CH 5

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 26

5.

Gradient, Divergence, Curl, and Laplacian


5.1. Introduction
In electromagnetics we need indicators for how a field, whether a scalar or a vector, changes within a segment of space or
integrates over that segment. In this chapter we present three operators for such purposes: gradient, divergence, and curl. The
gradient provides a measure of how a scalar field changes. For vector fields we use the divergence and the curl. For
convenience, we may start with the Cartesian coordinate system. (However, note that the above operators are definable and
usable in all three coordinate systems.)

5.2. Gradient
The gradient is a vector defined for each point in a scalar field (e.g., potential in an electric field or the height of points in a
terrain). It is shown by the symbol ∇ applied to the scalar field (e.g., ∇V is the gradient of V ). The gradient will be defined such
that the change in the scalar function, dV, when traversed over a path dr is the dot product of ∇V and dr.

dV = ∇V ⋅ dr

In the Cartesian coordinate system, this leads to the following expression for the gradient ∇V.

∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

To verify this, refer to Fig. 5-1(a). It shows two neighboring points, M and N, of the region in which a scalar function V is defined.

Figure 5-1

The vector separation of the two points is

dr = dxax + dyay + dzaz

Construction of the dot product of ∇V and dr results in

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V ⋅ dr = ( ax + ay + az) ⋅ (dxax + dyay + dzaz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 i=j
ai ⋅ aj = {
0 i ≠j
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V ⋅ dr = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

But, from the calculus, the change in V from M to N is

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

and it follows that

dV = ∇V ⋅ dr

The vector field ∇V (also written grad V) is called the gradient of the scalar function V. It is seen that, for fixed |dr|, the change in
V in a given direction dr is proportional to the projection of ∇V in that direction. Thus, ∇V lies in the direction of maximum
increase of the function V.

Another view of the gradient is obtained by allowing the points M and N to lie on the same equipotential (if V is a potential)
surface, V(x, y, z) = c1 [see Fig. 5-1(b)]. Then dV = 0, which implies that ∇V is perpendicular to dr. But dr is tangent to the
equipotential surface; indeed, for a suitable location of N, it represents any tangent through M. Therefore, ∇V must be along the
surface normal at M. Since ∇V is in the direction of increasing V, it points from V(x, y, z) = c1 to V(x, y, z) = c2 , where c2 > c1 . The
gradient of a potential function is a vector field that is everywhere normal to the equipotential surfaces.

The gradient in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems follows directly from that in the Cartesian system. It is noted
that each term contains the partial derivative of V with respect to distance in the direction of that particular unit vector.

∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax + ay + az (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ar + aϕ + az (cylindrical)
∂r r∂ϕ ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ar + aθ + aϕ (spherical)
∂r r∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

While ∇V is written for grad V in any coordinate system, it must be remembered that the del operator is defined only in
Cartesian coordinates.

5.3. The Del Operator


Vector analysis has its own shorthand notation which the reader must note with care. The ∇ vector operatorin Cartesian
coordinates is defined by

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
∂( ) ∂( ) ∂( )
∇≡ ax+ ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

In the calculus, the differential operator D is sometimes used to represent d/dx. The symbols
√ and ∫ are also operators; standing alone, they give no indication of what they are to operate on. They look strange. And so
∇, standing alone, simply suggests the taking of certain partial derivatives, each followed by application of a unit vector in each
of the three coordinates system directions. The del operator is defined only in Cartesian coordinates.

5.4. The Del Operator and Gradient


When ∇ operates on the scalar function V, the result is the gradient vector

∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

Warning: ∇ is defined only in Cartesian coordinates. While ∇V is written for grad V in any coordinate system, it does not lead
to the notion that a del operator can be defined for all these systems. For example, the gradient in cylindrical coordinates is
written as

∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
∇V = ar + aϕ + az
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

This does not imply that

∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= ar + aϕ + az
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

in cylindrical coordinates. In fact, such a ∇ operator expression would give false results when determining ∇· A (the divergence,
Section 5.5) or ∇ × A (the curl, Section 5.10) in the same cylindrical coordinate system.

5.5. Divergence
There are two main indicators of the manner in which a vector field changes from point to point throughout space. The first of
these is divergence, which will be examined here. It is scalar and bears a similarity to the derivative of a function. The second is
curl, a vector which will be examined when magnetic fields are discussed inChapter 10.

When the divergence of a vector field is nonzero, that region is said to containsources or sinks—sources when the divergence is
positive and sinks when negative. In static electric fields there is a correspondence between positive divergence, sources, and
positive electric charge Q. Electric flux Y by definition originates on positive charges. Thus, a region which contains positive
charges contains the sources of Y. The divergence of the electric flux density D will be positive in this region. A similar
correspondence exists between negative divergence, sinks, and negative electric charge.

Divergence of the vector field A at the point P is defined by

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
lim ∮ A ⋅ dS
div A ≡ Δv →0
Δv

Here the integration is over the surface of an infinitesimal volume Δv that shrinks to point P.

5.6. Expressions for Divergence in Coordinate Systems


The divergence can be expressed for any vector field in any coordinate system. For the development in Cartesian coordinates, a
cube is selected with edges Δx, Δy, and Δz parallel to the x, y, and z axes, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5-2. Then the vector field
A is defined at P, the corner of the cube with the lowest values of the coordinatesx, y, and z.

A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz

Figure 5-2

In order to express
∮ A ⋅ dS for the cube, all six faces must be covered. On each face, the direction ofdS is outward. Since the faces are normal to
the three axes, only one component of A will cross any two parallel faces.

In Fig. 5-3 the cube is turned such that face 1 is in full view; the x components of A over the faces to the left and right of 1 are
indicated. Since the faces are small,

∫ left face A ⋅ dS ≈ − Ax(x) Δy Δz


∫ right face A ⋅ dS ≈ Ax(x + Δx) Δy Δz
∂Ax
≈ [Ax(x) + Δx] Δy Δz
∂x

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Figure 5-3

so that the total for these two faces is

∂Ax
Δx Δy Δz
∂x

The same procedure is applied to the remaining two pairs of faces and the results combined.

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az


∮ A ⋅ dS ≈ ( + + ) Δx Δy Δz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Dividing by Δx Δy Δz = Δv and letting Δv → 0, one obtains

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az


div A = + + (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z

The same approach may be used in cylindrical (Problem 5.1) and spherical coordinates.

1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
div A = (rAr)+ + (cylindrical)
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
div A = (r Ar) + (Aθ sin θ) + (spherical)
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Example

EXAMPLE 1.

Given the vector field


πx
A = 5x2 (sin ) ax, find div A at x = 1.
2

∂ πx πx π πx 5 πx πx
div A = (5x2 sin ) = 5x2 (cos ) + 10x sin = πx2 cos + 10x sin
∂x 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

and div A|x=1 = 10.

Example

EXAMPLE 2.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
In cylindrical coordinates a vector field is given by A = r sin ϕar + r2 cos ϕaϕ + 2re−5zaz. Find div A at (½, π/2, 0).

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
div A = (r sin ϕ) + (r cos ϕ) + (2re−5z) = 2 sin ϕ − r sin ϕ − 10re− 5z
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

and

π 1 1 7
− sin − 10 ( ) e0 = −
π
div A| (1/2, π/2,0) = 2 sin
2 2 2 2 2

Example

EXAMPLE 3.

In spherical coordinates a vector field is given by A = (5/r2 ) sin θ ar + r cot θ aθ + r sin θ cos ϕ aϕ . Find div A.

1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
div A = (5 sin θ) + (r sin θ cot θ) + (r sin θ cos ϕ) = − 1 − sin ϕ
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

5.7. The Del Operator and Divergence


The del operator was defined in Cartesian coordinates by

∂( ) ∂( ) ∂( )
∇= ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

When ∇ is dotted with a vector A, the result is the divergence of A.

∂ ∂ ∂
∇⋅A = ( ax + ay + az) ⋅ (Axax + Ayay + Azaz) = divA
∂x ∂y ∂z

Hereafter, the divergence of a vector field will be written ∇· A.

Warning: The del operator is defined only in Cartesian coordinates. When ∇A is written for the divergence of A in other
coordinates systems, it does not mean that a del operator can be defined for these systems. For example, the divergence in
cylindrical coordinates will be written as

1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
∇⋅A = (rAr) + +
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

This does not imply that

1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= (r)ar+ aϕ + az
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

in cylindrical coordinates. In fact, the expression would give false results when used in determining ∇V (the gradient, Section
5.2) or ∇ × A (the curl, Section 5.10).

5.8. Divergence of D
From Gauss's law (Section 4.3),

∮ D ⋅ dS
Qenc
=
Δv Δv

In the limit,

∮ D ⋅ dS
lim lim Qenc
Δv →0 = div D = Δv →0 =ρ
Δv Δv

This important result is one of Maxwell's equations for static fields:

ρ
div D = ρ and div E =
ϵ

if
ϵ is constant throughout the region under examination (if not, div
ϵE = ρ). Thus, both E and D fields will have a divergence of zero in any isotropic charge-free region.

Example

EXAMPLE 4.

In spherical coordinates the region r ≤ a contains a uniform charge density ρ, while for r > a the charge density is zero. From
Problem 3.54, E = Erar, where Er = (ρr/3
ϵ0) for r ≤ a and Er = (ρa3/3
ϵ0r2) for r > a. Then, for r ≤ a,

1 ∂ 1
(r2 )= (3r2 )=
ρr ρ ρ
div E =
r2 ∂r 3ϵ0 r2 3ϵ0 ϵ0

and, for r > a,

1 ∂ ρa3
div E = (r2 )=0
r2 ∂r 3ϵ0r2

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
5.9. The Divergence Theorem
Gauss's law states that the closed surface integral ofD · dS is equal to the charge enclosed. If the charge density function ρ is
known throughout the volume, then the charge enclosed may be obtained from an integration of ρ throughout the volume. Thus,

∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ρ dv = Qenc

But ρ = ∇ · D, and so

∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ D) dv

This is the divergence theorem, also known as Gauss's divergence theorem. It is a three-dimensional analog of Green's theorem
for the plane. While it was arrived at from known relationships among D, Q, and ρ, the theorem is applicable to any sufficiently
regular vector field.

divergence theorem ∮ A ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ A ) dv
S v

Of course, the volume v is that which is enclosed by the surface S.

Example

EXAMPLE 5.

The region r ≤ a in spherical coordinates has an electric field intensity

ρr
E= a
3ϵ r

Examine both sides of the divergence theorem for this vector field. ForS, choose the spherical surface r = b ≤ a.

∮ E ⋅ dS ∫ (∇ ⋅ E) dv
1 ∂
∫ ∫ ( a ) ⋅ (b2 sin θ dθ dϕ ar)
ρb ρr ρ
∇⋅E = (r2 ) =
3ϵ r r2 ∂r 3ϵ ϵ
2π 2π
π
ρb3 π b
ρ 2
=∫ ∫ sin θ dθ dϕ then ∫ ∫ ∫ r sin θ dr dθ dϕ
0 0 3ϵ 0 0 0 ϵ
4πρb3 4πρb3
= =
3ϵ 3ϵ

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
The divergence theorem applies to time-varying as well as static fields in any coordinate system. The theorem is used most
often in derivations where it becomes necessary to change from a closed surface integration to a volume integration. But it
may also be used to convert the volume integral of a function that can be expressed as the divergence of a vector field into a
closed surface integral.

5.10. Curl
The curl of a vector field A is another vector field. Point P in Fig. 5-4 lies in a plane area ΔS bounded by a closed curve C. In the
integration that defines the curl, C is traversed such that the enclosed area is on the left. The unit normal an, determined by the
right-hand rule, is as shown in the figure. Then the component of the curl of A in the direction an is defined as

∮ A ⋅ dl
lim
(curl A) ⋅ an ≡ ΔS →0
ΔS

Figure 5-4

In the various coordinate systems, curl A is completely specified by its components along the three unit vectors. For example,
the x component in Cartesian coordinates is defined by taking as the contour C a square in the x = const. plane through P, as
shown in Fig. 5-5.

lim ∮ A ⋅ dI
(curl A) ⋅ ax = Δy Δz →0
Δy Δz

Figure 5-5

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
If A = Axax + Ay ay + Azaz at the corner of ΔS closest to the origin (point 1), then

2 3 4 1
∮ = ∫ +∫ +∫ +∫
1 2 3 4
∂Az ∂Ay
= Ay Δy + (Az + Δy) Δz + (Ay + Δz) (−Δy) + Az(−Δz)
∂y ∂z
∂Az ∂Ay
= ( − ) Δy Δz
∂y ∂z

and

∂Az ∂Ay
(curl A) ⋅ ax = −
∂y ∂z

The y and z components can be determined in a similar fashion. Combining the three components,

∂Az ∂Ay ∂A ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax


curl A = ( − ) ax + ( x − ) ay + ( − ) az (Cartesian)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

A third-order determinant can be written, the expansion of which gives the Cartesian curl ofA.

∣ ax ay az ∣
∣ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∣∣
curl A = ∣
∣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ∣
∣ ∣
∣ Ax Ay Az ∣

The elements of the second row are the components of the del operator. This suggests (seeSection 2.4) that ∇ × A can be
written for curl A. As with other expressions from vector analysis, this convenient notation is used for curlA in other coordinate
systems, even though ∇ is defined only in Cartesian coordinates.

Expressions for curl A in cylindrical and spherical coordinates can be derived in the same manner as above, though with more
difficulty.

1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ ∂A ∂Az 1 ∂(rAϕ ) ∂Ar


curl A = ( − ) ar + ( r − ) aϕ + [ − ] az (cylindrical)
r ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂ϕ
1 ∂(Aϕ sin θ) ∂Aθ 1 1 ∂Ar ∂(rAϕ ) 1 ∂(rAθ) ∂Ar
curl A = [ − ] ar + [ − ] aθ + [ − ] aϕ (spherical)
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ

Frequently useful are two properties of the curl operator:

1. The divergence of a curl is the zero scalar; that is,

∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
for any vector field A.

2. The curl of a gradient is the zero vector; that is,

∇ × (∇f) = 0

for any scalar function of position f (see Problem 5.24).

Under static conditions, E = −∇V, and so,

∇×E = 0

5.11. Laplacian
The divergence of the gradient of a scalar is called theLaplacian, ∇ 2 . In the Cartesian coordinate system,

∂V ∂V ∂V ∂2V ∂2V ∂2V


∇2V ≡ ∇ ⋅ (∇V ) = ∇ ⋅ ( ax + ay + az) = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

Explicit forms of the Laplacian in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given in the next section (see alsoSection 9.3).

Example

EXAMPLE 6.

In a charge-free region with uniform permittivity, ∇2 V = 0.

The Laplacian of a vector can be defined using the Laplacian of its coordinates components. For example, the Laplacian of
a vector specified by its Cartesian coordinate, A = Axax + Ay ay + Azaz, is as follows

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2A = ( + + ) A = ∇2Axax + ∇2Ayay + ∇2Azaz
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

Example

EXAMPLE 7.

The following identity can be verified by direct substitution

∇2A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ × (∇ × A)

5.12. Summary of Vector Operations

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
The vector operations introduced in this chapter are summarized below for three coordinate systems. Note that the del
operator ∇ is defined for the Cartesian coordinate system only.

Table 5-1 Summary of Vector Operations

COORDINATE SYSTEM OPERATOR MATHEMATICAL FORMULA

Cartesian Del operator ∂( ) ∂( ) ∂( )


∇= ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

Gradient ∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

Divergence ∂ Ax ∂ Ay ∂ Az
∇⋅A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

Curl ∂ Az ∂ Ay ∂ Ax ∂ Az
∇×A = ( − ) ax + ( − )a
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x

Laplacian ∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = + +
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂ z2

Cylindrical Gradient ∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ar + aϕ + az
∂r r∂ϕ ∂z

Divergence 1 ∂ 1 ∂ Aϕ ∂ Az
∇⋅A = (rAr) + +

r r r ∂ϕ ∂z

Curl 1 ∂ Az ∂ Aϕ ∂ Ar ∂ Az
∇×A = ( − ) ar + ( − )
r ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂r

Laplacian 1 ∂ 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
(r ) +
∂V
∇2 V = +
r ∂r ∂r r2 ∂ϕ2 ∂ z2

Spherical Gradient ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = ar + aθ + aϕ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Divergence 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂
∇⋅A = (r Ar) + (Aθ sin θ)+
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r

Curl 1 ∂(Aϕ sin θ) ∂Aθ 1


∇×A = [ − ] ar +
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r
1 ∂(rAθ) ∂Ar
+ [ − ] aϕ
r ∂r ∂θ

Laplacian 1 ∂ 1 ∂
( r2 ) + (sin θ
∂V ∂V
∇2 V =
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ

5.13. SOLVED PROBLEMS

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
5.1. Develop the expression for divergence in cylindrical coordinates.

A delta-volume is shown in Fig. 5-6 with edges Δr, r Δϕ, and Δz. The vector field A is defined at P, the corner with the lowest
values of the coordinates r, ϕ, and z, as

A = Arar + Aϕ aϕ + Azaz

Figure 5-6

By definition,

lim ∮ A ⋅ dS
div A = Δv →0
Δv

(1)

To express

∮ A ⋅ dS, all six faces of the volume must be covered. For the radial component ofA refer to Fig. 5-7.

Figure 5-7

Over the left face,

∫ A ⋅ dS ≈ −Arr Δϕ Δz

and over the right face,

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
∫ A ⋅ dS ≈ Ar(r + Δr) (r + Δr) Δϕ Δz
∂Ar
≈ (Ar + Δr) (r + Δr) Δϕ Δz
∂r
∂A
≈ Ar r Δϕ Δz + (Ar + r r ) Δr Δϕ Δz
∂r

where the term in (Δr) 2 has been neglected. The net contribution of this pair of faces is then

∂Ar ∂ 1 ∂
(Ar + r ) Δr Δϕ Δz = (rAr) Δr Δϕ Δz = (rAr) Δv
∂r ∂r r ∂r

(2)

since Δv = r Δr Δϕ Δz.

Similarly, the faces normal to aϕ yield

∂Aϕ
Aϕ Δr Δz and (Aϕ + Δϕ) Δr Δz
∂ϕ

for a net contribution of

1 ∂Aϕ
Δv
r ∂ϕ

(3)

and the faces normal to az yield

∂Az
Azr Δr Δϕ and (Az + Δz) r Δr Δϕ
∂z

for a net contribution of

∂Az
Δv
∂z

(4)

When (2), (3), and (4) are combined to give ∮ A · dS, (1) yields

1 ∂(rAr) 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az


div A = + +
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
5.2. Show that ∇ · E is zero for the field of a uniform line charge.

For a line charge, in cylindrical coordinates,

ρℓ
E= a
2πϵ0 r r

Then

1 ∂
(r )=0
ρℓ
∇⋅E =
r ∂r 2πϵ 0r

The divergence of E for this charge configuration is zero everywhere except at r = 0, where the expression is indeterminate.

5.3. Show that the D field due to a point charge has a divergence of zero.

For a point charge, in spherical coordinates,

Q
D= ar
4πr2

Then, for r > 0,

1 ∂
(r2 )=0
Q
∇⋅D =
r2 ∂r 4πr2

5.4. Given A = e−y (cos xax − sin xay ), find ∇ · A.

∂ −y ∂
∇⋅A = (e cos x) + (e− y sin x) = e− y ( − sin x) + e− y ( sin x) = 0
∂x ∂y

5.5. Given A = x2 ax + yzay + xyaz, find ∇ · A.

∂ 2 ∂ ∂
∇⋅A = (x ) + (yz) + (xy) = 2x + z
∂x ∂y ∂z

5.6. Given A = (x2 + y2 ) −1/2ax, find ∇ · A at (2, 2, 0).

1 −3/
∇ ⋅ A = − (x2 + y2) 2(2x) and ∇ ⋅ A|(2,2,0) = −8.84 × 10− 2
2

5.7. Given A = r sin ϕar + 2r cos ϕaϕ + 2z2 az, find ∇ · A.

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ ∂
∇⋅A = (r sin ϕ) + (2r cos ϕ) + (2z2)
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
= 2 sin ϕ − 2 sin ϕ + 4z = 4z

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
5.8. Given A = 10 sin2 ϕar + r aϕ + [(z2 /r) cos 2 ϕ] az, find ∇ · A at (2, 0, 5).

10 sin2ϕ + 2z cos2ϕ
∇⋅A = and ∇ ⋅ A∣(2,0,5) = 5
r

5.9. Given A = (5/r2 )ar + (10/sinθ)aθ − r2 ϕ sin θaϕ , find ∇ · A.

1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇⋅A = (5) + (10) + (−r2 ϕ sin θ) = − r
r ∂r
2 r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

5.10. Given A = 5 sin θaθ + 5 sin ϕaϕ , find ∇ · A at (0.5, π /4, π /4).

1 ∂ 1 ∂ cos θ cos ϕ
∇⋅A (5 sin2θ) + (5 sin ϕ) = 10 +5
r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r r sin θ

and

∇ ⋅ A|(0,5,π/4,π/4) = 24.14

5.11. Given that D = ρ0 zaz in the region −1 ≤ z ≤ 1 in Cartesian coordinates and D = (ρ0 z/|z|)az elsewhere, find the charge
density.

∇⋅D = ρ

For −1 ≤ z ≤ 1,


ρ= (ρ0z) = ρ0
∂z

and for z < −1 or z > 1,


ρ= (∓ρ0) = 0
∂z

The charge distribution is shown in Fig. 5-8.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Figure 5-8

5.12. Given that D = (10r3 /4)ar (C/m2 ) in the region 0 < r ≤ 3 m in cylindrical coordinates and D = (810/4r)ar (C/m2 )
elsewhere, find the charge density.

For 0 < r ≤ 3 m,

1 ∂ 10r4
ρ= ( ) = 10r2 (C/m3)
r ∂r 4

and for r > 3 m,

1 ∂
ρ= (810/4) = 0
r ∂r

5.13. Given that

Q
D= (1 − cos 3r)ar
πr2

in spherical coordinates, find the charge density.

1 ∂ 2 Q 3Q
ρ= [r (1 − cos 3r)] = sin 3r
r ∂r
2 πr2 πr2

5.14. In the region 0 < r ≤ 1 m, D = (−2 × 10−4/r)ar (C/m2 ) and for r > 1 m, D = (−4 × 10−4/r2 )ar (C/m2 ), in spherical
coordinates. Find the charge density in both regions.

For 0 < r ≤ 1 m,

1 ∂ −4
−2 × 10− 4
ρ= (−2 × 10 r) = (C/m3)
r2 ∂r r2

and for r > 1 m,

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
1 ∂
ρ= (−4 × 10− 4) = 0
r2 ∂r

5.15. In the region r ≤ 2, D = (5r2 /4)ar and for r > 2, D = (20/r2 )ar, in spherical coordinates. Find the charge density.

For r ≤ 2,

1 ∂
ρ= (5r4/4) = 5r
r2 ∂r

and for r > 2,

1 ∂
ρ= (20) = 0
r2 ∂r

5.16. Given that D = (10x3 /3)ax (C/m2 ), evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume of a cube, 2 m on an
edge, centered at the origin and with edges parallel to the axes.

∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ D) dv
vol

Since D has only an x component, D · dS is zero on all but the faces at x = 1 m and x = −1 m (see Fig. 5-9).

10(1)
1 1 1 1 10(−1)
∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫ ax ⋅ dy dz ax + ∫ ∫ ax ⋅ dy dz (−ax)
−1 −1 3 −1 −1 3
40 40 80
= + = C
3 3 3

Figure 5-9

Now for the right side of the divergence theorem. Since ∇ · D = 10x2 ,

2
1 1 1 1 1x3 80
∫ (∇ ⋅ D) dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ (10x2) dx dy dz = ∫ ∫ [10 ] dy dz = C
vol −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 3 −1 3

5.17. Given that A = 30e−rar − 2zaz in cylindrical coordinates, evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume
enclosed by r = 2, z = 0, and z = 5 (Fig. 5-10).

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
∮ A ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ A) dv

Figure 5-10

It is noted that Az = 0 for z = 0 and hence A · dS is zero over that part of the surface.

5 2π 2π 2
∮ A ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫ 30e− 2ar ⋅ 2 dϕ dz ar + ∫ ∫ − 2(5)az ⋅ r dr dϕaz
0 0 0 0
= −
60e (2π)(5) − 10(2π)(2)
2 = 129.4

For the right side of the divergence theorem:

1 ∂ ∂ 30e− r
∇⋅A = (30re− r) + (−2z) = − 30e− r − 2
r ∂r ∂z r

and

5 2π 2
30e− r
∫ (∇ ⋅ A) dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ ( − 30e− r − 2) r dr dϕ dz = 129.4
0 0 0 r

5.18. Given that D = (10r3 /4)ar (C/m2 ) in cylindrical coordinates, evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the
volume enclosed by r = 1 m, r = 2 m, z = 0 and z = 10 m (see Fig. 5-11).

∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ D) dv

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Figure 5-11

Since D has no z component, D · dS is zero for the top and bottom. On the inner cylindrical surfacedS is in the direction −ar.

10 2π
10
∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫ (1)3ar ⋅ (1) dϕ dz (−ar)
0 0 4
10 2π
10
+∫ ∫
(2)3ar ⋅ (2) dϕ dz ar
0 0 4
−200π 200π
= + 16 = 750π C
4 4

From the right side of the divergence theorem:

1 ∂ 10r4
∇⋅D = ( ) = 10r2
r ∂r 4

and

10 2π 2
∫ (∇ ⋅ D)dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ (10r2)r dr dϕ dz = 750π C
0 0 1

5.19. Given that D = (5r2 /4)ar (C/m2 ) in spherical coordinates, evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the
volume enclosed by r = 4 m and θ = π /4 (see Fig. 5-12).

∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (∇ ⋅ D)dv

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Figure 5-12

Since D has only a radial component, D · dS has a nonzero value only on the surface r = 4 m.

2π π/4 5(4)2
∮ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫ ar ⋅ (4)2 sin θ dθ dϕ ar = 589.1 C
0 0 4

For the right side of the divergence theorem:

1 ∂ 5r4
∇⋅D = ( ) = 5r
r2 ∂r 4

and

2π π/4 4
∫ (∇ ⋅ D) dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ (5r)r2 sin θ dr dθ dϕ = 589.1 C
0 0 0

5.20. Given A = (y cos ax)ax + (y + ex)az, find ∇ × A at the origin.

∣ ax ay az ∣
∣ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∣∣
∇ × A = ∣∣ ∣ = ax − exay − cos ax az
∂y
∣ ∂x ∂z ∣
∣ y cos ax 0 y + ex ∣

At (0, 0, 0), ∇ × A = ax − ay − az.

5.21. Given the general vector field A = 5r sin ϕaz in cylindrical coordinates, find curl A at (2, π, 0).

Since A has only a z component, only two partials in the curl expression are nonzero.

1 ∂ ∂
∇×A = (5r sin ϕ)ar − (5r sin sin ϕ)aϕ = 5 cos ϕar − 5 sin ϕaϕ
r ∂ϕ ∂r

Then

∇ × A| = −5a
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
∇ × A|(2,π,0) = −5ar

5.22. Given the general vector field A = 5e−r cos ϕar −5 cos ϕaz in cylindrical coordinates, find curl A at (2, 3π /2, 0).

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
∇×A = (−5 cos ϕ)ar + [ (5e− r cos ϕ) − (−5 cos ϕ)] aϕ − (5e− r cos ϕ)az
r ∂ϕ ∂z ∂r r ∂ϕ
5 5
= ( sin ϕ) ar + ( e− r sin ϕ) az
r r

Then

∇ × A ∣(2,3π/2,0) = −2.50ar − 0.34az

5.23. Given the general vector field A = 10 sin θaθ in spherical coordinates, find ∇ × A at (2, π /2, 0).

1 ∂ 1 ∂ 10 sin θ
∇×A = [− (10 sin θ)] ar + (10r sin θ)aϕ = aϕ
r sin θ ∂ϕ r ∂r r

Then

∇ × A|(2,π/2,0) = 5aϕ

5.24. Show that the curl of a gradient is zero.

From the definition of curl A given in Section 5.10, it is seen that curl A is zero in a region if

∮ A ⋅ dl = 0

for every closed path in the region. But if A = ∇f, where f is a single-valued function,

∮ A ⋅ dl = ∮ ∇f ⋅ dl = ∮ df = 0

(see Section 5.2).

5.14. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS


5.25. Develop the divergence in spherical coordinates. Use the delta-volume with edges Δr, r Δθ, and r sin θ Δϕ.

5.26. Show that ∇ · E is zero for the field of a uniform sheet charge.

5.27. The field of an electric dipole with the charges at ±d/2 on the z axis is

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Qd
E= (2 cos θar + sin θaθ)
4πϵ0r3

Show that the divergence of this field is zero.

5.28. Given A = e5xax + 2 cos yay + 2 sin zaz, find ∇ · A at the origin.

5.29. Given A = (3x + y2 )ax + (x − y2 )ay , find ∇ · A.

Schaum's Electromagnetics Supplementary Problem 5-29: Divergence

This video demonstrates divergence of a vector.

Sudipa Mitra-Kirtley, Ph.D, Professor, Physics and Optical Engineering, Rose-Hulman


Institute of Technology
2013

5.30. Given A = 2xyax + za y + yz2 az, find ∇ · A at (2, −1, 3).

5.31. Given A = 4xyax − xy2 ay + 5 sin zaz, find ∇ · A at (2, 2, 0).

5.32. Given A = 2r cos2 ϕar + 3r2 sin zaϕ + 4z sin2 ϕaz, find ∇ · A.

5.33. Given A = (10/r2 )ar + 5e−2zaz, find ∇ · A at (2, ϕ, 1).

5.34. Given A = 5 cos rar + (3ze−2r/r)az, find ∇ · A at (π, ϕ, z).

5.35. Given A = 10ar + 5 sin θaθ , find ∇ · A.

5.36. Given A = rar − r2 cot θaθ , find ∇ · A.

5.37. Given A = [(10 sin2 θ)/r]ar (N/m), find ∇ · A at (2 m, π/4 rad, π/2 rad).

5.38. Given A = r2 sin θar + 13ϕaθ + 2raϕ , find ∇ · A.

5.39. Show that the divergence of E is zero if E = (100/r)aϕ + 40az.

5.40. In the region a ≤ r ≤ b (cylindrical coordinates),

r2 − a2
D = ρ0 ( ) ar
2r

and for r > b,

b2 − a2
D = ρ0 ( ) ar
2r

For r < a, D = 0. Find ρ in all three regions.

5.41. In the region 0 < r ≤ 2 (cylindrical coordinates), D = (4r−1 + 2e−0.5r + 4r−1e−0.5r)ar, and for r > 2, D = (2.057/r)ar. Find ρ in
both regions.

5.42. In the region r ≤ 2 (cylindrical coordinates), D = [10r + (r2 /3)]ar, and for r > 2, D = [3/(128r)]ar. Find ρ in both regions.

5.43. Given D = 10 sin θ ar + 2 cos θ aθ , find the charge density.

5.44. Given

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
3r
D= ar
r2 + 1

in spherical coordinates, find the charge density.

5.45. Given

10
D= [1 − e− 2r(1 + 2r + 2r2)]ar
r2

in spherical coordinates, find the charge density.

5.46. In the region r ≤ 1 (spherical coordinates),

4r r3
D=( − ) ar
3 5

and for r > 1, D = [5/(63r2 )]ar. Find the charge density in both regions.

5.47. The region r ≤ 2 m (spherical coordinates) has a field E = (5r × 10−5/


ϵ0)ar (V/m). Find the net charge enclosed by the shellr = 2 m.
5.48. Given that D = (5r2 /4)ar in spherical coordinates, evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume
enclosed between r = 1 and r = 2.

5.49. Given that D = (10r3 /4)ar in cylindrical coordinates, evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume
enclosed by r = 2, z = 0, and z = 10.

5.50. Given that D = 10 sin θar + 2 cos θaθ , evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume enclosed by the
shell r = 2.

5.51. Show that the curl of (xax + yay + zaz)/(x2 + y2 + z2 ) 3/2 is zero.

Schaum's Electromagnetics Supplementary Problem 5-51: Curl of a Vector

This video demonstrates the curl of a vector and its physical significance.

Sudipa Mitra-Kirtley, Ph.D, Professor, Physics and Optical Engineering, Rose-Hulman


Institute of Technology
2013

5.52. Given the general vector A = (−cos x)(cos y)az, find the curl of A at the origin.

5.53. Given the general vector A = (cos x)(sin y)ax + (sin x)(cos y)ay , find the curl of A everywhere.

5.54. Given the general vector A = (sin 2ϕ)aϕ in cylindrical coordinates, find the curl ofA at (2, π /4, 0).

5.55. Given the general vector A = e−2z (sin 1–2 ϕ)aϕ in cylindrical coordinates, find the curl ofA at (0.800, π/3, 0.500).

5.56. Given the general vector A = (sin ϕ)ar + (sin θ)aϕ in spherical coordinates, find the curl of A at the point (2, π/2, 0).

5.57. Given the general vector A = 2.50aθ + 5.00aϕ in spherical coordinates, find the curl of A at (2.0, π/6, 0).

5.58. Given the general vector

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
2 cos θ sin θ
A= a r + aθ
r3 r3

show that the curl of A is everywhere zero.

5.15. ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS


5.28. 7.0

5.29. 3 − 2y

5.30. −8.0

5.31. 5.0

5.32. 4.0

5.33. −2.60

5.34. −1.59

5.35. (2 + cos θ)(10/r)

5.36. 3 − r

5.37. 1.25 N/m2

5.38. 
13ϕ
4r sin θ + ( ) cot θ
r
5.40. 0, ρ0 , 0

5.41. −e−0.5r, 0

5.42. 20 + r, 0

5.43. 
sin θ
(18 + 2 cot2 θ)
5
5.44. 3(r2 + 3)/(r2 + 1)2

5.45. 40e−2r

5.46. 4 − r2 , 0

5.47. 5.03 × 10−3 C

5.48. 75π

5.49. 800π

5.50. 40π 2

5.51. Hint: ∇ × E = 0.

5.52. 0

5.53. 0

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
5.54. 0.5az

5.55. 0.368ar + 0.230az

5.56. 0

5.57. 4.33ar − 2.50aθ + 1.25aϕ

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.

You might also like