FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

UNIT I
 Lesson 1.5: Measurements of Directions and Angles
LESSON FOCUS: In this Lesson, you will
 Identify vertical angles, horizontal angles, zenith angles, azimuth and bearing
 Acquire competence in the measurements of directions and angles
 Identify the set up procedure of Theodolite
 Discuss the basic types of mistakes and errors that a surveyor must eliminate or minimize in field work

LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Definitions of Angles, Vertical Angles, Horizontal Angles and Zenith Angles
2. Types of Measured Angles
3. Azimuths and Bearing
4. Theodolite and Set up Procedure

INTRODUCTION

Angles and directions are a fundamental part of surveying information. We must learn the various systems
for measuring directions (horizontal angles, azimuths, bearings, and so forth) as well as the field procedures for
making such measurements.
Surveying is the science of determining relative positions of points or objects on or near the earth's
surface. From the study of geometry, it is evident that a point can be located by measuring only the distance from
two known points. Surveyors find occasions when these two-distance method is very practical and even highly
desirable. However, in many procedures which require locating a point, surveyors use a distance from two known
points. The discussion of angles and directions in this lesson is simplified in most instances to stay within the
scope of plane surveying.

DISCUSSION

ANGLES

An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent lines. Angles can be measured
with a magnetic compass, of course. Unfortunately, the Earth's magnetic field does not yield the most reliable
measurements. The magnetic poles are not aligned with the planet's axis of rotation (an effect called magnetic
declination), and they tend to change location over time. Local magnetic anomalies caused by magnetized rocks
in the Earth's crust and other geomagnetic fields make matters worse.
For these reasons, land surveyors rely on transits (or their more modern equivalents, called theodolites)
to measure angles. A transit consists of a telescope for seeing distant target objects, two measurement wheels
that work like protractors for reading horizontal and vertical angles, and bubble levels to ensure that the angles
are true. A theodolite is essentially the same instrument, except that some mechanical parts are replaced with
electronics.
We can conduct a measurement based on distances only (using tape or EDM) in order to obtain a map of
a surveyed area or to establish BP. Such method is called trilateration.
With equipment such as a theodolite, we can usually get much more accurate description of surveyed
area. Theodolite is an instrument to measure horizontal and/or vertical angles.

The angle α is measured from a reference line, which is considered to be 0 °. Such line is called meridian.

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VERTICAL ANGLES
Horizon is parallel to the earth surface, and zenith is perpendicular to the horizon. Vertical angles are
formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane and being taken from zenith or horizon, both method are
usually supported by modern instruments.
Angle of Elevation is measured upward from a horizontal reference line and is considered a positive, or
plus (+), angle. Angle of Depression is measured downward from the horizon and is considered to be a negative,
or minus (-), angle.
Note this: – 250 can also be written as Angle of Depression = 250
It is very important to identify the type of vertical angle (i.e., plus or minus) in the field notes.
In modern surveying instruments, the upward vertical direction is usually used as a reference for
measuring vertical angles, instead of the horizon. That direction is called the zenith direction, and an angle
measured with respect to it is called a zenith angle or a zenith distance. A zenith angle is the complementary
angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these lines directed
toward the zenith.
It may sometimes be necessary to convert plus or minus vertical angles to zenith angles, and vice versa.

EXAMPLE:
a) Convert vertical angle of 8°45 to Zenith angle. Note that 900 = 89°60’
b) Convert vertical angle of – 150 to Zenith angle.
c) Convert vertical angle of 95°25 to Zenith angle.

Solutions:
a) Zenith angle = 890 60’ – 8°45’
= 810 15’
b) Zenith angle = 900 – (– 150)
= 1050
c) Zenith angle = 900 – 95°25’
= –50 25’

HORIZONTAL ANGLES
A horizontal angle may be described in one of several different ways depending on how it is measured.
The type of angle must be clearly noted in the field book to avoid confusion and a possible blunder in data
reduction. An interior angle is measured on the inside of a closed polygon: an exterior angle is measured outside
of the closed polygon.

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Angle can be measured

 clockwise (angle to the right) or
 counterclockwise (angle to the left).

TYPES OF MEASURED ANGLES

• Interior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the inside of a
closed polygon figure.
• Exterior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the outside of a
closed polygon figure.
• Deflection angles, right or left, are measured from an extension of the preceding course and the ahead line. It
must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or left (L).

Note: Sum of interior and exterior angle is 360°

The side of the angle measured needs to be clearly noted in the field book. It is also a good practice
 to adopt one way only of taking measurements, e.g. always take interior angles;
 to have both interior and exterior angles taken to check values (to avoid blunders)

At any point, the sum of the interior and exterior angles must equal 360°.
The sum of all interior angles in a closed polygon is equal to (180°)(n – 2), where n is the number of
sides
The sum of the exterior angles must equal (180°)(n + 2)

An angle turned (measured) in a clockwise direction, from the “rear” to the “forward” point or station, is
called an angle to the right. Stations are commonly labeled consecutively in the direction of the survey with
numbers or letters. For example, point 6 or F would be a rear station with respect to point 7 or G, the forward
station.
Pointing the instrument toward the rear station may be called the backsight and toward the forward
station, the foresight; this terminology is similar to that used for leveling.

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An angle turned counterclockwise from the rear to the forward station is called an angle to the left. To
avoid blunders, it is best to adopt a consistent procedure for turning angles; usually work proceeds in a
counterclockwise direction around a closed polygon or traverse, and interior angles to the right are measured.
A horizontal angle between the extension of a back or preceding line and the succeeding or next line
forward is called a deflection angle. Deflection angles are always less than 180°; they must be clearly identified
as being turned either to the left (counterclockwise) or to the right (clockwise), using the letters L or R,
respectively. Deflection angles are commonly measured during open traverse or route surveys, such as for a
highway. They are easily visualized and plotted on a drawing, and their use simplifies the computation of
direction for succeeding lines.

AZIMUTH and BEARING

The angles taken in the field have context within the network of points being measured. They have no
relation to earth coordinates. Surveyors express angles in several ways. When specifying directions, as is done in
the preparation of a property survey, angles may be specified as bearings or azimuths.
Azimuth directions are usually preferred by surveyors; they are purely numerical and help to simplify
office work by allowing a simple routine for computations. Bearings, on the other hand, require two letter
symbols as well as a numerical value, and each bearing computation requires an individual analysis with a sketch.
But because they are easy to visualize, bearings are almost always used to indicate the direction of
boundary lines in legal land descriptions (deeds) and on most official survey plots or subdivision maps.

AZIMUTH
An azimuth is a clockwise horizontal angle between 0° and 360° measured clockwise from geographic
North or Meridian (given reference direction). An azimuth angle should be identified as being measured from the
north (AzimN) or from the south (AzimS); north is generally assumed if no specific identification is given. Any
azimuth angle will have a positive value between 0 and 360°.

Example:
Line AB, for example, has an azimuth (Azim N) of 1250 or azimuth (AzimS) of
3050. Line CD has an azimuth (AzimN) of 2850 or azimuth (AzimS) of 1050.

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BEARING
A bearing is an angle less than 90° within a quadrant defined by the cardinal directions. A bearing of a
line is the angle from the north (N) or the south (S) end of the meridian, whichever is nearest, to the line; it has
the added designation of east (E) or west (W), whichever applies. A bearing may be measured either in a
clockwise or in a counterclockwise direction, depending on which quadrant the line is in.

Relationship between Azimuth and Bearing

"South 45° East" and "135°" are the same direction expressed as a bearing and as an azimuth.

Example: Compute the required Azimuths and Convert them to their Bearing equivalent.

AzimuthN AzimuthS Bearing

(AzimN) (AzimS)
(a) 1200 = =
(b) = 200 =
0
(c) 290 = =
(d) = 2100 =
Solution:

AzimuthN to AzimuthS AzimuthS to AzimuthN Azimuth to Bearing

(a) 1800 + 1200 = 3000 1800 - 1200 = 600
(b) 1800 + 200 = 2000 200 = 200
(c) 2900 - 1800 = 1100 360 - 2900 = 700
0

0 0 0
(d) 210 - 180 = 30 2100 - 1800 = 300

Answer:
AzimuthN AzimuthS Bearing
(AzimN) (AzimS)
(a) 1200 = 3000 = S 600 E
(b) 2000 = 200 = S 200 W
(c) 2900 = 1100 = N 700 W
(d) 300 = 2100 = N 300 E

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DIRECTIONS
Every line actually has two directions, a forward direction and a back direction. The difference depends,
in effect, on which way the line is being observed. Generally, the forward direction is taken in the same sense
with which the field work was carried out. For example, the forward direction of line AB can be taken as the
direction the surveyor faces when occupying point A and sighting toward point B (see Figure). The back direction
of that line, then, would be that which is observed when standing on B and looking toward A. Calling the line “AB”
implies its forward direction; calling the line “BA” implies its back direction. For connected lines, it is necessary to
be consistent in designating forward or back direction.
In the context of backsight, the Back Azimuth of a line is sometimes referred. Back direction is useful for
computing the azimuth of an adjoining line.

For example, line BC in the Figure should be considered a forward direction so that it is consistent with
the direction of AB. The back azimuth of a line is determined simply by adding (or subtracting) 180° to the
forward azimuth; when the forward azimuth is more than 180°, 180° is subtracted so that the numerical value
of the back azimuth does not exceed 360°. To determine the back bearing of a line, though, it is only necessary
to reverse the letters; the numerical value does not change. For example, the back bearing of N 47°10’ E is simply
S 47°10’ W.

COMPUTING ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS

Many types of surveying problems involve the computation of the azimuths or bearings of adjoining lines,
given a starting direction and a series of measured angles. These computations are particularly important for
traverse surveys. Another common type of problem involves the computation of an angle at the intersection of
two lines of known direction.
For problems involving angles and bearings, it is always best to start with a neat, clearly labeled sketch
of the lines. Although azimuth computations can be systematized with a formula or rule, it is also advisable to use
a sketch as an aid in their computation. The following examples serve to illustrate a basic visual approach to
solving problems with angles, azimuths, and bearings. At each point, the sketch includes a reference meridian line
representing the direction of due north–due south.
Example 1:
The azimuth of side 1–2 is given for the three-sided traverse shown in Figure. The three interior angles
are also given. Determine the azimuth direction for sides 2–3 and 3–1.
Solution:
First, verify that the sum of the interior angles equals (n – 2) 180°. If not,
adjust the angles accordingly.
The sum of the interior angles should be (3 – 2)(1800) = 180°
Check: 600 + 850 + 350 = 1800 ok verified

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Next, make a sketch of station 2, which includes lines 1–2 and 2–3, with lightly drawn or dashed meridian
lines through points 1 and 2; show the given angles in the proper location on the sketch. The azimuth of line 2–1
(back azimuth of 1–2) is simply 120° + 180° = 300°. The azimuth of 2–3 is then determined by adding the interior
angle (and subtracting 360°) as shown. The procedure is repeated at station 3 to determine the azimuth of line 3–
1 (see Figure). As a check, station 1 is sketched, and the original azimuth of 120° is then observed. In general, for
the computation of a line’s azimuth in a closed traverse, proceed in a counterclockwise direction around the loop,
adding the clockwise interior angle to the back azimuth

Example 2:
In the traverse shown in Figure 6-12, the bearing of side CA and angles A and B are given. Determine the
bearings of side AB and side BC. Check by recomputing the bearing of CA.

Solution:
Start with a sketch of sides CA and AB at station A. Examine and analyze the sketch to determine the
required bearing of AB as shown.

Repeat the procedure for BC, as shown in Figure 6-13b. There is no systematic rule for computing
bearings; each sketch must be evaluated as a separate problem. It may often be helpful to first identify the
unknown bearing angle with an asterisk (*) or some other symbol; then study the sketch and the given angles to
determine a sequence of additions and/or subtractions that will result in the bearing angle value. Finally, assign
the appropriate letters—NE, NW, SE, or SW—depending on which quadrant the line is in.

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Example 3:
The bearings of two adjoining lines, EF and FG, are N 46°30’ E and S 14°45’ E, respectively. Determine the
deflection angle formed at the point of intersection, station F.
Solution:
Make a sketch of the two lines, as shown in Figure. The angle between FE and the south end of the
meridian is 46°30’. (This follows from the fact that either alternate interior angles are equal or the back bearing of
EF has the same numerical value as its forward bearing.) The angle between line FG and the south end of the
meridian line is the bearing angle of FG, or 14°45’.
By inspection, the value of the deflection angle is the difference between a straight angle (180°) and the
sum of the two bearing angles, or 118°45. Because FG deflects in a clockwise direction from EF extended, the
deflection angle should be designated as 118°45 R.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM: Based from the figure, determine the Azimuths, Back Azimuths and Bearings of the lines.

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Back Azimuth BC

LINE C-D

Back Azimuth CD

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Answer:

LINE AZIMUTH BEARING BACK AZIMUTH

A–B 1250 S 550 E 3050
B–C 910 S 890 E 2710
C–D 490 N 490 E 2290
D–E 2800 N 800 W 1000
E–A 2440 S 640 W 640

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THEODOLITE
Theodolite is a telescope mounted on horizontal and vertical protractors. Its purpose is to measure vertical
and/or horizontal angles.

Precision depends on the type and is usually from

 ±0.1 seconds (good quality theodolite used for geodetic survey) to
 ±0.1 minutes (i.e. 6 seconds—typical theodolite).

SETUP

TRIPOD SETUP

 Equipment has to be set precisely over BP. Use handlevel, setup the tripod over the positioning mark at a
convenient height.
 Suspend the plumb-bob or release the laser mark (depends on the model).
 Re-adjust the tripod over the positioning mark by moving all three tripod feet by the same amount in the
same direction.
 Firmly fix the tripod. Press the legs into the ground.

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THEODOLITE SETUP

All parts of equipment are made of precise quality and must be always taken with increased care. That applies
especially for theodolite (but applies surveying equipment in general).

 Place the theodolite on the tripod head, screw centering screw while holding instrument. Let the position be
loose so theodolite still can slide around tripod head.
 Looking through the optical plummet, focus the centering index mark. Slide the theodolite on the tripod
head until the reference mark is centered in the optical plummet.
 Fully tighten the centering screw.

LEVEL THE THEODOLITE

Once the theodolite is leveled, double check optical plummet to make sure it is still centered. If not, repeat steps
above.

Measuring horizontal angle

 When theodolite is setup, point to backsight (BS).
 Zero the instrument. Write actual zero into field book (might be not exact zero).
 Free the motion and point to foresight (FS).
 Tighten the motion and use screw for fine adjustment.
 Read the angle, write into field book.
The target (measured) point must be clearly marked for observing.

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Example (precision): let’s assume precision of theodolite is 5" and target is at a distance of 100 m. Then 5" at 100
m is equivalent to 2.5 mm (that is 1:40,000).

MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES BY REPETITION (DIGITAL THEODOLITE)

Telescope is pointed back to BS (with locked motion of value). The first angle is taken from BS to FS and written
into field book. Then telescope is rotated against trunnion axis and pointed to FS. Measurement back to BS is
made again then and the result is taken as an average.

Station B BS to A FS to C Angle ABC

Reading from left 0° 00' 00" 33° 27' 15" 33° 27' 15"
Reading from right 180° 00' 15" 213° 27' 20" 33° 27' 05"
Average 33° 27' 10"

HORIZON CLOSURE

Usually more angles are taken from one setup. It is a good practice to measure unused angle too and make check
that all angles sum to 360 °.

MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLE

Vertical angle is taken either from zenith (position at 0 °) or horizon (position at 90 °). Depends on the instrument
if the angle of elevation or depression has to be converted manually (from zenith angle) or not.

For accurate work, it is best to measure a vertical angle at least twice: once direct, once reversed and average
the result.

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