it is at this
present.
The next significant development in English
shipbuilding occurred, probably gradually,
during the 17th century. This time it did not
primarily concern the hull form. Apart from
the radically sharp hulls of the early frigates
exemplified by the Dartmouth [I6551 hull
form changed fairly slowly. There was a trend
towards wider floors and a more rounded
lower section but the method of designing
hull form based on arcs of circles remained.
In the framing system there was probably an
increasing tendency to reduce the gaps or
spurkets between the frames. This, coupled
with the ever increasing cost as well as the
difficultly in obtaining compass timber
directly influenced the next developments. It
is these changes that the hull of SL 4
illustrates.
ARCHAEOLOGY O F THE SLUFTER 118

[Fig. 1491 When the futtocks in SL 4 are examined it
In a hull of round section the frame becomes apparent that in many cases they
timbers can be arranged so the joints have been cut out of timber that curves rather
are disposed evenly throughoutthe less than it should. In most cases true cross
structure [a]. Sharp curves in the grain has been avoided but in others the
section tend to concentrate the joints futtock has been cut out of virtually straight
in or near the curve [bl. The sharper timber and several have cracked as a result.
the angle the more marked this effect The characteristic shape of these timbers is
will be [cl. the angled end cut to accomodate the chock.
De lassen tussen de opeenvolgende The reason for the chock is illustrated by the
delen waaruit een spant is opgebouwd diagrams fig. 150 and 15 1.
kunnen in een schip met een In fig. 150 futtock a] is cut from a timber of
afgeronde dwarsdoorsnede goed matching curvature or radius. It is the
verspringen. Hoe hoekiger die maximum length and thickness that could be
dwarsdoorsnede is, des te meer lassen cut from this piece of timber without
zullen er dicht bij de kim komen re including rot-prone sapwood. The ends can be
liggen. Dat komt de sterkte niet ten butted or scarfed to the next futtock by any
goede. method [although if scarfed the length of the
overlap will be lost]. In futtock b], of the
[Fig. 1501 same curvature and size but cut from a
The effect of cutting funocks of the straighter timber, there is no alternative to
same curvature and dimensions out of sacrificing the ends. Even where the
increasingly straight timber, also of the discrepancy in the radius of the futtock and
same girth. the timber is not so great, conscientious
Een inhout met dezelfde vorm word? uit removal of sapwood will still result in an
stammen met dezelfde dikte maar angular end. So too would this be the case if
uiteenlopende kromming genomen. futtock a], was extended [a2]. Although not
Dat heeft direct gevolgen. ideal, the timber of futtock b], is sufficiently
curved for the central grain to run
continuously from end to end. Futtock c], on
[Fig. 1511 the other hand, is cut from virtually straight
An example of stretching timber timber. It is truly cross grained in that the
resources to the limit is seen in the grain runs across from the inner to the outer
way the first funocks of SL 4 were cut. surface constituting a significant weakness. If
Bij de buikstukken voor het schip van all the sapwood is removed, the outer surface
SL 4 zijn de mogelijkheden van het of the futtock will have a rounded section,
beschikbare hour tot het uiterste something that is common in SL 4 timbers. In
benut Eigenlijk is men zelfs iets te ver extreme cases the futtocks cannot even
gegaan. conform to the required shape. Many of them
are a compromise, being fairly rounded but
with a considerable quantity of sapwood
remaining. In the terminology of the Lloyd's
surveyors [see Appendix 11] they would be:
not well squared or- well sapped.
Butting futtocks of type b], or c], to each
other leaves a gap which if not filled will
reduce the area of hull available for solid
through-fastening of treenails. The gap is
therefore filled with a chock. The chocks vary
in size depending on how much had to be
trimmed off the futtock. Fig. 15 1 shows a
typical first futtock from SL 4 [see also
fig. 88, T301. It is cut from almost straight
timber and on many of them the heel chocks
are substantial. In the futtock joints in general
some are diminutive [in a few cases there is
no chock at all] while others are quite large.
The latter make an effective end to end joint
between the futtocks but this is a secondary
function. A joint made this way even when reducing cost of iron. Prior to this futtocks
the chocks are butted does not have the had been raised individually, shored, nailed to
strength of a properly scarfed joint and this is the harpins and additionally secured until
demonstrated by the considerable planked by various means such as knocking
reinforcement that was necessary when wedges between them or with temporary
raising the frames into place. battens. The details of the procedure certainly
Joints of this type are well illustrated in the varied widely but it would not be so easy with
various treatises on Naval Architecture in the chocks. Not only were there double the
18th and 19th centuries. However they are number of pieces involved but there was less
always shown as being butted and of a regular surface for the heel of one futtock to rest upon
size [fig. 1521. As suggested above, the the head of the one below.
treatises have a strong bias to the finer built The next logical step was to bolt the
large merchant ships or warships. On the component futtocks of a frame together on the
proper jointing of timber in this fashion, Steel ground and then raise them in one unit, as
says: described above. At the time the termframe
.. .each [timber] sho~ildstand upon its proper implied framed timbers as opposed tofilling
head. The heads and the heels of all the frames orfilling timbers. As discussed above,
timbers to have one third of the substance left even when fully developed as a construction
the moulding. sequence not every frame was so formed, the
In other words at least one third of the filling frames being erected in the earlier
moulded depth of the futtock should meet in a manner.
true butt. The implication is that they were not In what order these changes occurred is
necessarily to be the same size as long as they difficult to say. Various authors have stated
did not exceed the specified depth. If this was the practice was introduced in 1714. The
exceeded to the point where the chock became source for this 'fact' can be traced back
the same thickness as the frame this was a through John Fincham [I85 11 who gives that
through chock: date for the introduction of chocks when
. . .ifone timher happens to he short, provide describing the system introduced by Sir
the next long enough to make good the Robert Seppings that superceded it. Seppings
deficient length, as through chocks should [I8201 in the presentation of his method in the
always be rejected ... He goes on to specify Philosophical Transactionsfor the year 1820
that: the seats of the chocks should not exceed had cited an old work in my possession,
once and a half the siding of the timber dedicated to George the first and on the basis
[fig. 1531. By limiting the amount that is of this, supposed the practice was introduced
trimmed off the timber and the length of the around 1714, being the year in which George
chock one is limiting the extent to which the I came to the throne. As a matter of fact it is
available timber can be utilised. It is also the year that William Sutherland's
interesting that rather than flout these rules he treatise: Britain's Glory of Ship-Building
advocates compromising the regularity of the unveil'd was first published, so that might be
framing system as the lesser of two evils. the old work to which Seppings refers. In fact
The chocks in the hull of SL 4 do not seem to Sutherland describes chocks in some detail
answer to a set proportion at all. One of the and recommends correct proportions in
chocks is no longer wedge shaped but more relation to the futtock. It is obvious that the
like a very short futtock. Similarly a wreck on practice was in use considerably earlier than
the beach between Zandvoort and this and was demonstrated to be so by the
Bloemendaal, investigated by the Ministry of excavation of the Darrrnol~th[built 1655,
W.V.C. in April 1986, shows extremely long rebuilt 1678, sunk 16901 [Martin 19781. In the
chocks [fig. 1541. With its general case of the Dartmouth there were no
characteristics and its yellow-metal bolts in horizontal fastenings between the futtocks in
the plank butts it too looks like an English the section of hull excavated and salvaged.
vessel. This suggests a transitional stage although
The other development in the framing of ships some bolts may have been used higher up.
was the use of bolts fastening adjacent Sutherland describes bolting the futtocks
futtocks horizontally. This may have begun as together although he says that in large ships
a constructional aid but it led to a change in they were only bolted up to a certain height
the constructional sequence. It may have been [a similar compromise as that recommended
connected with the new way of converting by Hedderwick over a century later]. As with
timber involving chocks and would have most new practices change probably occurred
become economically more viable with the at different times in different areas. It is also

[Fig. 1521 [Fig. 1541
Cross section of a man of war from A A chock from the
History ofNavalArchitecture by John Zandvoort/BloemendaaI wreck. Its
Fincham [18511, showing the oldchock extreme length is significant.
method and the buttand coaksystem Bij een scheepswrak dat in april1986
introduced by Sir Robert Seppings. op bet strand tussen Zandvoort en
Lassen met kruisklampen zijn Bloemendaal is onderzocht zijn ook
regelmatig afgebeeld. Op de kruisklampen gebruikt. Ze zijn erg lang
afbeeldingen zijn de kruisklampen -zoals hier afgebeeld -maar vaak
echter altijd met een borst of stuik laten zij bovendien geen lijf meer over
uitgevoerd en zijn zij regelmatig van van de eigenlijke inhouten [foto IPL].
vorm; zo ook hier in een afbeelding van
Fincham.
[Fig. 1531
Diagram showing the maximum size of
a futtock chock according t o Steel
[18051.
In deze schematische tekening zijn de
maximale afmetingen en verhoudingen
weergegeven die een kruisklamp
volgens de regels van Steelzou mogen
hebben.

possible that the use of chocks was well curvature required, the space occupied by the
established as a remedy, the occasional one chock was not cut from solid timber. This
being used where inadequacy of specific apparent contradiction continues in the next
timber made it necessary. With rising timber paragraph:
prices its use presumably became increasingly the introduction of chocks was no doubt to
widespread until it became standard practice. procure that curvature which is so necessary
Developed in the 17th century, the method in the formation of a ship, when crooked or
was the norm throughout the 18th and well compass timber became scarce.. .
into the second half of the 19th century. The It probably stems from the fact that as the
new method introduced by Sir Robert chock system had become the formal method
Seppings in 1818 involved butting the in the Royal yards, timbers were cut to be
futtocks and joining them with circular coaks joined in this manner whether it was
or large dowels. The system made use of necessary or not. When a curved piece was
futtocks of a shorter length in order to reduce cut from straight timber there undeniably did
the curvature required in each piece and to occur waste along its length [fig. 150~1,even
ensure a solid butt-end [fig. 1521. In though it can be used for chocks and other
Philosophical Transactions [I8201 he small pieces.
criticised the practice of only bolting alternate Seppings' alternative method was certainly a
pairs of frame timbers: great improvement and survives in one of the
In forming the frames or ribs, half the timbers ships he built; the Unicorn [I8341 which is
only are united.. .the intermediate two timbers still afloat in Dundee. In thephilosophical
[termed fillings] being unconnected with each transactions he advocated the use of his
other, and merely resting on the outer system to merchant ship builders, particularly
planking, instead of giving support to it.. .This for East Indiamen. Apparently some merchant
loose practice is, I believe, peculiar to the vessels were subsequently built on this
English merchant ship-builder; and indeed principle [Hedderwick illustrated it in his
was persued till very lately even in His treatise see fig. 143, plate X, FIG. 24, but
Majesty's Navy, while the preferable system despite general consent that there were better
of connecting the ribs was common to other ways, merchant yards continued to use chocks
maritime powers. for many years. In 1842 William Hutchins
While ships with all their timbers horizontally proposed a new method of framing and
bolted were undeniably stronger, his assertion jointing for merchant ship construction very
that the filling frames were only resting on the similar to and presumably derived from that
planking ignores the strong binding effect of advocated by Seppings, which by then had
the latter. More than two centuries earlier become the norm in the Navy. John Fincham
ships with all their timbers resting on the in 185 1 referred to chocks as the old method
planks had circumnavigated the world. but plans of merchant ships built after this
He was even less complimentary about the date as well as Lloyd's surveys show that it
use of chocks: but the present mode of joining had remained the standard method for wooden
together the several pieces of the same rib, is framed English ships.
also highly objectionable. It is done by the SL 4 and ship from Zandvoort/Bloemendaal
introduction of a third piece, technically both exhibit that unbutted chocks were
termed a chock or wedge piece.. . Of these normal in vessels up to about 350 - 400 tons.
chocks not one in a hundred is ever replaced The great similarity with those illustrated by
[i.e. reused] in the general repair of a ship; for Sutherland [I7291 indicate this rougher
they are not only found defective, but very application of the technique had probably
generally to have communicated their own remained constant since the 17th century. It
decay to the timbers to which they are had certainly stood the test of time.
attached. Besides this, the grain of the rib- Hedderwick's opinion was that although there
pieces being much cut, to give them the were better methods, such as dove-tailing the
curvature required, has a considerable share chock, or the Seppings system of butt and
in weakening the general fabric. That they coak used by some of the Navy People, chocks
occasion a great consumption of materials, is if well fitted would answer every purpose.
obvious, as the ends of the two rib pieces Whether it was chocks or the butt and coak
must first be cut away, and then be replaced method, both were the result of the constraints
by the chock. imposed by the price and availability of
This last statement is interesting, for as timber. This is best summed up by
demonstrated in fig. 150c and 15 1, in timbers Hedderwick's final remark on the subject of
where the grain was much cut, to obtain the joining futtocks:

I consider a method of scarphing them, where would be consistent with this. Floor timbers
it can be obtained, as preferable to either. from further aft were recovered loose that
were approximately 30.5 cm [12"] square. On
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and this point it should be born in mind that these
shiptype timbers are not particularly regular in shape,
To be able to assess to what type of this can be seen in the sections of the floors in
ship SL 4 can be attributed it is important to fig. 86 so it is difficult to be specific. Another
assess size. Initially her extreme breadth was point is that although timber size is a good
estimated to be around 8.20 m [27 feet] general guide it was not invariable.
which, based on the dimensions of other Occasionally a ship is referred to as having
similar vessels, would have given a tonnage timbers of light scantling which meant they
of something over 300 tons according to the were smaller than was usual for a vessel of
old tonnage rules in force between 1773 and that size.
1836, and perhaps 10 - 25 tons more by the The ship SL 4 was carrying coal. Many ships
new rule of 1836 [see Glossary: entry tonnage in this kind of trade however, were not
and tonnemaat]. On the basis of the sections originally built as a collier. Old ships were
[fig. 951 as compared with contemporary retired into the coal trade, where their leaky
drawings such as Hedderwick's brig of hulls were not such a disadvantage in the
303 tons [fig. 1.551 and taking into account carriage of a cargo that was not subject to sea
some distortion of the hull during salvage damage. Nevertheless the evidence suggests
[although this is difficult to judge] the main that this particular ship was indeed built for
breadth could be nearer 7.90 m [26 feet] as it the trade of bulk goods such as coal, and most
became obvious that the extreme breadth was probably in one of the North Eastern English
neither far astern of the aftmost surviving ports, e.g. Sunderland. Apart from the fact
floors, nor much greater than that of the that her construction and hull shape are
surviving structure. This would also result in typical for medium and large size bulk-
a smaller tonnage. carrying cargo vessels there are several
Even though it is hard to calculate SL 4's arguments for this.
tonnage accurately, this estimate is supported Her size is within the range of vessels
by comparison of the dimensions of floor engaged in the English foreign coal
timbers and plank thicknesses of SL 4 with trade. Thomas Richardson [I8331
those that appear in the survey reports of regarded vessels between 200 and 300
merchant vessels carried out by Lloyd's tons as most suitable for European
surveyors in the major English ports. These trade.
prove to be an extremely informative source The lower beams were not decked
of information on ships built from the late over [at least in the middle of the
18th century onwards. They make fascinating ship], hence the term holdbeam rather
reading, containing not only details of than deckbeam. This is highly typical
constructional elements but also of any for colliers and other bulk carriers.
repairs carried out. As they are not easily The beams were not intended to
accessible for the general reader a selection of support any great weight [reflected by
these reports with data relevant to the their shallow depth at the ends] but
discussion of SL 4 is given in Appendix 11. In functioned as tie beams. In view of
the course of the present study some 1,300 of this their method of fastening would
these survey reports were examined, but even seem ideal.
this is a very small proportion of the total The flat floored hull shape with
number. thickened strakes at the turn of the
Comparison of dimensions in the survey bilge is well adapted to take the
reports and in SL 4 suggests that this vessel ground at low water in shallow
was under 300 tons. On the other hand the harbours and creeks along the North
number of bilge stringers, outer bilge Sea.
planking and other features like the iron hold The hull is not sheathed as it would
beam clasps suggest she was not much less. have been if it had been intended for
The dimensions given in the surveys were trading to e.g. the West-Indies or the
presumably those in the main body of the Mediterranean.
ship. Steel specifies dimensions for floor She appears not to have been very old
timbers that gradually reduce in size towards on sinking.
the bow and the stern, so the 29 cm [ l l 1/2"] The northeastern English origin is supported
floors forward of the midship section in SL 4 by the typical use of punches to tighten the

treenails. Furthermore SL 4 has a marked synonymous with northeastern building.
similarity to vessels built in Sunderland as Because of their sturdy construction and good
they appear from the Lloyd's surveys. It is sailing qualities several of these Collier Barks
even quite possible that the survey of SL 4 were bought by the Royal Navy and adapted
herself was among those reports studied. for use in the voyages of discovery under
Usually the destination of the ship was given Captain James Cook in the 1770's [fig. 1451.
but of course that might only refer to one From that time up to the mid 19th century
subsequent voyage. A large number of the there was a progression towards longer and
surveys were carried out in the summer and shallower hulls using increasing amounts of
although colliers often made repeated voyages iron in their construction. While this was
between the same ports many of the vessels of cheaper than using expensive grown timber it
the size of SL 4 would be trading to the Baltic did not alter the basic principles of
and elsewhere during that season. This might construction. The method of securing the hold
explain why so few destinations are recorded beams in SL 4, which was impossible with
[in the surveys seen] for either Rotterdam or wood, is unusual in this respect. Generally
Holland in general, at a time when from iron was used for reinforcing existing
Lloyd's list it is apparent that trade with this structure or to fabricate an element that was
area was frequent. Unless the survey was very formerly cut out of wood, such as the upper
detailed [and more often they are not] there deck hanging knees of SL 4.
would be nothing apart from the size to make SL 4 represents the last generation of wooden
the connection. merchant vessels of this form from a period
Occasional Baltic trading for SL 4 is when sail power was still predominant. They
suggested by the flint shingle found were built in their thousands and were the
compacted in her limbers. Flint occurs widely work horses for the bulk trades for nearly two
on the East-Anglian and south coasts and has centuries. SL 4 probably is the largest section
been the common ballast material in English of a collier of this period to survive. An
ships for centuries. Ships often sailed to the interesting parallel may be wreck 44Y088
Baltic in ballast, returning with timber. A [Broadwater et al. 19851, a robust merchant
similar voyage in its earlier career might be a ship of about 130 tons, which is suspected to
likely explanation for the presence of shingle be a collier brig. It sank in the York river in
in SL 4. Virginia [U.S.A.] in 1781 at the Battle of
As a product of the English northeastern yards Yorktown. In terms of shipbuilding SL 4 and
the hull type represented by SL 4 has its 44Y088 are just one generation apart and a
origin at the end of the 17th century, the comparative study would be most interesting.
period of the final divergence of warships and
merchant ships with regard to design and hull Rig
form. The major developments have been Unfortunately few rigging elements from
discussed at length by Davis [I9721 and SL 4 were recovered. She could either have
McGowan [1980]. Cheap imports [esp. fluits, been three masted and rigged as a bark or two
either bought or taken as prizes] had caused masted and rigged as a brig or a snow. In
the position of southern English merchant general at this period brigs were usually under
shipyards to decline by 1700 whereas those in 290 tons and barks generally larger but there
the northeast seem to have been more was quite a large overlap. Brigs and certainly
enterprising. For various reasons [timber snows over 300 tons were not uncommon.
supply; iron foundries in the vicinity] they Fig. 155 for example shows the brig Williani
were better placed to build large capacity Yoling of 303 tons. The Lloyd's survey reports
ships cheaply than those of the south. With in Appendix I1 review the snow Mary of
the specific need for this kind of vessel they 323 tons and a small bark such as the
seem to have begun building an English Clarinda of 246 tons. By their very nature
equivalent of the fluit in large numbers. The these surveys are chiefly concerned with the
ships they built, although structurally very condition of the hull. However, fittings and
different from the Dutch model, incorporated rigging were also considered for wear and
its proven virtues as well as those of the general condition. Sometimes the inventory is
similar Norwegian Cat, another successful fairly detailed but usually it is brief.
bulk carrier much used in the Baltic timber Fig. 156 shows a large brig that was thought
trade and closely related to the fluit. to be the Ellen Simpson [310 tons, new
So wholesale was the north-east takeover of measurement] but the male figure head
this sort of shipbuilding that terms such as suggests otherwise. Photographed in the late
Cat Built and collier bark became 1840's by the Reverend Calvert Jones, she
[Fig. 1551
Plate XX of Hedderwick's Treatise
showing a lines plan of a Brig of 303
tons, the William Young built in 1824. A
fairly short and deep hull typical of the
vessels of this size engaged in foreign
trade.
Lijnenplan van de brik William Young
volgens H e d d e ~ l i c kHet
. schip meet
303 ton. De gedrongen romp met grote
holte is typerend voor Engelse
schepen van deze afmetingen.

gives a good impression of the appearance of the export market only grew at about half the
a vessel of the size of SL 4. Another of his rate of the domestic market as foreign
photographs [fig. 1571 shows the bark customers turned elsewhere.
Countess of Bective, 329 tons built at The trade to Holland was typically variable.
Sunderland in 1843, to the right of a small An early alternative was Scottish coal which
ship: the Mary Dugdale built at Hull in 1835 in the 17th century was not taxed at the same
of 375 tons. rate. The coalfields in the Land van Llrik
Unfortunately the position of the mast in SL 4 [Libge] were a source nearer by.
is not significant. There was fairly wide The purposes for which coal was used in
variability in the positioning of masts within Holland were both domestic and industrial. In
each rig type and the position of SL 4's the latter capacity it was used for sugar
foremast is consistent with either two or three refining, brewing and the distillation of
masted rig. A good illustration of this; Jenever, vast quantities of which were in turn
fig. 158, shows a sail plan by David exported to England. However, peat and
MacGregor of the bark Arab built 1839 at wood, being easily obtainable, remained the
Garmouth [269 tons]. The mizzen mast is predominant fuels into the 19th century. There
stepped unusually close to the main although was a healthy demand of coal but it was not
she was by no means an isolated case. The particularly vital to the economy. With
other factor is that it was quite common for a alternative, albeit lower quality sources
vessel to change from one rig to another, the available, consumption remained susceptible
bark rig becoming increasingly popular in the to changes in circumstances.
1830's. Brigs became barks and vice versa. For a brief period duty on English coal was
The Ellen Simpson, mentioned above was reduced to revive the export market but this
built as a bark in Sunderland but was created the anomalous situation of artisans in
registered as a brig in 185 1. Appendix I1 Holland paying less for their coal then their
features an account on what a voyage in such competitors in the Thames Valley. To add
an ordinary cargo vessel, the Charles Kerr insult to injury they were able to undercut
from Shields, could be like. them when selling their finished products in
London. In 1709 the tax on coal carried in
4.4.6 The cargo English ships was abolished but reinstated the
The ship at SL 4 was carrying coal, a following year. From then on it rose steadily
typical import to The Netherlands and a throughout the 18th century and into the 19th.
typical import to the port of Rotterdam Trade did however continue to a certain extent
[fig. 1591. The analysis indicated a series of for merchants were often able to negotiate
English coalfields, headed by those in county private concessions. The alternative was to
Durham to be its likely source. This is defraud the Customs and Excise altogether.
perfectly in line with the circumstantial This being the case and given the relative
evidence of the ship it was contained in and efficiency of the English mining and shipping
its historical setting. Nevertheless the operations, coal from the North East and
situation on the coal market saw quite a few Scotland retained its attraction. In the 18th
changes in the period of wrecking of SL 4 century there were even Dutch merchants
which are worthy of mention. living in Rotterdam who owned a mine at
In the coalfields the late 18th and early 19th Hallreath, Inverkeithing. By the end of the
centuries saw a rapid increase in production. century it was Sunderland that had taken over
The industrial revolution and the widespread as the main source and at this period there
adoption of steam power both increased the were four agents for Sunderland coal
demand for coal and the efficiency of mining. stationed in Delfshaven, Schiedam and
Not only was coal being won in ever Dordrecht [all in the Rotterdam area] as well
increasing quantities from deeper seams but as Amsterdam.
improved logistics and increased demand Trade with Holland was then interrupted by
made it economically viable to transport it to the Napoleonic wars [I793 - 18 151. The
the ports for export from farther inland. Thus effect was not felt immediately but in 1795
in considering the sources of SL 4 coal the the French invaded Holland. Pro French
criteria of abundant and accessible seams near Patriots proclaimed the Bataafse Repuhliek
to the coast became less important after the and thus allied to France, Holland duly
1830's and 1840's. The majority of English declared war on England. From then on there
coal was transported to London but a foreign was a sharp drop in shipping movements.
export market had existed at least as early as In the brief Peace of Amiens in 1802 there
the 16th century. As a result of heavy taxes was a vigourous revival of the coal trade and

[Fig. 1561
A large brig thought to be the Ellen
Simpsonof 310 tons [it has however
been pointed out that the figure is male].
She has been photographed by the
Reverend Calvert Jones in the Swansea
area [Wales] in the late 1840's.
Foto van een grote brik die op het eind
van de jaren veertig van de 19e eeuwis
gemaakt door de Eerwaarde Calvert
Jones. De opname is gemaakt in de
omgeving Swansea in Wales. Hoewel
het schip een mannelijk boegbeeld heeft
is gesuggereerd dat het om de Ellen
Simpsonzou gaan, een schip van 310 ton
[National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich].
[Fig. 1571
Taken at Swansea in the mid 1840's. also
by the Reverend Calvert Jones, this
photograph shows the small ship Mary
Dugdale of 375 tons on the left and the
bark Countess of Bective 329 tons, built
in Sunderland in 1843. Well clear of the
quay she shows the way these vessels
sat upright in the mud at low water.
Een andere foto van Calvert Jones toont
links de Mary Dugdale -met375ton is
dit schip vrij klein voor een volgetuigd
schip - en de Countess of Bective, een
bark van 329 ton die in 1843in
Sunderlandis gebouwd [National
Maritime Museum, Greenwich].

arrival of large numbers of colliers from
Newcastle and especially Sunderland are
recorded in the Zee Brieven of Hellevoetsluis
[at the Goereesche Gat, a main channel into
Rotterdam]. Even after 1802 trade did not
cease altogether. The risks of trading in time
of war are well illustrated by numerous
references to both French and Dutch ships
being taken and brought to English ports and
vice versa.
Despite these dangers merchant vessels
continued to ply their trade to Holland even
after 1803 when England imposed a blockade
of all ports in the Channel and the North Sea
-...---
from Brest to the Elbe. Obviously the ARAB
potentially high profits to be made if they

were successful outweighed all other
considerations. Often such vessels were
apprehended and turned back.
During the subsequent course of the war the
status of Holland changed repeatedly until in
1813, when after the defeat of Napoleon at
Leipzig, the Kingdom of The Netherlands was
established under William I. The comparative
peace stimulated trade and the frequency of
shipping rose considerably with ships from
the North East of England being well
represented. For various reasons, after the
threat of Napoleon was renewed, William
annexed Belgium in 1815. This had a marked
effect on the coal trade with Britain.
William's policy was to encourage the
development of the coal mines in what was
now the Southern Netherlands. In 1816 a
tariff on imported English coal was
introduced. This was compounded when the
English duty was also increased in 1819 to
22 shillings a ton for coal exported in English
ships and 35 shillings and 4 pence for export
in foreign ships. A reduction of this duty in
1825 had little effect. Table 20 shows the
steady decline in the frequency of English
shipping, especially from North East ports,
entering the Rotterdam area in the years
between 1815 and 1821.
It can be seen that Sunderland as the major
exporter of coal to Holland suffered the most
dramatic decline, while trade with Hull and
Newcastle was more broad based. On account
of its quality a small amount was still
imported but it was extremely expensive. The
British Consul at Rotterdam in 1818 in a letter
to Castlereagh said: the consumption of
British coal, indeed, is confined at present to
the upper class of private houses in
Rotterdam. This general pattern continued for
over a decade, then the political situation
changed once more.

Table 20 The people of Belgium had become
Ships arriving in Rotterdam from Nothern Ports increasingly discontented with the union with
(after: Van Mechelen, 1929) Holland and with the encouragement of the
French a revolt was mounted in 1830. Despite
William's efforts to maintain unity a
temporary government declared independence
Hull 39 49 39 28 and then the Kingdom of Bel,'alum was
Newcastle 22 41 39 62 declared on November 22nd 1830. It was not
Sunderland 113 173 97 42 until 1833 that William, subject to military
and political pressure from the French and the
Total 173 263 175 132 English respectively, formally suspended
hostilities. One effect of this political
Total incoming English upheaval was to interrupt the supply of cheap
shipping 846 796 600 596 Belgian coal. The reaction in North East
England was swift and in the last months of
Tussen 1815 en 1821 nam de vaart [Fig. 1591 1830 trade began to boom once again. The
vanuit havens i n noordoost Engeland Holland still imports large quantities of next year the process was accelerated by a
op Rotterdam gestaag af. coal, though no longer from England. It large reduction in English duty payable on
comes from all over the world, much of exported coal and the volume of trade
[Fig. 1581 it being distributed throughout Europe increased dramatically.
A sail plan illustrating the rig of a bark: or re-exported to Scandinavia, Spain Table 21 shows the number of ships from the
the Arab of 269 tons built in 1839 at and ironically, even to England, where North East ports in relation to the rest of
Garmouth in Scotland. The plan was certain types of coal are imported for Great Britain. In 1829 ships from Sunderland
reconstructed from the spar power stations. Only two kilometres and Newcastle accounted for less than 4% of
dimensions on the builder's lines plan from where SL4 sank, another English the total English shipping entering the ports in
by David MacGregor. For the features ship: the Hornchurch lies at the coals the Rotterdam area. By 183 1 they accounted
not detailed he used the proportions wharf at Mississippi Haven in the for 31.6%, Sunderland alone accounting for
given by Hedderwick. Europoort area west of Rotterdam. The 22.26%. Facilities for exporting coal from the
Zeilplan van een bark. Het is een ships are loaded or unloaded by graps Durham collieries now underwent rapid
reconstructietekening die David on gantry cranes. The record moved in development through the construction of
MacGregor heeftgemaakt aan de a 24 hour period is 130.000 tons. At that railways to the coast and the building of
hand van het lijnenplan en de rate the volume of coal carried by SL 4 docks. Seaham harbour started shipping coal
beschreven afmetingen van de would have been unloaded in 6-7 in 1831 and in the same year Middlesborough
rondhouten van de Arab, een schip dat minutes. Dock was opened. In 1834 the Stanhope and
i n 1839 i n Garmouth i n Schotland i s De huidige kolenoverslag i n de Tyne Railway was opened and Hartlepool
gebouwd. Waar h i j moest interpoleren Mississippihaven ligt op nog geen Dock opened in 1835. With existing facilities
heeft MacGregor zich zoveel als twee kilometer afstand van de at Newcastle and South Shields on the Tyne
mogelijk door her handboek van vindplaats SL 4. De hoeveelheid kolen and Sunderland on the Wear, the means for
Hedderwick laten leiden. die her daar gevonden schip kon laden exporting more of the increased output of the
wordt tegenwoordig i n 6 a 7 minuten North Eastern coalfields now existed.
verwerkt lfotoj.a.1. In the thirties and fourties the coal fields of
County Durham in particular underwent a
marked expansion. Several new pits were
opened, old ones reopened and new seams
were won at those already in production.
This reinforces the hypothesis that the coal
carried by SL 4 came from County Durham.
Sunderland, at the mouth of the river Wear, is
the port much of the coal would have been
shipped through. It had begun to develop as a
port in the mid 17th century when Wear coal
began to compete with Tyne coal and had
taken over from Whitby as the focus of north
east shipbuilding. The small shipyards along
the banks of the Wear built most of the
200 - 300 ton collier brigs in which coal was
exported, not only from the Durham mines
but from Northumberland and Yorkshire as
well.

That being the case, and in view of the significantly easier would tend to override the
increased capacities of the industry at this seaman's traditional conservatism
period already considered, a Sunderland built [MacGregor 1984b, 491.
ship might well have been transporting The standing rigging was hemp, as attested by
Northumberland or Yorkshire coal. As is the deadeyes. This suggests a date prior to
shown in table 21, incoming ships from Hull 1850 - 60 when it began to be replaced by
in 1831 were second only to Sunderland in wire.
number. However, trade between Hull and The evidence of the coal pointing to the North
Rotterdam had remained active during the East as a likely source and the boom in the
years when Belgian coal was being imported coal trade to Holland that occurred in the
into Holland. It continued largely unaffected 1830's also fits this general picture quite well.
by the large influx of Sunderland and Judging by her repairs, although she was not a
Newcastle ships. The inference is that even great age, she must have had a few years
after 1830 the majority of ships from Hull service behind her. Adding at least a year to
were not carrying coal but other commodities. the felling date for transport and building, one
On balance therefore, Durham remains the is looking at a date in the early 1840's for her
most probable source. sinking. The 1840's thus seem a good starting
point for research into the documentary
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck sources to attempt to indentify the ship, her
In considering the likely date of place of building, her master and owner and
sinking of SL 4, the time span indicated by her date of wrecking. Wreck registers of the
the body of evidence fits fairly well with the 1840's and early 1850's have been searched
mean felling date of 1836 suggested by the but none of the vessels that wrecked in this
dendrochronological analysis. period off Rotterdam would seem to be of the
The structure in terms of the principle of right size. If the estimated felling date is too
building is not particularly helpful as it was early and if the ship had a longer life than at
used over a long period of time but the variety first thought, she could have sunk somewhat
of wood species used and the presence of iron later, although this is near the end of the
knees suggests the end of the 1820's or later. period indicated by her windlass, hemp
This would correspond to the decorated pipe; rigging and general hull form. Also judging
estimated as being from the beginning of the from Lloyd's List, by the mid 1840's the
second quarter of the 19th century. frequency of shipping movement between the
The iron hawse pipes [as opposed to lead] and English north-east and the Rotterdam area had
the apparently iron plated windlass whelps substantially reduced. It is most probable that
both indicate chain anchor cable rather than her origins can eventually be determined as
hemp. The various lengths of stud-link chain her loss will certainly be on record.
recovered from the site could be part of it
[stud-link chain being used for anchors rather 4.5 CONCLUSION
than open link chain]. Chain started to replace Whether the identity of the ship be
hemp for anchor cable around 1800 [officially discovered or not the research of the remains
adopted by the Royal Navy in 18111. from wrecksite S L 4 has evoked the picture of
The windlass is of the hand-spike type which a vessel engaged in the coaltrade between a
suggests a date prior to 1850. Patent north-eastern English port and Rotterdam. It
windlasses appeared in the late 1820's and is the kind of everyday trade that gradually
were widely adopted during the eighteen made Rotterdam the largest port in the world.
thirties and fourties. The seamen of colliers, The ship itself was built around or shortly
renowned for their competence in general, after 1838, at a north-eastern English
would seem to have been skilled in anchor shipyard, possibly one at Sunderland and its
recovery using handspike windlasses: shipwreck may have occurred somewhere in
...I happened to employ a mate and seven the 1840's.
menfrom a Collier, to transport the ship to the Like its trade the ship had an everyday nature.
Graving Dock at Deptford, when these seven It was humble in construction and finish. It is
men, only, hove up this anchor ... in a quarter the very reason why no such ships remain. No
of the time that it used to be done by 18 one at the time regarded them as worthy of
men, ... [Hutchinson 1777,961. So it may be preservation or study. All were broken up for
that traditionalism and pride retained the reusable timber, but for those that wrecked.
handspike type longer in this trade. On the Although contemporary handbooks do contain
other hand as MacGregor points out, any a lot of information on early 19th century
innovation that made a back-breaking job shipbuilding and shipping it is only through

Table 21 the study of archaeological material that this
Ships arriving in Rotterdam from Nothern Ports information can be checked and enlarged. The
(after: Van Mechelen, 1929) recovery of the hull section from SL 4 gave
the opportunity to scrutinize and study
everyday shipbuilding as it really was
opposed to how it should have been,
Hull 138 171 157 according to the handbooks.
Newcastle 24 46 120 Its study elucidates what is equivocal in the
Sunderland 8 49 286 archival record and provides detailed
Shields - 2 7 information that was never written down. It is
a firm clue to understanding the often
Total 170 268 579 shorthand and cryptic but very informative
Lloyd's survey reports. Much of the
Total incoming information gleaned confirms what we know
English shipping 834 943 1285 or could assume from documentary and
pictorial sources. However it is especially in
De vaart tussen Engeland en detail of construction, repair and the
Rotterdam nam vanaf de laatste application of materials that its study
maanden van 1830 weer provided new facts. Some examples are the
enorm toe. Het aandeel van de havens typical plank-butt fastening with one treenail
in noordoost Engeland komt in de tabel and one copper alloy bolt, the systematic
goed uit. augering of holes for secondary treenails that
cut the first at a slightly divergent angle, the
alternate punching and deuteling of treenails
and there are many more, such as the variety
of wood species used, the framing with
chocks that often are larger and of rougher
manufacture than tolerated by the handbooks
and the experimental use of iron. These latter
aspects strikingly reflect the scarcity of
suitable timber for shipbuilding in mid 19th
century England.
Many aspects of ship design, construction and
use that are shown by S L 4 can be traced right
back to the very beginnings of carve1
shipbuilding in northern Europe, while at the
same time representing its final form in the
context of modest medium sized merchant
vessels. In this way and as one of the few
hulls providing factual information SL 4 is a
much more important example of the
development than one might anticipate.
[Fig. 1601
SL5 T04. Futtock.
Oplanger[foto IPL],
[Fig. 1611
SL5 T04. View of the same funock,
showing the rebated head.
Oezelfde oplanger. De bovenzijde is
ingekapt [foto IPL].
[Fig. 1621
SL5 T07. Foot of a funock or cant
frame, tapered t o scarf against another
timber.
Een inhout dat taps toeloopt, mogelijk
een draaispant of een oplanger [foto
IPLI.
[Fig. 1631
SL5 T05. Lodging knee with a rebate for
a half beam.
Een horizontale knie met een inkeping
waar vermoedelijk een dekbalk, een
zogenaamde halve balk in heeftgerust
[foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1641
SL5T03. Fragment of a tapered ceiling
plank.
Gedeelte van een wegering [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1651
SL5T11. End of a tapering hull plank.
Gedeelte van een huidplank.
5.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F SL5 T13. Piece of planking 6.5 cm in
DISCOVERY thickness with the edge sloping in the same
On September 1st 1986 the cutter manner as T11. Fastened with treenails and a
suction dredger Hector hit wood when bolt.
working at a depth of 22.5 m. This happened SL5 T01. End of a plank 34 cm wide and 4 cm
in the position x 59.884 and y 438.467 thick. It was fastened with treenails [one of
[fig. 131. About a month later wood was again them softwood] and was also nailed along the
encountered in approximately the same area at edges. Both edges are moulded so it would
a working depth of 17.5 m. This time 15 loose seem likely to be panelling from below decks
timbers were recovered. The remains did not [fig. 1661.
cause any delay to speak of and no on-site SL5 T02. Small fragment of plank of the same
inspection was ventured. type as T01.
SL5 T15. End of a deck support beam
5.2 DESCRIPTION O F THE preserved for a length of 1.80 m and which is
RECOVERED REMAINS 14.5 x 11.5 cm in section. Its curvature
SL5 T04. Curved timber 1.35 m in indicates it ran athwartships and is a [half?]
length, 17 x 11 cm in section it is probably a beam rather than a carling. The end is
futtock. One end, probably the head, is dovetailed to sink into a shelf. Its upper
stepped, in that it has a rebate 17.5 cm deep surface is pierced by the holes of the plank
and 6.5 cm across cut out of one side. Planks nails [fig. 1671.
had been fastened to it with treenails and a SL5 T08. Fragment of a softwood deck plank
bolt [fig. 160, 1611. 5.5 cm thick, which had been fastened with
SL5 T07. One end of a treenail fastened nails and a bolt.
timber [futtock?] that is curved in two Fastenings were treenails, iron bolts, spikes
directions. It is 17 x 14 cm in section. The end and nails. The treenails are hand finished,
narrows, possibly where it met the next some of them almost octagonal in section.
futtock in a simple plain [unfastened] scarf Some of them had been cut and caulked in the
[fig. 1621. manner shown in fig. 76. The bolts were
SL5 T06. Fragment of a treenailed, slightly 21 mm square with a flattened or chamfered
curved timber 16 x 13 cm in section. edge. The spikes were square in the shank
SL5 T05. A grown knee with two bolt holes with faceted heads. Both are very similar to
passing through the long arm and traces of those shown in fig. 18.
one through what remains of the short arm.
The bolts are aligned in the same plane and 5.3 ANALYSES
there is a rebate in one side of the long arm. It No SL 5 remains have been analysed
is probably a lodging knee, the rebate being in any other way than through careful
for a half-beam [fig. 1631. comparison of their attributes with those of
SL5 T03. End of a plank 27 cm wide and 6 cm the material from other sites. The striking
thick. Marks of the futtocks to which it was similarities in types of fastenings used
fastened are visible on one side. As there was between remains from SL 5 with those of both
no trace of caulking on the edges this in SL 1 and SL 3 have been commented upon in
probably a ceiling plank [fig. 1641. It was paragraph 1.4.
fastened with treenails, bolts and nails.
SL5 T l I. Piece or a tapering plank 17 cm 5.4 DISCUSSION
reducing to 11 cm wide x 6.7 cm in thickness. The site SL 5 was not inspected. The
The edge is sloping rather than square and fact that the cutter suction dredger Hector was
there is a rebate at the thick end. No treenails not really hindered by the remains, whereas
but two bolts. Possibly the end of a stealer they clearly belonged to a large vessel
[fig. 1651. suggests that the site only contained a

fragmented hull section. No associated finds
were collected. The remains themselves
indicate that they represent a fragment of the
same hull as those at wrecksite SL I and SL 3,
as has been discussed at length in paragraph
1.4 where the remains from the three sides are
treated as one assemblage. This means that
upon wrecking the wreckage of the ship has
been dispersed over a large area, substantial
fragments being embedded at least at three
sites, as far apart as 1.075 km [fig. 131.
[Fig. 1661
SL5T01. Moulded plank, probably from
below decks.
Plank met lofwerk, vermoedelijk van
de betimmering [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1671
SL5 T15. Deck beam with dovetailed
end for location in a clamp.
Dekbalk. Het uiteinde is zo bekapt dat
het in een uitsparing in de balkweger
past [foto IPL].

Between october 27th and 29th 1986 the
cutter suction dredger Triton hit wood, pieces
of iron anchors and a quantity of general
debris. Much of the wood consisted of large
tree stumps but some of it appeared to be from
a wooden vessel. Five pieces were salvaged,
along with a large concreted swivel link, part
of the shank of a small anchor and an iron
strip with fastening holes along its length.
There is not necessarily any association
between these materials. The work was being
carried out right at the edge of the Slufter and
the dredger was cutting the correct profile
partly into the existing deposit of the
Maasvlakte. The dredgemaster was of the
opinion that the material might have arrived
there as a result of the dredging operations
that created the Maasvlakte in 1960's. The
material as a whole had the character of
jetsam found on a beach after a storm so this
is certainly possible. In support of the jetsam
idea is the fact that on the face of it the
material was deposed since the Maasvlakte
was formed. Against it is the localised
occurrence of the timbers.
The wooden pieces recovered were entirely
iron fastened, both with small iron bolts
10 mm in diameter and iron nails 4 - 6 mm
square. Both wood and iron were in very good
condition. This is not necessarlily significant,
particularly in the light of the condition of
wood from for example SL 1 but together
with the lack of wood fastenings it suggests
the vessel from which they come could be
relatively modern. The iron strip looks similar
to those protecting the keels and bilge keels of
small fising vessels. Alternatively the pieces
may all be from the deck and bulwark level of
an otherwise wood fastened vessel. The shape
of all the pieces where a surface is preserved
are angled and rounded suggesting they were
from this level. In any event no more of the
vessel was found during the dredging
operation in this area.
The timbers of SL 6 if not re-dredged from
another location may be a small section of a
vessel that was deposited here after being
wrecked or abandoned elsewhere.

[Fig. 1681
Scupper pipe.
Houten bos met daardoorheen een
spuigat Vermoedelijk is hier sprake
van hergebruik van een stuk hoot oh
een steven van een schip. De
ingesneden merktekens Iijken
diepgangsmerken te zijn zoals die vaak
op stevens zijn aangebracht.
MISCELLANEOUS FINDS
Scupper pipe
A member of the public brought in a piece when this had set the surface was sealed with
of timber having found it on the beach some lead. It was probably a mooring block
years before [fig. 1681. It is the upper part marking the former channel.
of a wooden scupper pipe and similar
examples are seen on ships of the 16th, Anchors and chain
17th and to some extent the 18th century, These were regular finds and this is not
although by this time lead was more common. surprising considering the number of dragged
A reconstruction of their fitting can be found and or lost anchors that inevitably litter a busy
in Ketting [1979,56]. This piece is of sea way.
additional interest as it appears to be re-used
wood. On one face there are what appear to be Faunal remains
draught marks. Also, lodged inside it when From the pleistocene layers large quantities of
found was a small cast iron shot but this was fossil bones were recovered. As they were not
in very poor condition. Judging by its collected in an archaeological context they are
condition, this piece was not exposed on the not dealt with in this report. With respect to
seabed for long. It may have been transported the general characteristics of the fossil faunas
to this area during the extensive dredging from the Maasvlakte-Slufter area the reader is
operations in the 1960's entailed in creating referred to Vervoort-Kerkhoff and Van
the Maas~llakte.Alternatively, it may Kolfschoten 1988.
originate from one of the wrecks in the
immediate area. SL 2 is a possibility, being of
the right approximate date and fairly close to
foreshore where the find was made. Variation
in seabed level due to tidal patterns and
storms, especially in a sandy deposit like this,
can repeatedly uncover a wreck leading to
further scattering of fragments of the vessel
and its contents. This could have been
accentuated by the change in patterns of scour
and deposition wrought by the forming of the
Maasvlakte. SL 2, lying at a relatively
shallow depth [around 10 m] and close to the
new coast line, would have been particularly
susceptible.
Mooring block
An isolated find. This consisted of a large
piece of granite into which was set an eye
of wrought iron. To this was attached a
linking mechanism for the mooring chain.
Both were made of square section wrought
iron bar 30-33 mm in cross-section. The hole
in the stone had been chiselled out below the
surface so that the base was wider that the
opening. The two ends of the bar forming the
eye were then set in the hole, probably red
hot, and beaten so that they flared outwards.
Mortar was then poured into the cavity and

EVALUATION
1. Dredgers and archaeology
2. Objectives and planning
3. Prospects
4. General approach and limitations

4.1 Formal setting
4.2 Technical scope
4.3 Methods
5. Results
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Direct results
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding
5.2.2 Wrecksites and site formation
5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
5.3 Experience
6. Recommendations
DREDGERS A N D ARCHAEOLOGY
An evaluation of the way in which

archaeologically relevant documentation
could be intertwined with daily procedures of
a large-scale marine engineering work is
given here to indicate what has been learned
through the experience of the Slufterproject.
Of course on-going construction imposes
severe restrictions on the scope of
archaeological research as compared to a
laboratory situation. Nevertheless where
planning necessitates large-scale moving of
sediments it is that stage that offers a last
chance to make specific observations. It thus
offers a unique occasion and neglect of the
archaeological values involved will leave
them destroyed.
Within the bounds of the Sluftesproject a
serious attempt was made to pay proper
attention to these aspects. It had its flaws and
its bad luck, but nevertheless it had clear-cut
results. Both its assets and its inadequacies
are subject matter to keep in mind in future
planning.
The third part of the report will discuss what
has been gained by the archaeological survey
in terms of archaeological information,
historical interpretation and the way in which
archaeology and large-scale engineering can
be matched. Of course these results will be
reviewed within the framework of the
objectives and planning, the prospects, the
general approach and its limitations.
EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES AND PLANNING
The purpose of archaeological research as

part of the Slufter project was to record what
would be lost by its realization.
Archaeology - as all other modes of scientific
inquiry - depends on the accumulation of
many bits of information. Concealed in traces
and remains in the subsoil archaeological
information has the special quality of directly
reflecting past reality. When viewed apart
each bit of information may seem
insignificant but as a basis for inductive
reasoning and a check on deductions
archaeological data is vital to a reliable
reconstruction of man's past.
The data can be collected through excavation,
a procedure that destroys part of the evidence.
Where modern development necessitates
clearance of the subsoil important information
can be safeguarded through a serious effort to
record what has long been left untouched and
concealed.
In the Slufter project where it was urgent to
move on at great pace once work had started
primary recording was to be the predominant
objective of any archaeological effort. It
would not only make data available for
immediate interpretation but more
significantly it would preserve them for future
use.
This general approach puts a premium on
flexibility in response to any discoveries and
sets the scope for planning. Allowing for
rapid changes in emphasis the line of action to
be followed was deployed within the
framework of:
the prospects for archaeological
discoveries;
the feasibility of archaeologically
relevant observations on-site and
through controlled recovery;
the limitations dictated by the
circumstances, the tight time-schedule
and the technical approach of the
project;
the restraints determined by choices
in advance as to what kind of sites
must and can realistically be handled
at what cost.
EVALUATION
PROSPECTS
Although there was a fair chance that

evidence of occupation in Mesolithic times
would be destroyed, it was decided in advance
not to try to avoid this, as meaningful results
could not realistically be expected. Also all
sediments predating the Subatlantic
[900 B.C.] were treated as being
archaeologically sterile. The same applied to
the shoal-deposits within the subatlantic
sequence of marine sediments, as these were
only liable to contain dispersed material. It
was decided to concentrate all efforts on the
gully-fillings which had for the greater part
been deposited after 1300 A.D.
The prospects were that these gully-fillings
which had been deposited in the outer delta of
one of the main gateways for shipping into
continental Europe would enfold evidence of
maritime activity in the form of wreck.
Historical research of geographical
information showed that the main navigation
channel in the 16th century had passed the
area some 300 m to the north and had shifted
northwards since. Had it shifted in that
direction before - i.e. in a period for which
the historical sources are mute, whereas the
general direction of sedimentation suggests as
much - it would have passed much closer in
the previous centuries. During the 18th
century a new channel came into use, not
more than 100 m south of the area.
If sites predating the 16th century were to be
discovered, the northern part was the most
likely place, while sites relating to the
younger channel - and to a period of sharply
increased intensity in shipping - would tend
to concentrate in the south. Of course it does
not follow from this argument that excavation
of the northern part would reveal medieval
wrecks. As these, however, were deemed to
be of such importance as to deserve maximum
attention the decision to excavate the northern
gully-fillings first was readily endorsed.
EVALUATION
GENERAL APPROACH AND LIMITATIONS
archaeological observation. The

4.1 FORMAL SETTING circumstances in a sand digging pit in full
The administrative scope for production put their restrictions on such
archaeological survey during construction of archaeological methods that come into view.
the Slufter disposal site was set by the Free diving is out of the question. Lifting
relevant provisions in the permits granted for operations must be carried out with great care,
its realization. In view of the urgent - socially whether it be by direct hoisting or with lifting
accepted - need to quickly realize the disposal balloons. Particularly the latter are accident
site and thus to alleviate environmental prone where there is no underwater visibility.
problems these provisions were rather For archaeology it was a major drawback that
restrictive. The Director of the State Service the contractor decided to use cutter-suction-
for Archaeological Investigations [R.O.B.] dredgers in phase I instead of conventional
was to be given a reasonable chance for suction-dredgers. For the construction work
archaeological investigation, in sofar as this itself it was an asset as the machinery had
would not cause any delay in the overall great capacity. It meant however that all
realization of the project. Also a tight time dredging of sediments considered to be of
schedule was defined within which any archaeological potential was done by means
discovery should be dealt with on site. The of cutter-suction-dredgers and these sweep to
provisions did not imply any obligation on the and fro constantly while the cutter grinds its
originators to financially support way through the sediments. They thus lack the
archaeological work. quality of a stable platform and cause great
turbulence both in the water and the fluidised
4.2 TECHNICAL SCOPE silts. Both aspects seriously affected the
The tight time-schedule of the project possibilities of detection by sonar. In each
as well as its technical approach determined instance it was the destructive cutter itself or
archaeological procedures to a considerable blocking of the pumps that caused detection
extent. On the basis of experiments it was of archaeological remains. The original goal
assumed that remains measuring 5 x 7 m or of detection of all remains measuring 5 x 7 m
more could be detected by sonar while being or more was by no means attained. It was the
uncovered in the dredging breach. Sites structural strength and resistance of the
containing no coherent structure of that size remains as opposed to their size that
were conceded to pass unnoticed. determined their detection. It is thus highly
Great emphasis was put on the necessity of likely that what has been discovered shows a
on-site inspection. Even though the definite bias towards the solidly built. While
circumstances for under water work would good results are to be expected with a sonar
hardly be favourable it was only on the basis mounted on a stationary suction-dredger, for
of on-site observations that any decision on cutter-suction-dredgers its use is not to be
further handling of a site could be taken. recommended.
Another principle was that clearance of The method of dredging did also seriously
archaeological sites should take place by affect the possibilities for on-site inspection.
recovery of units as large as would be Either the site was disrupted before giving
realistically possible in order to allow for cause to action [wrecksite SL 3, SL 5, SL 61
further observations and documentation off or it was immediately covered by spill
site. [wrecksite SL 1, S12]. Only the sturdy near-
complete hull at wrecksite SL 4 resisted the
4.3 METHODS dredging in such a way as to allow it to be
As foreseen the removal and cleared for inspection without major damage.
deposition of 37 million m3 of sediments in a The remains at wrecksite SL 1, that must have
16 months period puts a lot of stress on formed a substantial integral unit, had totally
EVALUATION
lost their integrity before coming within
reach.
Nevertheless the importance of on-site
inspection cannot be overstressed. Where it
was done [wrecksite SL 1, SL 41 it produced a
clearcut result, essential both to the
archaeological interpretation and to the
tackling of clearance.
A serious problem was the removal of
overburden of silt from wreck-material that
had already been detected. The dredging
material present featured high-capacity
instruments only. These had to keep up
production and had obvious side-effects when
used for clearing purposes. A cutter-suction-
dredger can be fiercely destructive and
drawing near with a deep working suction-
dredger carries the risk of collapse. It will not
ease on-site inspection.
A partial solution for this problem was found
in the use of a prop-wash deflector, an
instrument not normally acceptable in an
archaeological context but often used in
treasure hunting. A waterprobe lowered down
from the surface was of great help to
determine the distribution of solid remains.
EVALUATION
RESULTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION where it remains safe for future investigation.

The results that have been reached
through archaeological research as part of the SL 4
Slufter project fall into five categories: SL 4 was completely dismantled.
archaeological information on Documentation of its remains proved to be the
specific ships, their build, their chief task of the archaeological team.
functioning and their wrecking; Preliminary assessment on the basis of on-site
archaeological information on inspection prompted the decision to clear the
wrecking processes and on the site as such and to study only what would be
formation of sites in a shallow brought up through clearance operations. This
estuarine area; proved to be highly rewarding and most cost
specific archaeological information effective. A detailed picture could be drawn
on trade through the port of of how this particular - very ordinary -
Rotterdam; English vessel from the early decades of the
understanding of shipbuilding nineteenth century was built. It showed
techniques through the assessment of surprising evidence on choice and conversion
specific archaeological data in the of timber.
context of relevant historical The inconsistent use of wood species, a birch
information; keel and the framing system implying the use
understanding of the development of of chocks combined with the restricted use of
the area through matching of wrought iron strengthening members such as
archaeological, historical, knees and beamstraps reflect the
geographical and geological resourcefulness of the shipbuilding industry
information. and of the particular shipbuilder to cope with
Their significance lies in three fields which the situation of increased demands for ships
will be dealt with separately: and tonnage and deficient supplies of
shipping and shipbuilding; appropriate timber.
wrecksites and site formation; Evidently this ship carrying coal was a
geology and geographical history. purpose-built collier and as such the only
An additional result is the experience that was surviving representative of this very common
acquired with the integration of archaeology class of vessel from this period yet to be
into a large marine dreding project. studied. The detailed recording of such
elements as its rider-keelson and mast-step,
5.2 DIRECT RESULTS its butt-joints with the specific arrangement of
treenails and butt-end-bolts and the punches
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding in its treenails shows us how this particular
The archaeological work in the ship was built, but it is also an indispensable
Slufter project shed light on three seperate key to the proper understanding of the
vessels: the ship at SL 2, the ship from SL 4 shorthand but very informative survey-reports
and the complex from the sites SL 1, SL 3, drawn up in commission of Lloyd's of
SL 5. London. As such it contributes not only to our
knowledge and understanding of this
SL 2 particular ship, but through facilitating access
The few timbers with moss caulking raised to the contemporary surveys it significantly
from SL 2 show it to be an interesting find. adds to our knowledge and understanding of
Obviously a keeled vessel of substantial early nineteenth century shipbuilding in
dimensions it might be of medieval date. Most general.
of it, however, was left in situ where it was With its ordinary cargo the ship was evidently
covered with newly deposited sediments and on its way to Rotterdam. As such it represents
EVALUATION
the bulk trade through which this port was depth beyond the average depth of sediments
developing at the time. from the subatlantic period. After sinking the
extent of scouring must have been
SL 1, SL 3, SL 5 considerable in both instances. The ship at
The weight of the evidence on this late 18th SL 4 must immediately have sunk in a rather
century dutch-built vessel fell short of deep gully. The remains at both sites,
expectations aroused on its discovery. For one however, must have slipped deeper into a
thing the hull had not been preserved as an localised gully formed by scouring. In view of
integral unit: at the main site SL 1 deck- the generally good state of preservation the
structure had been present upside down, as whole process must have elapsed rather
shown during on-site inspection. For another quickly.
thing what had been there was severely
damaged during operations. 5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
Nevertheless the recording of the assemblage The archaeological information and
showed interesting detail on the waterway, the the geological and historical- geographical
coaming and decking in general. The data assessed as part of the preliminary survey
arrangement of planking in the bow is quite do in general favourably agree. On the face of
peculiar and the assessment of the find it there seems to be a slight contradiction in
showed how little specific informaton is the fact that the preliminary survey stressed
available on common Dutch kofs and related the need to carefully scrutinize the northern
types with round bows and round sterns. The part whereas most finds were made in the
evidence emerging from the south. The reasoning was however that any
dendrochronological analysis is quite finds relating to the navigation channel which
comprehensive and is a valuable addition to ran to the North of the area in later medieval
the aggregate data on timber use and wood times were more likely to be encountered
trade. So is the apparent evidence on the use there than anywhere else. Moreover it was
of dogs when the wood converted for SL 1, decided in advance that any finds relating to
SL 3, SL 5 was transported as logs in a raft. that channel - and thus of that early date -
The associated finds which evidently were which comprised structural elements of a size
part of the ship's inventory or fittings were not defying timely detection through the
documented. No serious attempt was made to current methods was to be deemed extremely
assess their significance. The data, however, important due to the relative scarcity of such
are collected and are available for future use. remains. It is however by no means surprising
that no such discoveries were made. This can
5.2.2 WRECKSITES AND SITE be accounted for by the scarcity as such on the
FORMATION one hand and by the relatively coarse method
In general the theoretical of surveying on the other.
considerations on the formation of wrecksites Discoveries relating to the southern channel,
that lay at the basis of the deployed line of which was in use from the mid 18th century
action [see paragraph 1.51 were confirmed by onwards - a period of sharply increasing
the results of archaeological work at the intensity of shipping - were made in some
Slufter location. Two aspects, however, number. These include the major assemblages
definitely stand out. as well as the items contaminating the sites,
One is the clear confirmation that the remains from a clay pipe at SL 4 predating the wreck
of a ship run aground can get dispersed over by 75 years to the more recent material.
an extremely large area and that even As such the results of excavation do not
relatively large portions of the same ship can challenge the geological interpretation of the
get dug in far apart. On the face of it this may area. However, the localised effects of the
not seem very significant but hardly ever is scouring processes around wreckage have
marine archaeological investigation carried been underestimated and so has the
out over such an extensive area and hardly importance of a rather recent gully. For
ever have parts of the same vessel actually indeed the fact that the top of the SL 4 wreck
been found over 1 km apart. In the case of occurred at a depth of about 11 m below
SL 1, SL 3, SL 5 the ship must have rolled N.A.P. means that a gully of that depth
over first. The hull broke apart at a later stage crossed the area in the eighteen fourties. The
with large parts drifting off and settling remains at SL 1 occurred at an even greater
elsewhere. depth, indicating that the [same?] gully was
The other conspicious aspect is that wreckage more important at that particular spot around
at both SL 1 and SL 4 were encountered at a 1800 A.D. The recent Gat van de Hawk was
EVALUATION
no deeper than 7 m in 1985 [see depth contour fact that sediments are untouched and thus of
lines in fig. 131. unknown content that determines their
From the historical information it was not archaeological importance.
apparent that a gully of any importance Time and again this simple truth leads to the
crossed the area at the time of sinking of the situation where the archaeological potential is
wrecks at SL 1, SL 3, SL 5 and SL 4. It is thus not taken into account at all and where chance
highly unlikely that the channel had any real finds during construction work will lead to
meaning as a navigation channel. hectic efforts to rescue what has already half
Nevertheless it must have been quite deep. been destroyed, whereas their presence could
to some extent have been foreseen.
5.3 EXPERIENCE In a way the Slufter project was no exception
Integration of a meticulous discipline to this rule. Even though a preliminary survey
as archaeology into the coarsely dynamic had been carried out prior to the start of work
approach of dredging and marine engineering it was that very situation which occurred and
is not as antithetic as it may seem. Although which created the most serious problems. The
the tight time-schedule puts considerable construction permits provided that occasion
constraints on archaeological work this did should be given for archaeological research,
not prove to be the most serious problem. but who was to pay for what had to be done?
With a detailed line of action featuring an Was it the responsibility of the authorities
assessment of discoveries and practical responsible for cultural heritage management
situations one can expect to meet with, as well or of those responsible for the realization of
as clearly defined guide-lines on how to cope the large-scale dredging project. The deadlock
with them, it is quite possible to adequately was finally broken by the municipality of
react with the necessary energy and Rotterdam allocating a restricted budget.
flexibility. The guide-lines must of necessity It allowed for the mounting of sonar-
imply decisions in advance on priorities. The equipment and the engagement of
assessment must be as detailed and reliable as archaeological staff and was supplemented
possible. Where feasible a detailed pre- with small grants from the Ministry of
disturbance survey can be a powerful tool. A Welfare, Public Health and Culture and the
thorough survey and a good liaison between a Ministry of Transport and Public Works to
positive archaeological input and the project meet with day-to-day expenses. However, all
direction and engineers to explore all the this only happened after the first sites had
possible ways of introducing flexibility into been discovered. On-site inspections had by
the work schedule are two factors that are then been organized provisionally and on an
vital to the overall success of the ad hoc basis. However, the intensity of
archaeological effort during construction archaeological work had necessarily been
work. It can also guarantee a good low. Four out of six sites had already been
relationship between the archaeological team discovered and dismantled. Especially in view
and the contractor. of the tight time-schedule it was valuable time
In itself, however, the reliable assessment of lost. Thanks to the initiative of the
the archaeological potential of a particular municipality it still proved possible to achieve
area is not without problems. What can be the main objectives. In the future however it
assessed is which areas and which sequences is essential that clear-cut arrangements as to
of sediments have or have no archaeological responsibilities and finance be made well in
potential. By the identification of areas with advance.
no archaeological potential at all -or a very
limited one - the area on which to focus
attention can be considerably reduced.
However, even if an area or sequence of
sediments can positively be identified to be
potentially rich one is left with a certain
measure of uncertainty: specific predictions
as to what will actually be found during
excavation of potentially rich areas can never
be made. This is a great impediment in
planning. It is a crucial problem that what is
to be constructed can be clearly defined in
plans whereas what will be destroyed is never
known in detail in advance. It is actually the
EVALUATION
RECOMMENDATIONS
In cases where planning necessitates large-

scale dredging unanticipated confrontation
with archaeologically significant material can
be avoided through the assessment of
archaeological potential in advance. Such an
assessment can significantly narrow down the
spatial limits of potentially important
sediments.
If it is convincingly probable that important
archaeological values are at stake a serious
effort should be made to record what will be
lost. To this end the deployment of a line of
action indicating how and according to what
priorities archaeological information and
remains will be handled can be a considerable
help in planning.
Budgetary consequences are divisible in a
fixed and a variable part. The first is the
minimal requirement for general
documentation and - if necessary - on-site
presence of archaeological staff. Its height is
more or less a function of the technical and
organizational approach of construction. The
second part consists of what is needed to deal
with important sites, including excavation,
documentation, conservation, report and
publication. Its amount is more or less a
function of the kind of archaeological
discoveries actually made.
EVALUATION
APPENDICES
Appendix I Introduction to dendrochronological analysis 157

Appendix I1 Selection of historical documents that are relevant to the study 161
of the ship at SL 4
Appendix I11 Conservation and artefact filing 167
Glossary 169
Verklarende woordenlijst 18 1
References 191
Acknowledgements 197
APPENDIX I
INTRODUCTION TO climatically homogeneous area where it was

DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS built up. The nearer the origin of the timber
Dondrochronological analysis of ancient being dated to that area, the better the chances
ship's timbers has several assets. On the one of a good match. Thus in addition to dating
hand it is - of course - a powerful tool in wood, dendrochronological analysis can often
dating. On the other hand - and more indicate its area of origin.
important still - it provides information that is Having said that, the relationship between
vital to a proper understanding of the timber climate, microclimate, environmental
trade and the timber choices as made in conditions and growth can be disturbed by
shipbuilding. This appendix is both meant as a various factors such as mechanical forces,
general introduction to the principles insect attack and disease. Growth ring
underlying the method and as an account of patterns formed under such circumstances are
its application during the Slufter-research. atypical and cannot be dated.
Biological foundation Procedure

The production of new wood cells in trees is
chiefly controlled by temperature and A. Sample preparation and measurement
precipitation. Thus in the temperate climatic The first stage is the selection of samples
zones, tree growth is linked to the annual suitable for dendrochronological analysis.
cycle of seasons. Three criteria play an important role in the
Within this general relationship, local selection process:
variations of temperature and precipitation, the number of rings of the sample;
coupled with the particular physical aspects the completeness of the sample, i.e.
effect the growth of new wood in any one does the sample possess sapwood or
year. In general the worse the conditions the bark?
less new wood formed. Due to the differing the association of the sample with the
characteristics of cells formed at various structure.
stages of the annual cycle, the wood laid In the case of SL 1 and SL 3 not much of a
down during the life of a tree is seen in the cut selection could be made, since this had
section of a bole as a series of concentric already been done by the cutter-section-
growth-rings or tree-rings. The differing dredger. Although SL 4 had partly at least
thickness of these reflect the variations in been salvaged in integral assemblages,
climate during the life of the tree. most of the samples were also taken from
The dating of tree-ring patterns is based on loose timbers. The selected samples were cut
the assumption that trees growing in the same from the timbers in slices of 10 - 15 cm
climatically homogeneous area at the same thickness.
time will produce the same sequence of broad For the next stages of processing the samples
and narrow rings. Starting with living trees a were frozen. The thickness of the slices was
chronology can be built up from progressively reduced to 2 - 3 cm and from each slice two
older timber. Such a chronology is known as a or three wedge-like samples were sawn. The
standard, master, or reference chronology, surface of the samples was made smooth with
where the values for each ring width are in a craft knife and in the case of sapwood, with
fact a mean derived from several samples. In a razor blade. The smooth surface so created
principle, timbers from archaeological sites gives a clear view of the boundaries between
can then be dated by comparing their growth- the tree-rings. By working the wood in a
ring pattern to that of the chronology, there frozen state, damage, especially to the
being only one position where the two will be sapwood is prevented.
truly synchronous. In addition, the master Next the sample is examined under a
chronology will only be representative of the binocular microscope and every tenth tree-
APPENDICES
ring is marked with a pin, as an aid for
measuring tlie sample. The sample is then
mounted on a travelling stage and viewed
through the [stationary] binocular microscope
with cross-hairs. The edge of the sample is
aligned with the cross-hair, then the travelling
stage is moved until tlie first growth-ring
border. The distance travelled by the
travelling stage is measured to the nearest one
hundredth of a millimetre and recorded as a
ring width. The recording of these
measurements and their subsequent analysis
were carried out using the apparatus and
computer program developed by R.W. Aniol
[Aniol 1983a, 1983bl.
B. Dating
When all tlie ring widths of the samples from
one ship have been measured, the samples are
internally synchronised. This means that the
samples are compared with each other and
where significant matches appear they are
combined to form a mean site-curve. The
reason for working with mean site-curves is tc
reduce the influence of the individual tree[s]
and maximise the climatic component of the
ring width-sequence. Because ship-timbers,
even of the same ship, often have different
origins it is often not possible to internally
synchronise all the samples. The resulting
mean curves and tlie curves of individual
samples are therefore dated against as many
standard cl~ronologiesas possible [Van Holk
1986, 19871.
The computer program CATRAS gives one or
more possible synchronous locations of the
saniple curve [or mean site curve] on the
reference chronology. Synchronising annual
ring patterns means checking if and to what
extent two ring series match. The algorithm of
the computer program for comparison ring
widths series is based on:
Gleichlaufigkeit, [GL], this is the
percentage of agreement [Eckstein,
19691;
the t-value [Baillie & Pilcher 1973;
Baillie 19821 calculated from the
correlation; in CATRAS a different
kind of algorithm [Aniol in
preparation] is used to compute the
product-moment correlation-
coefficient;
the percentage of agreement in
Weiserjalire [pointer years] [Aniol &
Schmidt 19821.
Since the computer program only suggests a
synchronous match, the drawn curves of the
sample and standard chro~iologysliould be
compared and tlie date suggested by the
APPENDICES
Table 22 computer program checked visually with the
Age class of tree Estimation of missing sapwood help of a light-table. The curves are drawn on
semi-logarithmic paper, where the time axes
< 100 years 16.0 f4.5 [absissa] is linear and the ring width
100-200years 20.4 f 6.2 [ordinate] is plotted on a logarithmic scale.
> 200 years 25.9 f 7.5 The ring-widths [points] are connected by a
Estimation of number of sapwood rings of line to form the curve.
West-German oaks (after Hollstein 1965). In the present analysis several reference
Schatting van het aantal spinthoutringen chronologies have been used. They
van West-Duitse eiken, verdeeld naar correspond with several larger or smaller
ouderdomsklassen. areas which have been indicated on the map
Number of oak sapwood rings of trees in fig. 169.
Table 23 Sapwood
Age class of tree Number of sapwood rings An important factor which influences the
accuracy of a dendrochronological date is the
presence or absence of sapwood.
The growth of a tree is by the cambium, a
layer of cells immediately beneath the bark.
Wood is developed towards the inside of the
from Northwest England and Wales, tree and bark towards the outside. The woody
divided according to age class. The part of the tree can be divided in heartwood
samples are all at breast-height (after and sapwood. The sapwood consists of the
Hughes et al. 1981,388). most recently developed tree-rings within the
Aantal spinthoutringen van eikebomen cambium. It is through the vessels of these
afkomstig uit Noordwest Engelanden still living cells that sap, containing the
Wales, verdeeld naar ouderdomsklassen. nutrients for the tree, is transported. With
De monsters zijn genomen op each year's growth, previously formed
borsthoogte. sapwood cells are left progressively further
from the cambium. They undergo various
[Fig. 1691 chemical and physiological changes,
Map showing the areas represented by including the deposition of durable lignin and
reference chronologiesthat were used in cellulose, becoming heartwood. Heartwood
the present analyses. 1 Western gives the tree its strength, while sapwood,
Germany 2The Netherlands 3 Lower apart from being weaker is filled with
Saxony Coastal Area 4 Hamburg 5 nutrients and is more susceptible to decay.
Weserbergland 6 Schleswig-Holstein 7 Shipwrights, although unaware of the causes,
Southern Germany 8 Poland 9 England were well aware of the result and usually
De standaardcurves die voor de analyse trimmed the sapwood off timbers to be used
gebruikt zijn behoren tot de volgende for shipbuilding.
gebieden. I West-Duitsland2 Nederland This means that the outermost rings of most
3 Nedersaksisch kustgebied4 Hamburg dendrochronological samples of ship timbers
5 Weserbergland6 Sleeswijk-Holstein 7 are missing. On this basis three different
zuidelijk Duitsland 8 Polen 9 Engeland conditions of samples can be distinguished:
the sapwood is complete [with or
without bark];
the heartwood/sapwood boundary is
present, with some sapwood rings;
there is no sapwood and also an
unknown quantity of heartwood rings
is missing.
In the last two cases the number of missing
sapwood rings have to be estimated. In the
last case only a date as a terminus post quem
can be given. Research has been done to
establish an estimate of the mean number of
sapwood rings for different areas [Baillie
1983; Eckstein und Bauch 1974; Holstein
1965, 1980, Hughes et al. 19811.
APPENDICES
Unfortunately the range of variation of the
estimates is rather wide.
Hollstein's [1965, 16-19] estimate of sapwood
rings of West-German oaks is based on the
examination of 200 oaks with complete
sapwood. The results are shown in table 22.
It can be seen that the number of sapwood
rings of oak trees varies with the age of the
tree. At a 95% probability level it can be said
if there is only one sample with sapwood
available that the true felling date of a tree
lies between 11 and 34 sapwood years after
the heartwood/sapwood boundary, with a
mean of 20 years. More or less the same
figure is used by Eckstein [Eckstein & Bauch
1974,351. In the case of missing sapwood 20
+ 5 sapwood years are added to the
heartwood/sapwood boundary. The difference
is that he does not give a confidence interval
for the different probability levels. Another
problem concerning the estimation of missing
sapwood rings is touched upon by Hughes et
al. [I98 1, 38 1-90]. From their research it
became clear that even within a tree the
number of sapwood rings can vary greatly,
according to height. Because it is often
unknown which height in a tree an
archaeological sample comes from, a still
larger range of variation of sapwood rings has
to be taken into account.
The estimation of the number of oak sapwood
rings of trees from Northwest England and
Wales by Hughes et al. [I9811 is based on a
sample of 175 trees. The number of sapwood
rings are given in table 23.
To correct for the fact that archaeological
samples might originate from different
heights in a tree a mean figure of 30 sapwood
rings is added to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary. At the 95% probability level the
true felling date lies between 19 and 50 years
after the heartwood/sapwood boundary
[Hughes et al. 1981, 389; Baillie 1983, 551.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX II
SELECTION OF HISTORICAL example in Hedderwick plate X, FIG. 16

DOCUMENTS THAT ARE RELEVANT TO [fig. 1431.
THE STUDY OF THE SHIP AT SL 4. The reference to the treenails being punched
First are given a selection of reports of as a general tightening is interesting and this
Lloyd's surveyors; second there is a narrative was possibly the case in SL 4. Their
of a journey by the Charles Kerr from description by Hedderwick, particularly in
Shields. It is an illustrative account on the connection with the North Eastern shipyards
kind of hazards a ship in the mid-19th century was noted above.
coaltrade might be confronted with.
Snow MARY 323 tons. Built Sund. 1804,
Selection of reports of Lloyd's surveyors lengthened 1810
Notes were taken from surveys of vessels Mostly all Eng Oak. sound and fairly squared,
built in North East ports that were near seen entire in the lower hold,- some Foreign
enough to the tonnage of SL 4 to show similar White Oak well squared put in at present for
constructional features and timbers of similar floors and futtocks-.
scantlings. Some passages from surveys of Deck good R. [red] pine, Plank sheer, and
ships built elsewhere are included for [flat?] topsides, blacken strakes, wales to
comparison. Where applicable, below each light marks all Danz and Memel, some Eng.
extract the similarities or otherwise to SL 4 Oak, Elm in Bottom, all properly shifted in
are noted. butts well worked to timbers, appears
firm,- Deck and Hold Beems fastened by
Barque ROBERT & ANN 322 tons double lodging Oak Knees,- with 20. extra
Built in Whitby 1789 by George Fishburn hanging Iron Knees under deck beams, an a
[Thomas Fishburn had built two of the shelf 7. by 13. in Oak on the arms of hold
colliers used by James Cook]. Surveyed at beams,- 6. Hooks forward, one aft ...
Newcastle.
Timbers well sound, has been originally well [Repairs] [done in Shields]
squared, and as yet are sound, and well cross At this date. Rip'd entirely in the lower hold
chocked at the first futtock and floor heads, to Clamps, entire new Am Elm Keel 11 sided
but not sunk at points. 10 in hanging, 16. floor timbers, 14. first
At this day 7 April 1834 r'p'd to first futtock futtocks, and other defective timber
head replaced 7. first futtocks, and all the replaced, all cross chocked but not sunk at
cross chocks fresh beded, 4. new Hold Beams points,- New Am Oak main and R. pine false
an 3. New Deck Beams,- all new refasten'd Kelson,- all new ceiling,- 4 lower hooks
with 5. new Knees, and new ceiled to first refitted to timbers,- 2 new pointers, 2 new
futtock heads, 1. new Transom ... hold Beams, 8 Strakes of Am Elm and
- caulkedfiom Keel to Gunwall, and treenails R. pine doubling with lin wood sheating
punched and overhauled. over Abbot felt to Keel copper nail'&- new
This vessel in a good seaworthy condition, Am. Oak false stem post, and new R. pine
andfit to carry cargoes not liable to sea within [trunk?],- mixed treenails drove shave
damage on any voyage were a wood bottom from axe, caulked and generally
should Navigate ... Signed: Mathew overhauled,. . . That this Vessel having gone
Poppelwell. [Character assigned E l ] thro' this great repair, and in conformity with
The chocks of the futtock joints are referred the foregoing Scale of dimensions is in my
to as cross chocks a term also used to describe opinion entitled to be classed for two years
the large chock between the first futtocks in according to the rules of classification laid
the built up frames of naval ships. That they down ...AE 1.
are not sunk at points means that their ends This survey, like that of the Boreas referred to
are not butted in the manner shown for in paragraph 4.4 and quoted below, illustrates
APPENDICES
the wide variety of timber species used in Planks:
construction. Keel to is F' heads; Eng Beech. 2 112"
Lengthening was a common procedure and ist F' heads to LWM* Eng & mixed oak. 3"
involved inserting extra frames at the midship [Bilge 41
section. Upper planks
Blaclteii strakes were the strakes above the and wales Mixed oaks. 3"
main whale. They were the lowest strakes of Keelson American oak.
the hull that were painted, usually with tar False Keelson Red Pine.
hence hlackeii or hlack strakes. [*light water mark]
In many of the ships built before c. 1825 the A good proportion of t~.eenailswedged in flat
iron knees are referred to in these surveys as of ceiling. Eng oak ones used, but not mooted
extra as they were commonly added to [the other parts of the ceiling has not many
strengthen an old ship. treenails thro'] main Keelson bolted every
The treenails that were drove shavefrom the other floor into keel, false bolts into the
axe were like those of SL 4. futtocks rooms and not clenched.. .
Many of the ships surveyed were sheathed, Timbers described as being well squared and
sometimes with wood as here or with copper freefrom sap or well sapped had been cut out
which was more expensive. The sheathing of good sized timber and all the sap wood
material was laid over a layer of tarred felt or trimmed off. Many of the timbers in SL 4
paper and nailed into place. Sheathing was would probably have been described as not
usually applied if the vessel was destined for well sapped or sappy. Sliver chocks are those
tropical waters. SL 4 was not sheathed but not sunk at points or not butted at their ends.
some of the ships referred to in the surveys as The word implies they were relatively
being destined for Holland or the Baltic were, shallow and long.
indicating that they had been to the West The reference to the small proportion of
Indies or elsewhere on previous voyages. treenails through the ceiling is interesting in
the light of the discussion on treenails above.
Snow B O R E A S : 216 tons built Sunderland A moot was a circular plane used for finishing
1828 treenails thus making them uniformly
[surveyed Shields] Destination Holland cylindrical. These were shavedfiom the axe
Length aloft 83' 24'9"extreme, 14'9" [depth]. like those of SL 4.
Butt end bolts: copper [short]. Keel to bilge The reference to false bolts might mean that
planks 3" Bilge planks 3 112" and 4" Bilge to those of the intermediate frames were not
wales 3" Wales 4". Floors sided 10 moulded clenched under the keel which may have been
l l 112 Moulding of 1st 2nd and 3rd Futtocks the case in SL 4.
10" Top timbers S; 6" M; 4".
OWNERS DECLARATION: this is to certify SWALLOW 249 tons
that the Boreas was ripped in July 1830 and
had the following repairs- 3 midships floors, 7 Built: Sunderland 1834
first foothooks, 2 Hold beam knees, Oak [Owner: Thompson] Destined for Rotterdam
Keelson and new Oak Ceiling the Hold beams 86'7", 25' 1 l", 10'6" & 4'7" Floors Sided
fresh fastened with new bolts and fourteen 10 - 12" Moulded 12". Eng. & Foreign Oak
hundred new treenails in Midships. "[some of the Eng. floors are "Wainy']"
Robert Ness. . . . plank butts fastened with one short bolt &
one treenail forward they are double bolted.
The copper hlrtt end bolt were the bolts [copper]
securing the butts of the outer planks. The The plank fastening is the same as SL 4: one
term short means they were blind like those of treenail and one short bolt although judging
SL 4. by the few curved planks that must have come
The siding of the frames was not reduced until from the bow of SL 4 she was not double
the top timbers. In SL 4 the frames are also bolted like the Swallow.
sin~ilarlysided at least up to the hold beams.
Barque D U C H E S S O F KENT 342 tons
Snow M E X I C O 225 tons built Sunderland
1825 Built Surzderland 1835
Copper butt end bolts, 1,1/16th Iron Keelson All American oak framed throughout
bolts, scarphs of keel copper bolted. Built of 13" square floors 10x10 at ends. Lower outer
mixed Oaks, timbers said to be reasonably planks: 3", 4 1/2", 3". Chocks butted.
squared and free of sap [sliver chocked]. 13 frames a side bolted together.
APPENDICES
A case of butted chocks in a slightly larger This ship is also similar in co~~structionto
ship. This was usual in ships of 350 tons or SL 4 and closer in size. She also has three 4"
more. 13 frames amounts to every other pair bilge stringers. The iron straps retaining the
of timbers in the square body of the ship. beams are the same size. Another detail is the
description of the stringer [below] and the
Barque CLARINDA 246 tons waterway [above] the beam, that is not only
bolted through each frame timber but also up
Built Sunderland 1828 [Adams] Surveyor: and down through the ends of the beams as in
George Bayley Timbers moulded a n d SL 4.
sided 12" 3 Bilge planks outside, 2 inside
[4"1 Barque S A P H I R E 296 tons
Lower Deck Beams secured with a strap
I-ound the timbers- the upper Deck Beams are Built Sunderland 1832 by T. Dixon.
secured with one wood lodging Knee and one Destination Qriebec.
Iron Hanging Knee with three arms on the Floors 12.5" in middle ... Masts Yellow pine.
side thus [drawing] Butts and thickstuff at Timbers African, Dantzig ant1 English Oak.
Floor Heads Bolted and clenched 5 Breast Planking: African and Dantzic oak.
Hooks, 2 Pointers, Iron Crutch & bolted The hold beams secrrr.ed with cr str.inger and
through both Keelsons at every Floor. lron strap t.orrnc1 one timber, Clamp and Iron
This is the first of several references to the 'T' Hanging Knee the deck beams with one
method seen in SL 4 of fastening the lower or oak Lodging Knee, [Clamp] and Iron
hold beams with an iron strap passing around Diagonal one. . . . Orrtt bolts [ropper-f clinched,
a futtock. It seems to be most common on three bilge strakes and two limber strakes-
ships built on the River Wear, particulary in Again a similar method of fastening the hold
Sunderland. Hedderwick mentions the beams but with additional knees. The butt
technique although he prefers the method bolts were clinched [clenched] i.e. They were
shown in Plate X FIG 28 [fig. 1431 the upper driven all the way through the hull and
deck beam arrangement is also similar to clenched over washers inboard.
SL 4.
Brig OCEAN 229 tons
Brig WILLIAM 284 tons
Built Sunderland 1832. Destination:
Registered in Hull, built on the Wear? 1832 Archangel
Oak built, Af. oak beams 3 internal bilge . ..theframe where seen apper.es to be English
planks 4" ceiling 3" Oak except for one floor timber which is birch
FASTENINGS: lron bolts irz Riding Keelson the beams are of foreign Oak the timbers are
otherwise Copper fastened- Coppered 1833 not well squared and the workmanship is
Lower deck secured with a strap passing generally inferior. The use of birch for a floor
along the end of the beam and round one is interesting and was probably a repair. Many
timber a waterway and stringer bolted through of SL 4's oak floors would have been termed
every timber and up and down through the not well squared.
beam ends,- the beams are dowelled to the
stringer- the upper deck is secured in a similar New Barque AUGUSTA J E S S I E 385 tons
manner with stringer & waterway & wood
lodging knees- & the waterway is dowelled Built Sunderland 1834 by Adctmson
down to the beams- 2 pointers aft Crutch [commenced building Jan 1833, launched
Wing Transom Knees 5 breast hooks No butt March 18341.
bolts through but few treenails through the 5 TIMBERING: The wholefr.cr~~ie of the vessel
strakes of the ceiling below the upper Deck. throi~ghoutis composed of English Oak, well
The general appear-ance of the ship is squared and well cleared of sap, the stem,
favourable, but the omission of through Bolts Stern Post, beams, Transoms, Aprons, Knight
in the Butts and the very slight connexion of Heads and Hawse timbers all English and
the lower Deck Beams with the side being African Oak, sound and good, Floor ends and
only a plate of iron about 3" wide & 314 inch first foothook heads are regularly cross
thick are in my estimation great drawbacks to chocked, but chock ends are not butted 14
her durability and therefore in my opinion she frames put up on each side, bolted together
ought not to be classed more than 9A. from the floor ends up to the 2nd foothook
George Bayley heads. Cant bodies are not framed or
[she was classified A1 for 8 years]. bolted;. ..
APPENDICES
The ~jholeof the outside plank from the Shear so much so as I thought 'twould be a risk to
Streaks [waterway included] down to the light go the voyage, but the first night at sea it
water marks is of African and English Oak. came on to blow heavy at S.W. with a heavy
From the light water marks to the Keel is sea; the ship being deep, nearly 1000 tons of
American Elm: the whole of the Ceiling plank coal on board, she laboured very much, I
Inside is of Afrikan and English Oak. The double-reefed topsails and reefed courses, and
shift of outside plank in midships have three stood to the S.S.E., as with such a ship,
streaks through between butts and at the force drawing 19ft. 6in., I wanted sea-room. -The
and after end of the ship 2 streaks through. second night, gale and sea increasing, being
Ceiling planks shifted 2 and 3 streaks between on the starboard tack washed away our fore
butts. and main guard boards, they being the old
Hold beams fastened with an Iron Clasp 5" fashioned ones, two feet broad, our starboard
broad ~.oundthe outside of one timber with 4 rigging was then all adrift, immediately wore
bolts in each arm. Also an Iron Knee both ship to secure our masts, but in rounding-too a
above and below each beam end, bolted and heavy sea came on board carrying away the
clinked throughout. Deck Beams are fastened gripes of the long boat and stove her
with one wood ledger Knee and one Iron broadside in, we got her secured to the ring
Knee under each Beam End with a lug. .. also bolts to leeward, the ship all this time making
the 2nd waterway dowelled into the Beam much water, kept the pumps constantly going,
Ends ... 4 forecastle deck Beams fastened with took in the slack of our starboard rigging and
D.W.L. Knees of Eng Oak ... Butt Ends are again wore bend to southward; close-reefed
double bolted, one bolt in each Butt End is topsails and handed courses, water in hold
clinched inside.. . All treenails used are of the having increased to four feet. The remainder
best English Oak, the principal part turned of time at sea, heavy gales, hove-to four days,
with a machine. no rest, and after a week at sea five men laid
Surveyor: John Brunton. up, so you see we had few enough at the
Streaks = strakes; pumps, the leak gradually increasing on us. At
Sheer Streak [Strake] = the uppermost all events we fetched the Texel, more
outboard hull plank; moderate, gave her canvass, wind lulled
clinched = clenched; round to N.W., hoping to get to some port in
D.W.L. Knees = Double wood de English Channel, or if I could have got into
lodging knees; the Downs I would have taken her up to
Ledger Knee = Lodging knee. London, sold the coal, and again taken her to
the north to be repaired, but the wind again
Narrative on the Charles Kerr from came round to the S.W. and blew a heavy gale
Shields with rain and thick hazy weather, the crew
By way of describing what a voyage in one of fairly tired out, myself also; bore up for
these colliers could be like the following Shields and had got half way over when it
letter provides a graphic illustration. It was again flew into the N.W., having at this time
printed in the Hastings and St. Leonards News double-reefed topsails and reefed courses,
on Friday, March 12th 1852. rattling the old barque through the water to
get hold of the land, but no go. I then made up
Narrow escape from shipwreck my mind to run for the Elbe, but nothing but
The following letter has been received by Mr. thick hazy weather and not getting a sight of
Daniel Sargent, of Hastings, from his brother Heligoland, but knowing by my soundings I
Mr. George Sargent, who sailed from was in the Channel on the fair way of the
Newcastle in the middle of last month, in the Elbe, I made up my mind to run while
Charles Kerr, of which he had the command, daylight continued; wind at N.W., very thick
bound with a cargo of coals for the dep6t at with rain, kept the lead going, shoaling our
Aden. The spirited and unvarnished story of water gradually into seven fathoms, when it
the perils which were encountered in the cleared up a little, and as Providence ordered
endeavour to make the voyage, though the it got a sight of the Light Vessel before it
letter was not intended to meet the public eye, thickened in again, at this time six feet water
will doubtless repay our readers for the in her hold, shoaled our water to four fathoms,
trouble of a perusal. The letter is dated from when all at once bump she goes.
Cuxhaven, February 25.
I thought the masts would have gone by the
'My dear Dan, Have this time had a narrow board, laid all flat aback. The tide making, she
escape, the ship was leaky in harbour, but not came off after about fifteen minutes, water
APPENDICES
increased in that time to eight feet, it again Shields [near Newcastle]. She had been
cleared up, when we saw the Light Ship about surveyed in January 1852 when she is noted
a mile off, dark coming on fast; we rounded in Lloyd's register as having had some repair
the Light Ship close to the Dark, asked them andpart new deck. In the 1853 register she is
for a pilot and told them we were sinking, but noted as having had a large repair,
they could not give me one. I then gave her all presumably precipitated by the rigourous
the sail I could pack on, up the Elbe for the voyage described above. In 1853 George
second Light Ship, but coming on very thick, Sargent is no longer listed as her master and
gale increasing, could not hail the second she is not listed in Lloyd's register after 1857.
Light Vessel, so steered for the pilot galliot This episode illustrated an important point;
she having a small light, expecting the masts that ships often came to grief a long way off
to go over the side with the quantity of sail on their intended course. Had the Charles Kerr
the vessel, but neck or nothing, a pilot or a gone down in the Elbe, in the absence of
bump; sure enough bump it was, eleven feet documentary evidence it would be a natural
when we struck, after a time managed to get assumption that she was bound for one of the
the sails stowed, then out boats, after which ports in the area such as Cuxhaven. It is a
got the people's clothes on the poop in case possibility that SL 4 was also bound for
we should have to leave her before daylight. somewhere else, though in her case the weight
Our long boat being stove we had only a gig of evidence suggests otherwise.
and second cutter, having left our first cutter
in Shields. While busy with getting the
clothes on the poop, the wind having backed
into the West, she came off the sand all at
once into deep water, a pretty predicament for
a sinking ship; let go both bowers slap, sorry I
did not do so to keep her fast when I had her
fast, nothing now but the pumps for it. Poor
George asleep on the poop among the
people's bags covered over with a sail, pumps
going all night, leak still increasing, twice the
people knocked off and wanted to take to the
boats, but I refused, as I thought she would
keep up till daylight and then we should be
sure of assistance. At daylight they saw our
signals of distress, when they came to our
assistance from the pilot ship, ten pilots and
five sailors with two boats, they all clapped
on to the pumps, now having twelve feet in
well. Eleven a.m., flood having made, hove
the anchors up and made sail, thank god fair
wind up, but just as we got off Cuxhaven the
wind came right out, and, expecting her to go
down under our feet, a steam-boat came to our
assistance and in half an hour stuck her in the
mud, 15ft. 6in. in the hold, a near touch Dan
my boy; than God, all right. Poor George saw
no danger, he left the poop in the night
without my knowledge, went into the cabin,
took a book of maps and my dictionary that he
has had at school, went back again, crawled
under the sail, and went again to sleep; when I
found him when the people came to our
assistance fast asleep with the books in his
arms. I awoke him and asked him what he had
there, he told me, and said that if he was
saved he should save those books.'
The Charles Kerr was a bark of 463 tons built

in Sunderland in 1826 and was registered in
APPENDICES
[Fig. 1701
A section is cut from the S L 4 hull for
display in the Prins Hendrik Maritime
Museum in Rotterdam.
De vondsten, maar ook een doorsnee
van de romp van SL 4 zullen
tentoongesteld worden in het
Rotterdamse Maritiem Musuem Prins
Hendrik [foto IPL].
APPENDICES
APPENDIX Ill
CONSERVATION AND ARTEFACT offered to the Tyne and Wear museum for
FILING display in Sunderland, the small northeastern
The main purpose of the archaeological English town where this collier was
survey during the Slufter project was to presumably built.
produce the documentation that constitutes The smaller finds which needed conservation
the basis for the present report. A conspicuous were treated by mr. T. v.d. Horst from
side-effect of archaeological investigation, Zaanstad. The methods used can be
however, is the collection of larger or smaller summarized as follows. Wrought iron items
amounts of artefacts and samples. These need and fittings were treated according to North &
to be given proper care. For one thing Pearson with a duration of two months and a
artefacts should if necessary be given fourfold replacement of the solution. The
conservation treatment, for another a remaining salts were treated with unsoluble
collection emerging from any one excavation barium sulphate. The treatment was finished
or site should as a principle remain together. with tannine. In the composite items the iron
The institutes that are - under the ancient fittings were sometimes of needs cut to enable
monuments law -entitled to carry out separate treatment. The blocks and other
archaeological field research in the wooden items were treated by freeze drying,
Netherlands are not normally at the same time with an approximate duration of one month
museums. Still they are responsible for what for every six kilos of waterlogged wood.
they excavate. In the long run, however, that Item SL1 A5 1 , described as a traveller
is after completion of post-excavation [fig. 431 was somewhat problematical. The
research, they are supposed to dispose of their iron ring was served with rope and a leather
collections for the benefit of museums, cladding and could not be treated as one unit.
exhibitions, long-term filing and secondary The leather would be destroyed during the
research. In order to achieve these aims iron treatment and removing the leather
regional or rather provincial depots have been would damage the rope serving as well as
established in which archaeological some concretion. The latter solution,
collections are accomodated. For the province however, was chosen. After treatment the
of South Holland this depot is part of the traveller was reconstructed with modern rope.
National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden. Pewter, yellow metal and lead items were
Deposition of the Slufter collection in this cleaned electrolytically. After neutralization
depot would thus be the obvious procedure. they were treated with wax.
Nevertheless it has been proposed to deviate Restoraton and plaster filling of ceramics and
from this line in view of the strong nautical a grindstone need no further comment. When
bias of the Slufter collection and to put it at sheepshead block SLI A60 was taken apart
the disposal of the Prins Hendrik Maritime for treatment it showed a repair which has
Museum of the City of Rotterdam. been commented upon in the text [fig. 411.
After recording a careful selection was made Removing the metal pin from the marked
of items to be kept. These include a selection double sheaved block SL4 A01 [fig. 12 11
of significant timbers from the various posed some problems. The sheaves had
wrecksites which were buried for long term yellow metal bearings.
preservation in the national underground Rope was cleaned in a phosphoric acid
depot for archaeological ship's timbers which solution. After neutralization loose parts were
has been established some years ago in the reinforced with new rope.
IJsselmeerpolder area, where the timbers are The complete collection of artefacts and
kept well below the ground water table. A samples including the SL 4 hull section will
section of the hull from SL 4 which had be given into the care of the Prins He~zdrik
slowly dried was selected, cut off and kept Maritime Museum, where part of it will be on
above the ground. A similar section was display [fig. 1701.
APPENDICES
GLOSSARY
The glossary is meant as an aid to understand the English and Dutch versions do not really
maritime terms as used in this report. It has no match. In the Dutch part Dutch definitions are
claim to being exhaustive. It has a bilingual given for Dutch words, while the English
format. In the English part each lemma gives equivalents are marked with zie or vgl..
the English definition of an English word. To Alternative words or terms are placed in
the right of the page the Dutch equivalent is brackets after the main entry. Words followed
given. If it is marked with see the meaning is by an asterisk* are the subject of a separate
more or less identical, if it is marked with cf. entry.
Adze Wood working tool. It is similar to an axe but the blade is set at
see: dissel right angles to the handle.
Apron Part of the stem* construction, it runs through the same arc as
see: binnensteven the stem and is fastened inboard of it. It is sometimes called a
false stem.
Auger A large wood-boring drill with a simple wooden T-bar as

see: avegaar handle. The design of the bit varied. The type commonly used
by shipwrights was of the shell type although the corkscrew
shaped twist types were also used.
Bark [barque] Originally a specific hull form but later a vessel with three or
see: bark more masts in which the aftmost mast is rigged fore and aft, the
others being square rigged.
Beam-shelf [shelf] The large stringer* on which the deckbeams*' rest.

see: balkweger
Bevel Angled or sloping face on the edge of a timber, so cut to fit

Afschuining another.
Bilge The lowest part of the hold of a ship or the flattest part of the
cf.: ruim, vlak, kim hull upon which the ship rests when aground. Turn of the bilge
see: kim The upward curve of the ship's hull approximately at
the end of the floor* timbers. Bilge planks cf.: kimgang,
kimweger Thick planks lying at the turn of the bilge either
outboard or inboard although the latter are sometimes referred
to as bilge stringers.
Blind A fastening where neither the nail or the hole augered* for it
see: blind passes right through the timber to which another is being
joined.
Block The wooden block or shell enclosing one or more sheaves [or
see: blok holes in the case of a deadeye*]. One or more blocks are rigged
together to increase the mechanical power applied to ropes used
for various tasks on a ship, such as raising topmasts and yards,
GLOSSARY
controlling sails and lifting or restraining heavy equipment.
Blocks vary in size, number of sheaves and shape depending on
where in the vessel they are rigged and their purpose.
Bowsprit The spar projecting forward from the bow, either above or to
see: boegspriet the side of the stem*, to which the stays* of the foremost mast
are attached. The extension of the bowsprit is called a jib-
boom*.
Breasthook Large grown* timber that is placed internally across the apron*
cf.: band forming a strong connection between the two sides of the hull.
Brig A vessel having two masts: the foremast and the main mast,
see: brik both of which are square rigged.
Bulwark The structure above the upper deck forming a strong waist high
see: boeisel rail providing crew safety, preventing heavy seas washing
across the decks and also securing various lines associated with
the running* rigging.
Butt The end of a timber or plank when cut square. Butt joint: the
see: stuik junction of two timbers finished in this manner.
Camber In the context of deckbeams camber is the arc of the beam

see: balktrek making it higher in the centre of the ship.
Cant frame In the main body of the ship the frame* timbers were laid at
see: draaispant right angles to the keel but where the hull curved in towards the
bow the frames were often set radiating outwards,
approximately from where the stem* scarfed* to the keel.
Timbers were often canted in a similar fashion at the stern but
not to the same degree.
Carling A deck timber running between the deckbeams* i.e.

see: klamaai longitudinally.
Carve1 A word that has come to mean the method of ship construction
see: karveel where the hull planks are flush-laid against a skeleton of
frames* and are not fastened to each other at their edges.
Caulking The method of making a seam between planks watertight, for

see: breeuwen instance in deck planks or the hull planking [of carvel* built
ships]. Various materials are twisted into lengths, several of
which are driven into the seam with a caulking iron and a
caulking mallet. They are then sealed with a waterproofing
compound such as tar. A common caulking material is oakum*
but others include animal hair, wood fibres and moss. Often a
compound of more than one is used.
Ceiling The internal structural planking of the hull, i.e. not lining or
see: wegering panelling.
Chain plate [chains] Originally chains bolted to the side of the ship, the upper end of
see: putting which was joined to the iron binding of the lower deadeye*.
Later, flat iron strap was used [hence the term plate] or a
combination of the two.
GLOSSARY
Chamfer The angled surface formed when the sharp corners of a timber
afschuining are cut back or bevelled* for safety or good appearance, such as
the under side of deckbeams* or the edges of deck pillars*.
Chock 1. Generally any angled or wedge shaped block of wood added

see: klamp as packing to constructional timbers to build them up to the
required dimensions, or between them to effect a joint.
Clamp 1. The stringer upon which the ends of the beams are supported.
see: 1. balkweger 2. klamp They are often rebated into it in various ways. The term is used
synonimously with beamshelf or shelf, although this implies a
timber laid horizontally or at least that is not rebated.
2. A general term for offcuts or small pieces of wood used for
temporary fastenings. In the context of the Dutch shipbuilding
tradition, particularly those pieces used to fasten hull planking
during construction, prior to fitting the frames.
Cleat 1. A small piece of wood used in construction to hold timbers in

see: klamp place or prevent them from moving until permanently fastened
[such as preventing a shore* from slipping]. See also clamp 2.
2. A small piece of wood attached to for example a spar in order
that a rope can be belayed.
Clench [clinch, clink] The method of securing metal fastenings by hammering the end
see: klinken over a washer or rove*. This could either be done by simply
turning it over the rove or rivetting, i.e. beating it until it had
tightened sufficiently not to pull out.
Clinker built The method of boat and shipbuilding in which the strakes of
cf.: overnaads, klinken hull planking overlap and are fastened through the overlap with
nails clenched* over washers or roves*.
Coaming The timbers framing the edge of a hatch in the deck.

see: luikhoofd
Companion way A flight of steps or ladder, strictly speaking leading from the
see: opgang quarter deck to the upper deck but generally used to refer to a
personnel, rather than a cargo hatch.
Compass timber Naturally curved wood used for correspondingly curved

see: krommer elements in ship construction. It is much stronger than if the
same shaped piece was cut out of straight grained wood. The
term is synonimous with grown* or crooked* timber, although
it is the more suitable of the three for describing the evenly
curved pieces required for frame timbers. Grown timber is the
most general term while crooked implies a sharper or more
irregular shape and is often used in the context of knees* or
crooks*.
Crook Grown timber* used for knees* or the V-shaped floors* used at
see: knie the bow and stern of some vessels.
Cross grain A curved timber cut from straight wood to the extent that the
cf.: draads hout wood grain passes from one side of the piece to the other,
amounting to a serious weakness.
Cross-pall [-spal1,-pawl,-pale] A temporary plank used to tie the frames together during
zie: zwieping construction prior to fitting the deckbeams.
GLOSSARY
Crutch Similar to a breasthook* but positioned at the stern.
cf.: band, wrang
Deadrise A term referring to the upward angle of the floor timbers* as

see: tilling they run out from the keel* towards the turn of the bilge*.
Deadeye A block* with holes instead of sheaves, used in pairs to tighten

see: jufferblok the shrouds* and stays*.
Deadwood As the form of a ship's hull becomes sharper forward and aft,
see: slemphout the frames can no longer be brought down to the keel and so
they are fitted on or against solid timber built up over the keel.
Deckbeam The main athwartship timbers of the deck structure also

see: dekbalk effecting a strong union between the sides of the vessel.
Deckhook A breasthook* that is at the level of a deck* and so forms part

cf.: band of its support in addition to binding the cant* frames.
Deck pillar Deck support or stanchion*.

see: dekstut
Dottie See plug, punch.

see: deutel
Dub The action of working timber to a smooth surface with an

cf.: dissel adze*.
Dutchman A repair to a timber where the flawed or damaged section is cut

cf.: half houtje out so as to form a rebate*. After preparing with a luting
compound a new piece of wood is let into it and fastened in
place.
False keel A protective layer of timber fastened along the bottom of the
see: loze kiel keel, being relatively easy to replace when worn.
Fashion piece The curved timbers set across the stern post* forming the base
see: rantsoenhout of the stern.
Floor [floor timber, rung] The lowest piece of a ship's frame running across the keel.
cf.: legger, wrang
Frame [rib] Transverse timbers forming the skeleton of a ship and to which
see: spant the planks are fastened. In large vessels they are made from
several pieces [see floors, futtocks, top timbers].
Framed timbers Timbers constituting a frame which has been erected in an early
see: spant van oprichting stage of shipbuilding.
Futtocks [foothooks] The timbers that together with the floors* and the top timbers*
cf.: zitter, buikstuk, form a frame*. They are numbered lst, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, the 1st
oplanger, stut being the lowest and the 4th the highest.
Garboard The plank next to the keel [garboard strake: the lowest strake of
see: zandstrook planking].
Grown timber General term for naturally curved wood suitable for
see: gegroeid hout shipbuilding but it often refers to the sharply angled pieces
from the branches of trees used for knees* [see also compass
timber].
GLOSSARY
Half beam The small timbers supporting the deck planking that lie
cf.:dekbalk between and parallel to the deckbeams. They are rebated into
the carlings* and possibly into the beam shelf*.
Handspike A wooden lever used for turning a windlass* [as distinct from
see: handspaak the hand spike; used like a crow bar for manoeuvring guns].
Harpins [harpings] Lengths of timber [usually oak] used to support and bind the
see: boegsent cant* frames at the bow and the stern during construction. They
are scarfed* to the ribbands* so forming a band of timber
running the whole length of the ship.
Hatch An opening in the deck, for loading of cargo and equipment or

see: luik for access from one deck to another.
Hawse holeltimbers/pipes The holes through which the cables from the anchors pass into
see: kluisgat the ship. In large wooden ships they are generally cut through
the cantXframe timbers next but one to, and either side of the
stem [hence hawse pieces or hawse timbers]. They were often
lined with lead, or later, iron hawse pipes.
Heartwood As successive rings of new sapwood* are formed the innermost

see: kernhout cells become too far from the growth region to function.
Through various chemical changes including the deposition of
cellulose and lignin the cells become heartwood.
Heel The lower end or foot of a timber; e.g. the heel of the sternpost.
cf.: teen, hieling
Helm port The opening in the stern of a ship or the raised structure of a
see: hennegat smaller vessel through which the head of the rudder, or the tiller
passes.
Hold The lowest space within the body of a ship.

see: ruim
Hold beams Strong athwartship beam in the hold. Hold beams were not
see: ruimbalk decked over.
Jib-boom The spar fastened to the bowsprit, extending its reach, and to
cf.: kluifhout which stays and jib sails can be attached.
Jigger-mizzen A small sail rigged on a mast stepped right aft on smaller

see: druil sailing vessels.
Keel In wooden ships: the lowermost fore and aft constructional

see: kiel member, formed of one or more timbers, running along the
centre line and joined to the stern post* and stem*.
Keelson [kelson] The internal backbone of a ship. A large timber [or timbers]
see: zaathout running parallel to the keel* above the floors*. It clamps the
floors by being through-fastened to the keel.
Knee An angled or curved piece of wood or iron used to connect

see: knie various elements of the hull that lie in different planes, such as
the deckbeams* to the frames*. When made of wood they were
best cut from grown* timber but were superseded by iron knees
as grown timber in general became increasingly scarce. Those
GLOSSARY
set with one arm running down from the side or underside of a
beam were referred to as hanging knees. Those set horizontally
against the beam were lodging knees and those rising vertically
from the top of the beam are standards. When knees of iron
became common, the forms knees could take became much
more varied. A staple knee is a double iron knee; either a
hanging knee where the lower arm continues down and along
the top of the deck beam below [becoming the standard] or
where two lodging knees are combined in a similar way.
Limber Channels for the passage of water to the pumps. They were
see.: waterloop usually cut in the underside of the floor timbers*. Alternatively
Limber hole they were formed by the gaps left between timbers for the
see: loggat purpose.
Limber boards A series of short boards between the keelson and the limber
see: vullingplank strake that were removeable to allow access to the space
between the floor timbers and to the limber holes.
Limber strake The first ceiling* plank either side of the keelson*.
see: vullinggang
Margin plank The outermost deck plank.

see: lijfhout
Mortise A square or rectangular recess cut into a timber into which the
cf.: pen- en gatverbinding tenon* of another timber fits [forming a mortise and tenon
joint].
Moulded depth The depth or thickness of a ship's timber when viewed in

dikte section i.e. looking forward or aft [from the old term mould
referring to the cross section of a ship].
Moulding Carved decorative finish to a timber.

see: kraallijst
Oakum Fibres of old rope teased apart and then twisted together in
see: werk strands for caulking* seams between plankingY.
Parcelling Strips of tarred canvas wound round a rope after it has been
see: smarten wormed* after which it is served*.
Pawl Pawl bitt; the heavy pillar or vertical post set in front of the
see: pal windlass on which the pawl mechanism is mounted. Pawl rim;
the heavy iron toothed rim around the centre of the windlass
barrel. In older windlasses it was just a series of notches cut
into the barrel. Pawls; iron dogs or flaps hinged on the pawl bitt
with their ends resting in the teeth of the pawl rim. This simple
ratchet mechanism prevents the windlass turning in reverse
when under load.
Plank Technically the slabs of timber sawn or split from a bole that
cf.: huid are between 1.5 inches [4 cm] and 4 inches [ l o cm] in
thickness. Timber thicker than this is referred to as thick stuff
and thinner timber as board. The term planking is i.a. applied to
the planks of the ship's hull.
GLOSSARY
Plug [dottle] A square hardwood wedge driven into the centre of the end of a
see: deutel, spijkerpen treenail* to tighten it. Homonymous are the plugs that are used
to plug a disused nail-hole and which go by the name of
spijkerpen in Dutch.
Pointer See sleeper.
Punches Small square wedges used to tighten a treenail* as opposed to a

cf.: deutel single square wedge, see plug.
Rebate A recessed channel cut in a timber to accommodate another,

[rabbetlsponning such as the V-shaped rabbet cut into the side of the keel* into
which the garboard* is fitted or rabbetted.
Ribs An old term for the frames of a ship, now applied loosely in this
cf.: spant context but more specifically to the frames of a small boat
where they are cut from one piece of timber.
Ribband Lengths of timber [usually fir] nailed along the outside of the
see: sent frames* to bind and support them during construction.
Rider Heavy internal reinforcing member of wood and later of iron,

see: kattespoor laid across the keelson*, ceiling* and stringers*, usually in line
with the frames to which they were strongly fastened. Standard
in warships, they were sometimes added to merchant-ships
during repairs or in old age.
Rigging The collective term for the whole assembly of ropes, blocks*
see: tuigage and spars on a sailing vessel.
Rise of floor A term describing the progressive increase in the depth of the
cf.: oplopen floors* or the height that they are set above the keel fore and aft
of the midship section.
Room and space The room occupied by a frame* and the space between it and
cf.: spantafstand the next frame along on the keel. In effect the distance between
the centres of two frames.
Rove A round washer or square metal plate against which a nail of

see: klinkring bolt is fastened by being turned or clenched* over it.
Running rigging All rigging used to raise or lower yards and to raise, lower and
see: lopend want trim the sails.
Sapwood [xylem] The outer rings of wood formed within the cambium of a tree
see: spinthout through which sap is transported and in which food is stored.
Scarf joint [scarph] A method of joining two pieces of timber end to end with a
see: las tapering overlap, generally so that the width and thickness of
the timber is not altered. There are many types of scarf joint
varying in complexity. To scarf: to join two timbers in this
fashion.
Scupper pipe A pipe which passes through the ship's side on a level with a
see: spuikoker, bos deck to allow water to run away.
GLOSSARY
Serving Yarns of rope wound tightly around a rope over the worming*
see: kleden and parcelling* to form a protective layer.
Sheathing The layer applied to a ship's hull to protect the planking from
see: dubbeling attack by marine borers such as gribble [Limnaria] and
shipworm [Teredo Navalis]. It was made of various materials at
various times. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there
were various combinations dictated by price and the destination
of the vessel. Tarred paper, or tarred felt covered by pine boards
was a common and relatively cheap option. A final layer of
copper sheeting was more expensive but the most effective.
Sheers [sheerlegs] Two or three long timbers or poles lashed together to form an
see: schrank 'A' frame or tripod from which a block* could be hung,
enabling heavy weights to be hoisted [such as frame timbers in
ship construction].
Sheer strake The uppermost strake of the outer planking.

see: scheergang
Shelf See beamshelf.

see: dekweger
Shift The arrangement of planking* so that the butt-joints in adjacent

see: verscherven strakes are not too close together so creating weakness. In
general planks were arranged so that there were at least two
planks running between any two butt-joints.
Ship rig The rig of a vessel with a bow sprit and three or more masts
cf.: volschip [including topmasts and topgallants] all of which are square
rigged.
Shore A timber used as a temporary prop or support for frames, stem

see: schoor and stern post etc., during construction of the vessel.
Shrouds The lateral stays* of the masts.

see: hoofdtouwen
Side-binding strake ... is scored [rebated] down and into the beam-ends at some
cf.: schaarstok distance from the side, and bolted through the side between the
beams. The scoring into the beams connects the in and out
fastenings of this strake with the longitudinal tie of the
beams, ... Andrew Murray 1863.
Skeg The triangle formed by keel*, stempost* and deadwood*.

see: scheg
Sleeper [pointer] Internal stern reinforcing members of wood or [later] iron,

see: worpknie running diagonally upwards and inwards to the underside of the
transom* or just below it. Formerly the term had referred to
what are called bilge stringers here.
Snow A vessel with two masts: fore and main, which are both square
see: snauw rigged but with an additional small mast [a trysail mast]
stepped immediately behind the main mast.
Spar Any of the timbers used to support the rigging of a sailing

see: rondhout vessel, such as the masts, yards and booms etc.
GLOSSARY
Spike A large square shanked metal nail used for general fastening
see: spijker purposes, particularly planking.
Spurket When frame timbers are not jointed end to end the spurket is
see: lucht the resulting gap. [Not to be confused with spirketting: the
stringer set above the ends of the deckbeams or above the
waterway if present.]
Stanchion [deck pillar] In general a vertical support pillar, for example of a deckbeam*
see: dekstut usually stepped* into the keelson* or riders*.
Standing rigging The rigging supporting the masts, consisting of shrouds* and
see: staand want stays*.
Staple knee See knee.
Stave Component plank of a cask or other stave built container such

see: duig as a bucket.
Stays The thick rope [or wire] guys for the masts and bowsprit.
see: stag
Stem The large timber scarfed* onto the keel that determines the
see: voorsteven shape of the bow of a ship and into which the ends of the outer
planking are rabbeted*.
Step The rectangular recess into which the heel or foot of the mast is
cf.: mastspoor locked or stepped so that it cannot move. It can be cut into the
keelson or formed by blocks of timber above the keelson or a
deck depending on the size of the vessel and the position of the
mast.
Stern post The large timber set on the upper face of the aft end of the keel
see: achtersteven to which it was joined. It can be variously formed depending on
the type of vessel but commonly the ends of the outer hull
planking are rabbeted into it in a similar fashion as with the
stem and the rudder is hung on its aft side.
Stopwater A hole or channel cut along the interface of a seam into which a
see: keernagel dowel is driven to prevent the passage of water. It is a technique
used in seams that cannot be effectively caulked, such as that in
the scarf joint of a keel. As well as a dowel or treenail, moss
and fat or other waterproof material can be rammed into the
hole which is then plugged with short treenails.
Strake A run of plankingY

see: gang
Stringer A thick internal plank running longitudinally along the hull.

cf.: weger They can either alternate with the ceiling* planks or are placed
where extra strength is required such as over a line of joints or
under deckbeams.
Siding The thickness of a ship's timber e.g. a futtock* or a deckbeam*

breedte when viewed from the side or above.
Tabling The face of timbers cut to be scarfed* together, often including

cf.: las quite complex keys and notches.
GLOSSARY
Tack The foremost lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail as well as the
see: hals tackle to tighten it downwards. In square rigging the tack is the
rope or tackle on the lower corner of a sail which is used to
brace it when sailing to windward.
In this connection the term is also used to indicate over what
side of the ship the rigging is hauled and thus its direction in
relation to the wind.
Tenon A square or rectangular projecting tongue of wood cut to fit

cf.: pen- en gatverbinding into a mortise* so forming a mortise and tenon joint.
Thimble A heart shaped eye of wood or metal around which the end of a
see: kous rope is spliced to make a hard eye [as opposed to a soft eye
without the thimble].
Tiller The lever by which the rudder is turned.

see: helmstok
Timbers At its most general: wood that is suitable for, or has been
cf.: inhout converted for carpentry or construction. In the context of ship
construction it can refer to any of the pieces used as main
strength members in the hull [as opposed to planks] but more
particularly refers to frames*.
Tingle A temporary repair patch of lead nailed over seams of deck

planking or hull planking to stop leaks.
Tonnage The measurement of capacity, formerly in all ships, now in

see: tonnemaat merchant-ships only [war-ships being classified by their
displacement tonnage i.e. their actual weight]. In English ships
the capacity had originally been equated to the number of
Bordeaux wine casks or tuns that could be stowed. The early
formulae by which this could be calculated consisted of
multiplying the length of keel, by the breadth, by the depth in
the hold and then dividing the product, commonly by 100. This
remained the basic principle of the many methods of tonnage
measurement until 1836. The differences were the exact points
between which the measurements were taken, the divisor used
and that depth and keel length were not actually measured but
were proportions of those distances that were. The rule in force
between 1773 and 1st Janury 1836 is a good example.
The calculation still entailed Length x Breadth x Depth which
was then divided by 94. The breadth was measured between the
outside of the plank at the widest part of the hull. The length
was the distance along the rabbet of the keel* from the aft side
of the stern post* to a perpendicular from the foreside of the
stem* below the bowsprit*. From this was subtracted the rake
of the stem which for convenience was taken to be three fifths
of the extreme breadth. This gave a theoretical keel length. This
was multiplied by the breadth which in turn was multiplied by
half the breadth [taken to be the depth]. The sum was divided
by 94, the answer being the tonnage.
This method was inaccurate in many cases as it took no account
of hull form. The method introduced in 1836 attempted to
remedy this. It involved measuring the internal breadth at
various heights and the depth from the underside of the
deckbeams to the ceiling beside the keelson. This was done at
three specific stations along the length of the hull, thus the
resulting figure more accurately reflected the true capacity.
GLOSSARY
In northern Europe and the Low Countries one measured with a
ship's carrying capacity expressed in lasten a weight
measurement of grain. Nevertheless conversion from tuns into
lasten was frequently done.
Top mast Spar that is fitted as an upward extension of the mast.

see: steng
Top timber The uppermost timber of a frame*.

see: stut, oplanger
Transom Heavy horizontal stern frame timbers set across the sternpost.
see: worp The uppermost is the wing transom, set just below the top of the
stern post. Set at the height of the deck is the deck transom, the
others being filling transoms.
Traveller An iron ring to which [most commonly] the tack [lower forward
see: travelaar corner] of a jib sail is attached allowing it to be hauled out
along the bowsprit* or jib-boom*. The leather covering reduced
friction and prevented it chafing the timber.
Treenail [trenail, trennel, trunnel]

see: treknagel Wooden dowel used for fastening timbers together.
Wale A thick outer hull strake corresponding to the internal stringer*

see: berghout providing additional longitudinal strength such as at the height
of decks, the water line below gun ports etc.
Waterway The outermost deckplank, often made from hard wood and
see: waterloopsklos usually thickened towards its outer edge to prevent water lying
over the seam and seeping down between the frames.
Whelp Supplementary pieces of wood on the face of a windlass* barrel

see: spilklamp saving it from being abraded, especially when hauling a chain
cable or giving a hemp cable extra grip. They are easily
replaced when worn.
Windlass A winch for raising anchors or yards that was set horizontally
see: spil on the deck and in early forms turned manually by levers
[handspikes*] located in sockets in the barrel or shaft. In the
1830's various patent mechanical devices were introduced to
reduce the work load, in which pump handles were used to
lever two vertical bars acting on purchase rims either side of
and similar to the pawl* rims.
Worming Laying a small rope or line in the lay of a larger rope or cable
see: trenzen prior to parcelling* and serving*.
GLOSSARY
VERKLARENDE WOORDENLIJST
De verklarende wool-denlijst geeft inzicht in wordt een ver.wijzing gegeven naar een
de wijze waarop maritieme termen in het lemma in de andere taal. Is de betekenis van
voorliggende rapport zijn gebruikt. Er is niet de hetreffende woovden nzin of meel.
naar volledigheid gestreefd. De opzet is gelijkluiderzd dun wordt verwezen niet see
tweetalig. Het Engelse deel geeft Engelse resp. zie. 1s er ve~.schilin hetekenis dun wor.dt
definities van Engelse woorden, het cf. resp. vgl. gebruikt. Wooden woaraan een
Nederlandse deel geeft Nederlandse definities afzonderlijk lenzma is gewijd zijn waar van
van Nederlandse woorden. Bij elk woord belang voorzien van eel1 sterretje*.
Achtersteven Zie steven

zie: sternpost
Avegaar Grote handboor die met een dwarsstang of dwar.shoutje word[

zie: auger rondgedraaid.
Balktrek De bolling van de dekbalken* in de lengterichting [d.w.z.

zie: camber dwarsscheeps] die de dekrondte bepaalt.
Bark Schip met dl-ie of meer masten, waarhij de achterste nzast

zie: bark langsscheeps getuigd is en de overige masten vierkant geti~igd
zijn.
Balkweger Zware weger* waarop de dekbalken* of ruimbalken* rusten.

zie: beam shelf Deze balken zijn veelal in de balkweger ingelaten.
Band Dwarsscheeps verbanddeel in het opgannde deel van voor- of

vgl.: crutch [band in lzet ruim] achterschip. Het is een symmetrische kromn~er*die aan de
breasthook [stevenwrang] binnenzijde op de steven* of binne~zsteven*hevestigd is.
Berghout Zwaar uitgevoerde huidga~zgdie het schip 01s een l~orizo~~tale

zie: wale hoepel omsluit en in belangrijke nlate bijdr.angt tot hecktheid
en sterkte.
Binnensteven Opgaand verbanddeel dat aan de binnen-ijde legen de steven*

vgl.: apron ligt. Soms opgaande voortzetting van het slenzpho~t'~.
Blind Gezegd van pennen, nagels erz gaten die niet door en door
zie: blind gaan.
Blok Hulpmiddel voor het geleiden van tortwwerk en /let scheren van
zie: block takels. Veelal is eerz blok van CCn of nleer schijve~z[katr~ollen]
voorzien.
Boegsent Dee1 dat tijdelijk op de draaispanten* in voor.- en achte~.schip

zie: harpin wordt aangebracht om deze tijderls de b o i r ~te~ondersteune~z.
Het is een logische voortzettirzg van de overige senten*. Anders
dan deze is dit eclzter geen strooklat* maar eel1 in 1lor.m
gebracht deel.
WOORDENLIJST
Boegspriet Rondhout dat over. de voorsteven* naar voren steekt en dat
zip: howspr.it dienst doer als aangr-ijpingspunt voor voorstagen en
voorzeilen; soms nog verlengd nzet een kluifiout* of boom.
Boeisel Verhoging van het boord door een of meer gangen*.

zie: bulwark
Boord Opgaande scheepswand.

ship's side
Bos Houten spuikoker*.

zie: scupper. pipe
Braadspil zie: spil

vgl.: ujindlass
Brik Schip met vierkant tuig, gevoerd op w e e masten waarvan de

zie: brig achter.ste de grote mast is.
Breeuwen Het afdiclzterz van naden en scheuren door het indrijven van
zie: caulkin,p vezelig materiaal. Bij een karveel* gehouwd schip worden
bijvoorheeld strengen werk* in de naden gedreven met een
breeuwijzer [rabat- of kalefaatijzer] en een breeuwhamer.
Bzlikstuk Inhout* dat deel uitmaakt van een samengesteld spanr*.

vgl.: furtock,first fi~frock Meestal krom inhout dat de verbinding tussen vlak en zijde
verzorgt en als zodanig de legger* of wrung* verlengt, om op
zijn heurt door een oplarzger verlengd te worden. Soms
onderscheidt men een recht onderbuikstuk dat tot op de kieI
reikt en een krom bovenbuikstuk dat het naar boven toe
verlengt.
Dekbalk Dwarsscheepse verbindingsbalk tussen de boorden* waarop

zie: deckbeam een dek rust. Dekbalken die niet de gehele breedte overspannen
- bijvoorbeeld ter hoogte van een luik of bij een constructie
met klamaaien* - worden halve halken genoemd.
Dekstut Stijl of paal ter ondersteuning van een dekhalk. De stijl is

zie: stanchion, deck pillar n~eestalzowel in de dekbalk als in het constructiedeel waarop
hij rust ingelaten. Indien het om een rnidscheepse dekstut onder
her eerste of erzige dek gaat is dat meestal het zaathout*.
Deutel Vierkanten hardhouren wig die in het eind van een treknagel*
zie: dottle of pen is geslagen om deze te beklemmen.
Dissel Stuk handgereedschap voor de houtbewerking: Iijkt op een hijl,

zie: adze maar het snijvlak staat haaks op de steel.
Draads hout Horit dat volgens natuurlijke vezelstructuur is bewerkt. Loopt

vgl.: cross grair~ het werkstuk uit de draad, dun is her veel minder sterk.
Draaispant Spant* in voor- of achterschip dat niet haaks staat op de

zie: cant frame lengreas van /let schip maar iets naar voren respectievelijk
achteren gedraaid om de lijn van de huid* beter te volger~.
Druil [broodrvinner] Klein dr-iehoekig zeil dar op kleine schepen gevoerd wordt op
zie: jigger-mizzen een mast die tegen de achtersteven is geplaatst.
WOORDENLIJST
Dubbeling Bekleding die op de huid* is aangebracht onz deze te
zie: sheathing beschermen, met name tegen aangroei eri aantasting door
organismen als paalworm [Teredo Navalis]. De dubbeling karz
van hout zijn, maar ook van metaalplaat.
Duig Elk derplankjes waaruit een vat of klrip is opgebouwd.

zie: stave
Duim Lengtemaat; in dit rapport komt de Engelse duim [25,4 mm]

vgl.: inch regelmatig voor.
Fokkemast Voorste mast bij schepen met drie of meer masten en bij
vgl.: foremast schepen met twee masten waarvari de achterste de glnte mast is
[briktuig*, schoenertuig*].
Gang Strook in de beplanking van een schip, bestaarlde uit een of

zie: strake meer, in elkaars verlengde liggende, delen.
Gegroeid hout Hout waarvan groeikenmerken als een kronime drand of

zie: grown timber vertakkingen zijn benut; behalve op kronzmers kan de term dus
ook van toepassing zijn op constructiedelen nzet eerz scherpe
hoek zoals wrangen en knieen.
Half houtje Stukje hout dat bij benadering tot de halve dikte in een plank of
zie: dutchman deel is ingelateti om een zwakke plek bij te wer-ken; buitenwerks
loopt het halve houtje vlak met het gerepareer-de deel.
Hals Voorste onderhoek van een langsscheeps zeil.

zie: tack
Handspaak Houten of ijzeren spaak die aan het ene eind rond is erz aari het
zie: hand-spike andere vierkant; dient om een windas te draaierz en als
hefboorn om zware Iasten te tillen en re verplaatsen.
Helrnstok [helmhout] Houten of rnetalen stok waarmee het roer bediend wordt.
zie: tiller
Hennegat Opening in het achterschip waardor de helnzstok* binnenboord

zie: helm port steekt.
Hieling Onderste gedeelte van een mast, steng* of boegspriet*. Veelal

vgl.: heel vierkant bekapt. Ook her onderste gedeelte van een steven*
wordt hieling genoemd.
Hoofdtouw Touw dat voor zijwaartse steun tussen het hoveneincl van een
zie: shroud mast en een punt aan het scheepsboord gespannen is.
Huid Buitenbeplanking van de romp.

vgl.: planking
Inhout Algemene benaming voor de st~tkkenhoitt die het geraarnte varz

vgl.: timbers her schip vormen en die zorgen voor het dwarsverband.
Insteker Taps toelopende huidplank die met name in het voor- en

zie: stealer achterschip wordt ingezet warineer de doorloper~degangen een
spievormige opening zoctderz laten. Wanneer een gang taps
tegen het berghout wegloopt spreekt nzen van een verloren
gang.
WOORDENLIJST
Jz~ffer Blok* zonder schijven; in plaats daarvan zijn drie gateri
zie: dead eye aangebracht. Het aantal verklaart de benarning.
Karveel B o u ~ ~ w i j zwaarbij
e elke volgende huidgang glad tegen de
zie: car'vel onderliggerzde aansluit. De huidgangen zijn zijdelings niet met
elkaar verborzderi.
Kattespoor Dwarssckeeps verbanddeel dat 01s extra versteviging boven de

zie: rider inhouten* over- zaathoutX en wegering* is aangebracht.
Keernagel [scheinagel] Nagel die als waterkering is aangebracht in een naad die
zie: stopwater. walerdicht moet zijn, maar die niet of nauwelijks effectief
gebreeuwd kan worden, bijvoor.beeld een /as waarvan het ene
uiteinde zich binnen- en het andere uiteinde zich buitenboord
bevindt. De nagel kan een houten pen zijn, maar ook slechts
aan de uiteinden met een korte houten pen zijrz afgepropt. Over
de rest van de lengte is het gat dan volgestopt met een under
materiaal, bij~~oorbeeld mos en vet. In het laatste geval wordt
ook we1 van nzosna~elgesproken.
Kiel Centraal langsscheeps verbanddeel. Deelt het vlak* in tweeen.

zie: keel
Kim Overgang tusen vlak* en zijde.

vgl: [turn of the] bilge
Kimgartg Z~laarderuitgevoerde gang* in de huid*, ter hoogte van de

vgl.: bilge planks kim *.
Kim weger Weger* ter hoogte van de kim*.

vgl.: bilge planks
Klamaai Langsscheeps verbanddeel in de dekconstructie.

zie: ca/.ling
Klamp I .Algemerie benarning voor klein stuk hout dat dient voor
zie: I . chock, clamp 2 . cleat tijdelijke steun of extra verster-king.
2. Een opgezet stuk hout waarop touwen belegd kunnen worden.
Kleden Het srrak om~linderzvan touwwerk met een dunne lijn. Het
zie: ser.vir~g kleden kan worden voor.afgegaan door trerzzen* en smarten*
Klirtken Wijze van zekeren van een metalen nagel of bout waarbij het
vgl.: c1er1c.h eirlde met een klinkhamer wordt uitgeslagen tot een kop, a1 dun
riiet over een klinkring*.
Klinkrirzg Metalen ring die om her uiteinde van een bout of nagel gelegd
zie: rove ~lordtvoordat daar een kop aari geklonken wordt; soms iets
conisclz gevormd om de trekkracht van de klinknagelverbinding
te vergroten.
Kl~~ifltout Op de boegsprietX aangebracht vei.lengstuk.

zie: jib-boonz
Klziisgat Gat in de boeg waardoor een ankerkabel of ankerkettirzg buiten

zie: hawse pipe boord geleid wordt.
WOORDENLIJST
Kluiverboom Los rondhout*, dat lungs de voorsteven* gevoerd ~ ~ o len
dt
vgl.: jib-boom, bow-sprit waarmee het aaizgrijpingspunt van de voor.zeilen verder naar
voren wordt gebracht.
Knie I . Houten of ijzeren verbanddeel met een sckerpe hoek. 2 . Stuk

zie: I . knee 2. crook stamhout met vertakking dat geschikt is om eel1 knie o f een
wrang* van te maken. Het stan~gedeelten~ordtlijf genoetnd, het
takgedeelte tak.
Kous [touwkous] Houten of metalen oog dat ingespitst n~ordtin torru~n~erk

zie: thimble teneinde een sterk en slijtvast aangrijl)iti,psprrntte creeren.
Kraallijst Decoratief randje langs de zijkant v a ~ een

i plank of balk.
zie: moulding
Krommer Van nature krom gegroeid /?outclat geht.~riktis voor een krom
zie: compass timber constructiedeel; veel sterker dun een identiek ,qevormd deel dat
uit recht gegroeid hout gerzomen is.
Kruisklamp BIok hout dat ter aanvulling van de spanten worclt gebruikt. Is
zie: chock het netjes met borsten gelast dun kan men ook van slerrtelstuk
spreken.
Las Houtverbinding tussen twee delen die nagenoeg in hetzelfcle

zie: scarf joint vlak liggen.
Legger Recht inhout, dwarsscheeps over de kiel* geplaatst. Is een

vgl.: floor dergelijk inhout* niet recht omdat het vlak* daarvoor ter
plaatse te veel tilling* keeft, dati sprekeri wij van n~rang*.
Lijfhout Buitenste dekplank, meestal iets d i k k e ~uitgevoerd.

zie: margin plank
Loggat Uitsparing in de inhoutenY op het vlak* voor het door~lnte~i

van
zie: limber hole water.
Lopend want Het totaal van touwen en blokken dat gehrrrikt ~ ~ o rom
dt
zie: running rigging rondhouten* en zeilen te hijsen en te strijken.
Loze kiel Opgezet deel aan de onderzijcle van de kiel* dat hij slijtage
zie: shoe eenvoudig vervangen kan worden.
Luchten Ruimten tussen de spanten.

vgl.: [room and] space,
spurket
Luik Opening in her dek waardoor men toegang heeft tot de

zie: hatch daaronder gelegen ruimte.
Luikhoofd Opstaande rand om een luikgat.

zie: coaming
Mastspoor Steunpunt voor het ondereind van een mast, veelal znJaal.blok
vgl.: step met eetz rechthoekig gat ojivel rechthoekig gat in het zaathout*.
Oplanger Staand inhout* dat dient tot verlenging van andere inhouten in
vgl.: futtock een sarnengesteld spant.
WOORDENLIJST
Overnaads Bouwwijze waarbij elke volgende huidgang de onderliggende
vgl.: clinker overlapt.
Opgang Ladder of trap tussen een dek en de daaronder gelegen ruimte;

zie: companio~iway ruimer ook een luik dat voor personen bedoeld is en niet voor
lading.
Pal Pen of klamp om een spil* of rad te blokkeren wanneer het

zie: pawl onder spanning staat. De pal wordt daartoe acizter- CCn van de
paltanden op het spil gezet.
Pen Zie treknagel.

zie: treenail
Pen- en gatverbinding Ho~~tverbinding waarbij een nok aan het ene deel is ingelaten
zie: mortise and tenon joint in een uitsparing in het andere deel.
Putting Stuk scheepsbeslag dat dient on1 het spanmechanisme van een
zie: chain plate hoofdtouw* met het scheepsboord te verbinden.
Rantsoenhout Het achterste spant* van een schip dat met een platte
zie: fashion piece achterkant [spiegel] is gebouwd. Het sluit aan op de
achtersteven* en de hekbalk [zie worp].
Rondlzout Algenzene benaming voor de ronde stukken hout die in de

zie: spar tidigage worden verwerkt zoals bijvoorbeeld masten, stengen,
ra's, gieken, gaffels en bomen.
Ruim Het onderste gedeelte van de inwendige ruimte van een schip.
zie: hold Het ruim begint onder het [onderste] dek. Het onderruim of
onderste gedeelte daarvan wordt in het Engels aangeduid met
bilge.
Ruimbalk Dwarsscheepse ve~.bindingsbalktussen de boorden* die door

zie: hold bean1 het ruinz loopt en waarop geen dek rust.
Schaapskop ECnschij~sblokdat wordt gebruikt als onderblok van een take1

zie: ram's head block waalmee een voorzeil wordt gehesen en dat tevens dienst doet
onz de bovenste punt van het zeil [de kop] voldoende sprei te
geven. Het is daartoe voorzien van twee haken die het blok*
wanneer men het o~ndraaithet aanzien van de kop van een ram
geven.
Schaarstok Zwaar uitgevoede dekgang, in de dekbalken* ingelaten, m.n.

vgl.: side-binding strake lungs luikizoofden*.
Scheergang Bovenste gang* van de h ~ ~ i dveelal

* iets dikker uitgevoer-d.
zie: sheer strake
Scheg I . De driehoek die bestaat uit kiel*, achtersteven* en

zie: I . skeg slemphout*. 2. De driehoek die voor de voorsteven* het galjoen
en de boegspriet ondersteunt.
Schoener Langsscheeps getuigd schip met twee masten waarvan de

zie: schoener achterste de grote mast is.
Schoor Paal of balk die tijdens de bouw als stut onder een of ander
zie: shore constructie-element wordt geplaatst.
Schrank [bok, bokkepoot] Eenvoudig hijswerktuig bestaande uit twee of drie palen met
zie: sheers daartussen een takel.
Sent Strooklat* die aan de buitenzijde op de inhouten* wordt

zie: ribband aangebracht en die tevens dienst doet om deze tijdens de bouw
op hun plaats te houden.
Slemphout Langsscheeps verbanddeel in het voor- of acliterschip dat kiel*

zie: deadwood en steven* naar binnerz toe aanvult tot een massief geheel.
Smarten Het omwinden van touwwerk met stvoken zeildoek. Na het

zie: parcelling smarten wordt het touw gekleed*.
Snauw Brik* waarbij achter de grote mast op eel7 hr~lpmasteen

zie: snow langsgetuigd snauwzeil wordt gevoerd.
Spant I . Dwarsscheeps verbanddeel, it e'en of nteer inlio~lterr

zie: I . frame 2. section opgebouwd; 2. Dwarsscheepse doorsnede.
Spant van oprichting Spant [ I ] dat in het begin van de bouw wordt opgericht, te
zie: framed timbers onderscheiden van een spant van aanvulling.
Spantafstand Afstand tussen vergelijkbare vlakken in opeenvolgende spanten.

zie: room and space
Spil Horizontale windas voor het hieuwen van a17ker.sof het

zie: windlass bedienen van I-ondhouten* als ra's. Her spil wordt bedielid met
handspaken* die in vierkante uitsparingen wo~.deiigestoken.
Een ankerspil in de boeg wordt veelal braadspil genoe~nd.
Spilklamp Vervangbare rib op de trommel van een spil of kaapstander:

zie: whelp
Spijker Vierkant gesmede nagel.

zie: spike
Spijkerpen Houten pennetje waarmee een spijkergat is afqedicht, in het

zie: plug bijzonder spijkergaten die zijn ontstaan door tijdelijke
bevestigingen tijdens de bouw.
Spuikoker Koker die van een dek door het hoord voert om water te lozen.
zie: scupper pipe
Staand want Gedeelte van de tuigage* dat dient om de masten re

zie: standing rigging ondersteunen. In het bijzonder nlordt de zijrlelir~~se
ondersteuning waarvan de hoofdtouwen* I~etbelang~.ijkste
onderdeel zijn ook we1 als want aangeduid.
Stag Draad of touw dat een nlast naar voren of achteren steunt.
zie: stay
Steng Rondhout dar dient om een mast re verlengen.

zie: top mast
Steven Opgaande voortzetting van de kiel* ofwel opgaande balk,

vgl.: stem waarop de boorden* te zamen komen.
Strooklat Buigzame lat die tijdens de bouw wordt gebruikt om strokende

vgl.: ribband lijnen en een vloeiende rompvorm te bereiken.
WOORDENLIJST
Stuik Aansluiting tussen [wee recht of sckuin afgezaagde delerz van
zie: butt [joint] een gang* of dergelijke waarbij de delen elkaar niet
overlappen; soms versterkt met een opgezet stuk.
Stut I . Zie dekstut*. 2 . Bovenste oplanger* in een samengesteld

zie: I . stanclziotz 2. top timber spant*.
Teen 01zder.stegedeelte van een opgaand inhout*

vgl.: heel
Tilling Mate waarin het vlak* zijwaarts omhoogkomt.

zie: deadrise
Driehoekige lat die in de lengterichting tussen de leggers* en

de zat~dstrook*aangebracht is om deze Iaatste wanneer deze
varzuit de sponning* in de kiel* enige tilling* heeft meer steun
te geven. Wanneer tlrssen kiel en tingel enige ruimte is
gehouden zijn tevens loggaten* verkregen zonder verzwakking
van de leggers.
Tonnemaat De inhoudsmaat waarmee het laadvermogen van

zie: tonnage koopvaardijschepen wordt aangeduid. Van oudsher zijn er twee
systemen, een inhoudsmaat en eel7 gewichtsmaat. Engeland
hoorde bij de landen waar een it7houdsmaat werd gehanteerd,
terw~ijlin de Nederlanden de gen~ichtsmaatwerd aangehouden.
Bij oor.logsschepen wordt get-ekend met tonnen
waterve~~laatsing, het eigen gewicht dus.
In Engeland kwam de inhoudsmaat oorspronkelijk overeen met
het aantal wijnvaten [tuns] dat kon worden gestuwd. De
formules waarmee de tonnemaat werd berekend hielden in dat
de klellengte, de wijdte en de holte met elkaar werden
vernzenigvuldigd, waarna her produkt werd gedeeld door een
getal dat rvnd de 100 lag. De regel die gold tussen 1773 en
1836 was op dat principe gebaseerd, waarbij voor het meten
van zonlel de wijdte als de lengte bijzondere regels golden en de
deler 94 was. Het was een onnauwkeurige methode, waarbij
geen rekening werd gehouden met de rompvorm. In 1836
werden de voorschriften aanzienlijk gecompliceerder: Vanaf dat
moment moesten veel meer maten genomen worden. In de Luge
Landen volgde men van oudsher het Noordeuropese systeern
waarin de draagkracht in lasten werd gebruikt, een
gewichtsmaat van graan, bij benadering 4.000 ponden. Vanaf
de I7e eeuw werd her aantal lasten eveneens berekend door
lengte, wijdte en 11oltemet elkaar te vermenigvuldigen en te
dele11door een factor die van scheepstype tot scheepstype
verschilde.
De factor werd proefondervindelijk vastgesteld door 66n schip
van een bepaald type af te laden met kanonskogels van bekend
ge~liclzten vervolgens op alle schepen van dat type toegepast.
111 1819 girzg men over tot de tonnemaat, waarvoor een
conzplese meetmethode werd voorgeschr-even [Tideman 1861,
359-3631, In her intel.natlonale verkeer- werden tonnen en
lastetz aan de hand van vuistr-egels geconverteerd. Bij
betladering geldt: e'en last is twee ton.
Travelaar [loopring] Ring die ruim om een boegspr-iet*, kluifhout*, of kluiverboom*

zie: tra\leller ~ ~ ael7
s tmet behulp waarvan het aangrijpingspunt [de hals] van
een voorzeil naar voren, resp. naar achferen kan worden
gebracht.
WOORDENLIJST
Treknagel [pen] Houten pen door middel waarvan constr.uctiedele~zniet elkaar
zie: treenail worden verbonden.
Trenzen Het leggen van eeii dur~neIijrz tusseri de streizgen van geslagen
zie: worming touwwerk om dit een gladder boitenoppervlak re geven \~oor.dat
ket wordt gesmart* en gekleed*.
Tuigage Het totaal van rondhouten*, zeileti, loperid* en staatidX want.

zie: rigging
Verscherven De delen van de hlrid- of dekbeplanking ~~orclen zo georzlend

zie: shift dat de stcriken* in aatisluiterzde gangen;':niet te zelfr(e1.hoogte
vallen.
Vioolblok Tweescl?ijfsblok waarvan de schijven niet dezelfde rliameter

zie:fiddle block hebben en in hetzelfde vlak op twee evenwijdige assen zijn
gemonteerd. Het blok" heeft Izet aanzien van een viool.
Vlak Dee1 van de huidX dat de bodem van het schip o or nit.
vgl.: bilge
Volschip Vierkant getuigd schip met drie of meet. master^.

vgl.: ship rig
Voorsteven Zie steven

zie: stem
Vullinggang Eerste gang* van de wegering* naast het zaathout*.

zie: limber str-ake
Vullingplank Losliggende afdekplank van de wate~.loop*.

zie: limber board
Want Zie lopend en in het bijzoncler staand want

vgl.: rigging
Waterloop Dicht lungs de kiel" zijn de ruiniteri tussen de inhouten" cloor-

zie: linzber loggaten* vel.bonden tot de waterloop waarin zic.11het lekujater
verzamelt.
Waterloopsklos La~zgsscheepsverbanddeel dat ener-zijds als bovenafsliriting

zie: waterway van het boord en anderzijds als buitenste deel van het delc
fungeert. Her lijfhout* sl~niterop aan. De naam is ontleericl aan
de goot die er mirz of meer in is uitgespaatzl.
Weger Langsscheeps verbanddeel, aan cle binnenzijde over de

vgl. :stringer inhouten* bevestigd.
Wegering Beplanking van de binnenzijde v a ~cle

i i~ilio~~teti:~.
zie: ceiling
Werk [breeuwwerk] Tot strengen ineengedraaid breeuw*-mater.iaa1, veelal

zie: oakum uitgeplozen touw.
Wrang Krom of V-vorniig ilzhout*, dwiarsscheeps over kiel* of steveiiX

vgl.: floor, crutch geplaatst.
WOORDENLIJST
Worp [spiegelwrang] Dwarsscheepse horizontale balk die over de achtersteven
zie: tr.arisom geplaatst is en het spantwerk van de spiegel vormt. De bovenste
worp wordt hekbalk genoemd.
Worpknie [slaper] Knie die de verbinding tussen het boord en de worpen versterkt.
zie: sleeper
Zandstrook Eerste gang* aan weerszijden van de kiel*, vaak zwaarder

zie: garboard [strake] uitgevoerd.
Zaathout Zwaar langsscheeps verbanddeel, boven de kiel* over de

zie: keelsorl inhouten* bevestigd.
Zitter Kr-om inhout* dat de verbinding tussen vlak* en boord verzorgt.

vgl.: futtock, first futtock Het liggende eind reikt niet tot over de kiel*.
Zwieping Plank die tijdens de bouw dwarsscheeps wordt aangebracht

zie: cross-pall tussen de boveneinden van spanten*. Schuin gestelde
steunlatten in hetzelfde vlak heten schranklatten. Pas als de
dekbalken* zijn aangebracht worden de zwiepingen verwijderd.
WOORDENLIJST
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a clear thing that an archaeological work. Later on he amongst other things

endeavour like the one that was undertaken as carried out the wood species analysis. Of
part of the Slufter project is fully dependent incredible importance of course was the broad
on the cooperation of many. In the preparatory support encountered during the field work
phase the working party and the last author phase of the research. First to be mentioned is
were greatly assisted by the ad hoc the on-site assistance given by the direction
consultative body for the archaeological represented in particular by Arie de Bode and
survey of the Slufter area, in which a great Rien van Zetten, and the contractor, mr. Frank
many disciplines were enthusiastically Broekhoven and their very, very extensive
represented by: crews, of which the crews of the surveying
Prof. Dr. G.J. Borger vessels and the smallcraft that served as
[University of Amsterdam] Historical diving platform merit special mention as no
Geography significant on-site work could have been
Kap1.t.z. b.d. H. Dekker carried out without them. The same does
Offshore and underwater engineering apply for the volunteer archaeological divers
Ir. F.A. Dongen Jef van den Akker, Aad van Es, Boudewijn
[Public Works Department, North Sea Goudswaard, Arent Vos, Jos van Wolde and
Directorate] Offshore surveying the Ecuador team from Terschelling. Many
P. van Empelen others assisted in transport and facilities for
[Prins Hendrik Maritime Museum] temporary storage. Mourik Services B.V. from
Public Relations, History, Seafaring Groot-Ammers put a container at our disposal
and Rotterdam and whenever necessary we got assistance
D.P. Hallewas from the local Rijkswaterstaat group under
[State Service for Archaeological mr. A. Jans.
Investigation] Archaeology, In the post-excavational research, analysis
archaeological heritage management and assessment it proved possible to rely on
C . Hoek the particular knowledge and skills of many
[Bureau for Archaeological others far and near. Some carried out
Investigations in the Rotterdam area] technical analyses or discernable parts of
Archaeology, Historical Geography research or artefact treatment and their results
C. Laban have been entered into the text. Others have
[Geological Survey of the been as vital by giving general back up,
Netherlands] Marine Geology essential information or a cross-checking of
K.A.H.W. Leenders ideas. With the risk forgetting some we would
[Province of South-Holland] like to credit the following persons in no
Historical-Geography, Urban and particular order. Dr. W.A. Casparie and
rural planning Dr. P. Baas who assisted P. Stassen in wood
Prof. H.H. Regreren Altena analysis. Mr. D. Duco who commented on
[University of Amsterdam] Medieval clay pipes. Mr. Bas Kist of the Rijksmuseum
and Post-medieval archaeology and Charles Hull, curator of the worshipful
L.B.M. Verhart Company of Pewterers in London for their
[University of Leiden] Prehisory, help with respect to porcelain and pewter. Rob
Mesolithic research Oosting of the Ketelhaven Institute for
Dr.M.D. de Weerd comments on ship construction. Cathy
[University of Amsterdam] Giangrande, Royal Amouries, Tower of
Archaeology London for the analysis of Copper Alloys.
John Evans, North East London Polytechnic
As soon as it came to implementation it was for the analysis of Caulking and Luting. The
Peter Stassen of W.V.C. who shifted a lot of Yorkshire Regional Laboratory of British
Coal, Rotheram, in particular
Dr. A.V.H. Smith and Pamela Spriggs. Pat
Leggat, Jennifer Hillam and Ian Oxley. David
McGregor, MA, FSA, FRHists who
commented on many aspects of the ship from
SL 4. The Director and staff of the National
Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the
Prins Hendrik Maritime Museum, in
particular the librarians who were of great
help. Jerzy Gawronski and the archaeological
team of the Stichting V.O.C. Schip
Amsterdam for the loan of a computer and
printer and Marjan Paardekoper and Chris
Vastenhoud for help in conservation, software
and computing. Furthermore much useful
comment and advice was received from David
Lyon, Brian Lavery, Colin Martin and Robert
Prescott, Carl Olof Cederlund, Peter Barrie
and Axel Lindberg. Gert van de Hof made
some of the drawings, Kester Keighley helped
in many ways and last but not least we would
like to credit the assistance of Jan Pauptit,
photographer of the Leiden University
Institute for Prehistory [IPL] who called forth
his highly professional skills in all phases of
research and report production.
COLOPHON
DESIGN
Tel Design, The Hague
Stephan van Rijt
Paul Vermijs
DESKTOP PUBLISHING
Tel Design, The Hague
Niels Poppe
with
Peter Dees
Martijn Hazelzet
PRINTING AND BINDING

GDR, Rotterdam

Dredgers and Archaeology - Shipfinds From The Slufter

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Dredgers and Archaeology - Shipfinds From The Slufter

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DREDGERS AND ARCHAEOLOGY:

Shipfinds from the Slufter

rERlE VAN WE1 N, \1

Archeologie onder water,

Alphen aan den Rijn

Grootschalige locatie voor de berging van

Projectorganisatie Grootschalige locatie

Afdeling Archeologie Onder water

This second version can be ordered by giro transfer of

1. Preliminary archaeological survey of t h e Slufter p r o j e c t

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Appendix I Introduction to dendrochronological analysis 157

Aan de westzijde van de Maasvlakte is in zee te voren bekend is om welke culturele

Organisation and responsibilities

The working party was composed as follows:

ir. R.G.J. van Orden

drs. Th.J. Maarleveld

drs. L.M. Akveld

drs. M.C. van Trierum

1. Preliminary archaeological survey of the Slufter project

1.1 OBJECTIVES [e.g. Zagwijn and Van Staalduinen 1975;

1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND A LINE O F

The Planning of construction

[Fig. 121 The most important sites

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

1.2.1 The ship

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Outer hull planking

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Waterway, beam shelf, deck beams and

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Miscellaneous or unidentified timbers

1.2.2 Ship's fittings

8; het spil achtkantig, maar de facetten zijn Hook

1.2.3 Associated finds

Equipment and fittings

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

e haaks op de richting van de schijf SL1 A5011. Stave of a wooden bucket.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 45

1.3.1 Dendrochronological analysis

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Origin of the timbers

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 51

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

rice Opera That they were close in general characteristics

had been the kof. In support of this, in a survey of ship XXXXX X

masters living in the Veenkolonieen [a former XXXXX XXXX

province of Groningen] a ship named the XXXXX

Sturdy cl: stepped onto this structure just forward of the

beyond t archaeological remains to a specific type.

t was cho points out is a necessary preliminary step

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER