MECHATRONICS

Syllabus
UNIT-I INTRODUCTION 9
 
Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems – Concepts of Mechatronics approach – Need for Mechatronics
– Emerging areas of Mechatronics – Classification of Mechatronics. Sensors and Transducers: Static
and dynamic Characteristics of Sensor, Potentiometers – LVDT – Capacitance sensors – Strain gauges
– Eddy current sensor – Hall effect sensor – Temperature sensors – Light sensors
 
UNIT II 8085 MICROPROCESSOR AND 8051 MICROCONTROLLER 9
 
Introduction – Architecture of 8085 – Pin Configuration – Addressing Modes –Instruction set, Timing
diagram of 8085 – Concepts of 8051 microcontroller – Block diagram.
 
UNIT III PROGRAMMABLE PERIPHERAL INTERFACE 9
Introduction – Architecture of 8255, Keyboard interfacing, LED display –interfacing, ADC and DAC
interface, Temperature Control – Stepper Motor Control – Traffic Control interface
 
UNIT IV PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER 9
 
Introduction – Basic structure – Input and output processing – Programming – Mnemonics – Timers,
counters and internal relays – Data handling – Selection of PLC.
 
UNIT V ACTUATORS AND MECHATRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN
Types of Stepper and servo motors – Construction- Working Principle- Advantages and Disadvantages-
Stages of design process – Traditional and Mechatronics design concepts– Case studies of
Mechatronics systems – Pick and place Robot – Engine Management system – Automatic car park
barrier.
 Text Book
1. Bolton,W, “Mechatronics” , Pearson education, second edition,
fifth Indian Reprint, 2013
2. Rajput. R.K, A textbook of mechatronics, S. Chand & Co, 2007
3. Michael B. Histand and David G. Alciatore, “ Introduction to
Mechatronics and
4. Measurement Systems”, McGraw-Hill International Editions, 2000.
5. Bradley D. A., Dawson D., Buru N.C. and. Loader A.J, “Mechatronics”,
Chapman and Hall, 1993.
6. Dan Necsulesu, “Mechatronics”, Pearson Education Asia, 2002
(Indian Reprint).
7. Nitaigour Premchand Mahadik, “Mechatronics”, Tata McGraw-Hill
publishing Company Ltd, 2003.
MECHATRONICS
 MECHATRONICS
• A mechatronic system is not just a Integration of electrical
and mechanical systems and is more than a control system,
it is a complete integration of all of them.

• They use microprocessors as controllers and have

electrical sensors extracting information from mechanical.
– Inputs and outputs via electrical actuators to mechanical systems.

• It brings the areas of technology involving sensors and

measurement systems, drive and actuation systems ,
analysis of the behavior of the systems, control systems
and microprocessor systems.
 Historical Perspective
• Advances in microchip and computer technology bridge
the gap between traditional electronic, control and
mechanical engineering.

• Mechatronics responds to industry’s increasing demand

for engineers who are able to work across the discipline
boundaries of electronic, control and mechanical
engineering to identify and use the proper combination of
technologies for optimum solutions to today’s increasingly
challenging engineering problems.
 Application Areas
• Mechatronics covers a wide range of application areas
including
– Consumer product design,
– Instrumentation
– Manufacturing methods
– Motion control systems
– Computer integration
– Process and device control
– Integration of functionality with embedded microprocessor control,
and
– the design of machines, devices and systems possessing a degree
of computer-based intelligence
 Examples of Mechatronic Systems
• Robotic manipulators, Machine Tools
• Aircraft simulators, Truck Suspension
• Electronic traction control systems
• Adaptive suspensions
• Landing gears,
• Air-conditioners under fuzzy logic control
• Automated diagnostic systems
• Micro electromechanical systems (MEMS),
• Consumer products such as VCRs, and driver-less vehicles.
Camera, Washing Machine
• Automatic Production Line
 Genesis of Mechatronics

• It is the interdisciplinary area relating to

– Mechanical engineering
– Electrical engineering
– Electronic engineering, and
– Computer science engineering
 Significance of Mechatronics
• The importance of mechatronics as an area in
science and technology.

• This technology has produced many new products

and provided powerful ways of improving the
efficiency of the products we use in our daily life.
 Understanding of Mechatronics
• Mechatronics is an aspect of science and technology which
deals with a system that includes mechanical, electronics,
computers, sensors, actuators and so on.
• It seems that most people define mechatronics by merely
considering what component are included in the system and/
or how the mechanical functions are realized by computer
software.
• Such a definition gives the impression that it is just a
collection of existing aspects of science and technology such
as actuators, electronics, mechanical, control engineering,
computer technology, artificial intelligence, micro-machine
and so on, and has no original content as a technology.
• Mechatronics solves technological problems using
interdisciplinary knowledge consisting of mechanical
engineering, electronics, and computer technology.
• To find novel solutions
• To search for different knowledge areas and technologies
to develop a new product (for example, mechanical
engineers tried to introduce electronics to solve
mechanical problems.
 Need for Mechatronics

• Dynamic market conditions

• Producing next generation products
• Integration of modern technologies in products
• Variety in product ranges
• Batch production runs
• Change in design perspective
• Product quality and consistency
• Ease of reconfiguration of the process
• Demand for increased flexibility
 Emerging Areas Of Mechatronics

• Machine Vision
• Automation and robotics
• Design of subsystems for Automotive Engineering
• Medical mechatronics and Medical Imaging systems
• Structural Dynamic Systems
• Operations and maintenance of CNC Machines
• Expert systems and Artificial Intelligence
Classification Of Mechatronics
 Classification Of Mechatronics Products
Mechatronics has evolved through the following stages:

• Primary Level Mechatronics: Integrates electrical signaling with mechanical action

at the basic control level for e.g.fluid valves and relay switches

• Secondary Level Mechatronics: Integrates microelectronics into electrically

controlled devices for e.g. cassette tape player.

• Tertiary Level Mechatronics: Incorporates advanced control strategy using

microelectronics, microprocessors and other application specific integrated circuits
for e.g. microprocessor based electrical motor used for actuation purpose in robots.

• Quaternary Level Mechatronics: This level attempts to improve smartness a step

ahead by introducing intelligence ( artificial neutral network and fuzzy logic ) and
fault detection and isolation ( F.D.I.) capability into the system.
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages of Mechatronics

• Cost effective and good quality products

• High degree of flexibility to modify or redesign
• Very good performance characteristics
• Wide areas of application
• Greater productivity in case of manufacturing organization
• Greater extend of machine utilization

Disadvantages of Mechatronics

• High Initial cost

• Multi-disciplinary engineering background required to design and implementation
• Need of highly trained workers
• Complexity in identification an correction of problems in the system
Elements of Mechatronics System
Block Diagram of Mechatronics System
 Actuators & Sensors

Actuators Sensors
• The actuators produce motion or • The sensors detect the state of the
cause some action system parameters, inputs and outputs

• Various actuators: Pneumatic and • Various Sensors: Linear and rotational

hydraulic actuators, Electro Mechanical sensors, acceleration sensors, force,
actuators, Piezoelectric, Electrical torque, pressure sensor, temperature,
Motors, i.e. D.C, A.C, Stepper, Servo proximity and light sensors.
motors.
 Signals & Conditioning
• Mechatronic system deals with two types of signals and
conditioning , i.e. Input & Output
• Input devices receive input signals from the mechatronics system via
interfacing devices and sensors.
• From sensors the signal is send to the control circuits for
conditioning or processing.
• Various input signal conditioning devices are amplifiers, A2D, D2D
converters .
• Output signals from the system are send to the output/display
devices through interfacing devices
• Various output signal conditioning devices are D2A, display
decoders (DD), power transistors, op-amps.
 Digital Thermometer

The thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a small voltage; the amplifier increases
the magnitude of the voltage; the A/D (analog-to-digital) converter is a device that changes the analog
signal to a coded digital signal; and the LEDs (light emitting diodes) display the value of the temperature.
 Digital Logic System

• It will control overall system operation

• Various digital logic systems are logic circuits,
microcontrollers, PLC, sequencing & timing controls.
 Software & Data acquisition Systems

• Data acquisition system acquires the output signals from

sensors in the form of voltage, frequency, resistance etc. an
inputting into the microprocessor or computer.
• Software is used to control the acquisition of data through DAC
board.
• Data acquisition system consists of multiplexer, amplifier,
register and control circuits.
• Software Examples: Ladder Logic, Visual C++, Visual Basic, Lab
VIEW, MATLAB, Lab Chart, LOX
 Computers and display devices
• Computers are use to store large amount of data and
process further through software.
• Display devices are used to give visual feedback to the user.
Display devices are LED, CRT, LCD, Digital displays etc.
MECHATRONIC SYSTEM
Actuators: Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors,
Servomotor, hydraulics, pneumatics.
Sensors: Switches, Potentiometer, Photoelectrics, Digital encoder, Strain
gauge, Thermocouple, accelerometer etc.
Input signal conditioning and interfacing: Discrete circuits,
Amplifiers, Filters, A/D, D/D.
Digital control architecture: Logic circuits, Microcontroller, SBC, PLC,
Sequencing and timing, Logic and arithmetic, Control algorithm,
Communication.
Output signal conditioning and interfacing: D/A D/D, Amplifiers,
PWM, Power transistor, Power Op - amps.
Graphical displays: LEDs, Digital displays, LCD, CRT
SYSTEM
A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an
output.
System concerned only with the relationship between the input and
output and not on the process going inside the box.

Here, the input is the electric power and the output after processed by
the system is rotation. The system is motor.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for
making measurements.
It has the input as the quantity being measured and the output as a
measured value of that quantity.
Elements of Measurement Systems:
Measurement system consists of the following three elements.
a) Sensor b) Signal conditioner c) Display System
 Digital Liquid Level Measuring System

Output
Input

Float with Amplifier, A/D and LED/LCD

potentiometer DD
Liquid level
being
measured
Signal Liquid
Sensor Display
Processor Level in
Device
the Tank
 CONTROL SYSTEM:
☺ A black box which is used to control its output in a pre-set value
Two forms of control systems – open loop and Closed loop
system
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:
If there is no feedback device to compare the actual value with desired
one.
No control over its input
 Close Loop Systems
In a close loop system, feed back devices closely monitor the output and
any disturbance will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high
system accuracy is achievable.

Block Diagram of a Close Loop System

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:
If there is feedback device to compare the actual value with
desired one.
 Basic Elements of a closed Loop
Comparison
element
Reference value
Control Correction Proces
unit unit s
Error Controlled
signal
Value

Measuring
device
Measured
value.

Comparison element
Control element
Correction element
Process element
Measurement element
 Comparison Element
• Required or Reference Value of the variable condition being
controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved
and produces an error signal.
• Error Signal = Reference Value Signal – Measured Value Signal.
• Symbol –
• Reference value marked as Positive
• Feedback input marked as Negative
• A feedback loop is a means whereby a signal related to the
actual condition being achieved is fed back to modify the input
signal to process.
• Negative feed back – When the signal which is fed back
subtracts from the input value.
• Positive feed back –When the signal fed back adds to the input
signal
 Control Element
• Decides what action to take when it receives an error signal.
• Control plan being used by the element may be just to supply a
signal which switches on or off when there is an error.
– E.g Thermostat
• Control plan is permanently fixed by the way the elements are
connected together or programmable systems where the
control plan is stored within a memory unit and may be
altered by reprogramming it.
Correction Element
• Produces change in the process to correct or change the
controlled condition.
• Switch – Actuator
• The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit
that provides the power to carry out the control action
• Process Element - what is being controlled
• Measurement Element – Produces a signal related to the
variable condition of the process that is being controlled.

Example : Room Heating System

Controlled Variable: Room Temperature

Reference Input: Desired Room Temperature
Comparison Element: Electronic Logic Circuit
Error Signal: Difference between the current and required
temperatures
Controller: Switch
Correction Element: Thermostat
Measuring Element: Temperature sensor attached with
Thermostat.
 Room Heating System - Closed Loop system
Comparison
Element Thermostatic element
Input,
Required Output a Required
Temperature Temperature
Heating
switch
Coil
Deviation
signal Electrical Power

Thermosta
Feed back of t
temperature signal.
 Difference between Open loop and Closed loop
system
Open loop system Closed loop system
• Not using feedback • Feedback using
• Less accurate • More accurate
• Simple in construction • Complicated in construction
• Optimisation in control is not possible • Optimisation in control is possible
• Easy maintenance & cost is less • Difficult to maintain & cost is more
• Eg. CD deck, Digital thermometer • Eg. Automatic water level, washing
machine
 Automatic control systems

• An automatic control system is a preset closed –loop control

system that requires no operator action.
• Most of the closed-loop control systems are automatic in
nature.
• Various applications of automatic control systems are
(i) Automatic tank-level control system
(ii) Automatic shaft speed control system
 s

The Automatic Control Of Water Level

Shaft Speed Control
Shaft Speed Control
Shaft Speed Control
Concept of Mechatronics Approach
Modeling, Analysis, System Development
Integrated Design, Testing Tasks
and Refinement

Sensors and
Transducers
Actuators
Controllers
Mechatronic
Structural Electronics
System
Components (Analog / Digital)

Energy
Software
Sources
Hydraulic and
Signal
Pneumatic
Devices
Processing
Thermal Input / Output
Devices Hardware

Mechanica Electrical and

l Computer
Engineerin Engineering
g
 Analogue & Digital Control Systems
• Analogue systems – all the signals are continuous functions of
time and it is the size of signal which is a measure of the
variable

• Digital Signal – to be sequence of on/off signals, the value of

the variable being represented by the sequence of on/off
pulses.
 Sequential Controllers
• When control is such that actions are strictly ordered in a time-
or-event-driven sequence.
• It is obtained by electric circuit with sets of relays or cam-
operated switches which are wired up in such a way to give
the required sequence.
• These hard wired circuits are replaced by microprocessor
controlled system – with the sequencing being controlled by
means of software program.

• Ex: Washing Machine

 Washing Machine

• No of Operations have to be carried out in the correct sequence

• E.g – Pre-Wash, Main Wash, Rinse Cycle, Spinning, Drain
• - Quick Wash
• The operating sequence is called a program, the sequence of
instructions in each program being predefined and built into
the controller used.
• Basic Washing Machine System – Washing Machine controller
was a mechanical system which is involved a set
Block Diagram Of Automatic Washing Machine
System
 PRE WASH CYCLE
• Pre-wash cycle may involve the following sequence of operations.
• Opening of valve to fill the drum when a current is supplied
• Microprocessor is used to operate the switch for opening closing the
valve
• Closing the valve after receiving the signal from a sensor when the
required level of water is filled in the washing drum.
• Stopping the flow of water after the current is switched off by the
microprocessor.
• Switch on the motor to rotate for stipulated time.
• Initiates the operation of pump to empty the water from the drum.
• Pre-wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by cold
water.
 Main wash cycle
• Main wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by
hot water and the sequence of operations in main wash is as
follows:
• Cold water is supplied after the Pre-wash cycle is completed.
• Current is supplied in large amount to switch on the heater for
heating the coldwater.
• Temperature sensor switches off the current after the water is
heated to required temperature.
• Microprocessor or cam switch ON the motor to rotate the
drum
• Microprocessor or cam switches on the current to a discharge
pump to empty the drum.
 RINSE CYCLE
• Rinse cycle involves washing out the clothes with cold water a
number of times and the sequence of operations in a Rinse
cycle are as follows:
• Opening of valve to allow cold water into the drum when the
microprocessor are given signals to supply current after the
main wash cycle is completed.
• Switches off the supply current by the signals from
microprocessor
• Operation of motor to rotate the drum
• Operation of pump to empty the drum and respect this
sequence a number of times.
 SPINNING CYCLE

• Spinning cycle involves removing of water from the clothes and

the sequence of operations Is carried out.

• Switching on the drum motor to rotate it at a higher speed

than a rinsing cycle.
 Microprocessor control – Automatic Focus Camera
• When the switch is operated to activate the system and the
camera pointed at the object being photographed, the
microprocessor takes the input from the range sensor and
sends an output to the lens position drive to move the lens to
achieve focusing.

• The lens position is fed back to the microprocessor so that the

feedback signal can be used to modify the lens position
according to the inputs from the range sensor.

• The light sensor gives an input to the microprocessor which

then gives an output to determine, if the photographer has
selected the shutter controlled rather than aperture controlled
mode, the time for which the shutter will be opened.
Elements of Automatic Camera
 A few steps of the program for the automatic camera
might be of the form
• begin
– if battery check input OK
• then continue
• otherwise stop
• loop
– read input from range sensor calculate lens movement
– output signal to lens position drive
– input data from lens position encoder
– compare calculated output with actual output stop output when lens
in correct position
– send in-focus signal to viewfinder display etc.
THANK YOU
 SENSORS &
TRANSDUCER
PART-1
 Sensor
► Sensor are devices which produce a proportional output
signal (mechanical, electrical, magnetic etc.,) when
exposed to a physical phenomenon (pressure,
temperature, displacement , force etc.,).
► Sensor is an element which produces a signal relating to
the quantity being measured.
► An input device which provides an output (signal) with
respect to a specific physical quantity.
 Transducer
► Transducer are devices which converts an
input of one form of energy in to an output
of another form of energy
► It is also defined as an element when
subjected to some physical change
experiences a related change or an element
which converts a specified measured into a
usable output by using a transduction
principle.
 DEFINITION

SENSOR TRANSDUCER
► 1. It is defined as an element ► 1.It is defined as an element when
which produces signal relating to subjected to some physical change
the quantity being measured. experiences a related change or an
element which converts a specified
► 2. sensor can be defined as “A measured into a usable output by
device which provides a usable using a transduction principle.
output in response to a specified
measured.” ► 2. It can also be defined as a
device that converts a signal from
one form of energy to another form
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on its Power Requirement

Active Transducers generate electric current or voltage directly in response

to environmental stimulation (Active transducers are those which do not require
any power source for their operation. They work on the energy conversion
principle. They produce an electrical signal proportional to the input (physical
quantity). For example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.)

Passive Transducers produce a change in some passive electrical quantity,

such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a result of stimulation. These
usually require additional electrical energy for excitation.(Transducers which
require an external power source for their operation is called as a passive
transducer. They produce an output signal in the form of some variation in
resistance, capacitance or any other electrical parameter, which than has to be
converted to an equivalent current or voltage signal.)
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on the type of output
(i) Primary Sensor
Primary sensors produce the output which is
the direct measure of the input phenomenon.
(ii) Secondary Sensor
Secondary sensors produce output which is not the
direct representation of the physical phenomenon.
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on the Principle of Operation
1. Resistive
2. Capacitive
3. Inductive
4. Ultrasonic
5. Piezoelectric
6. Photoelectric
 Performance Terminology
► Static characteristics
Static characteristics of an instrument are the parameters which are
more or less constant or varying very slowly with time.

► Dynamic characteristics
Sensors and actuators respond to inputs that change with time.
Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are the parameters which are varying
with time.
Characteristics of Mechanical system
• In industrial process, measuring device senses various parameters under observation.
• To obtain better performance from any measuring device, a no. of characteristics must be considered.
• Static
• Dynamic
Static Characteristics
1. Range and Span
• The range of the transducer defines the limit between which the input can vary.
• Eg: Load cell for force measurement have a range from 0 to 50kN.
• The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
• Eg: Span for load cell is 50kN (50-0).

2. Error
• The difference between the measurement result and the true value of the quantity being measured.
• Error = Measured value – True value
• Eg: When a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25℃, when the actual
temperature is 24℃, then the error is +1℃.
3. Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
• Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other.
• Precision is independent of accuracy.
• Eg: A temperature-measuring instrument might, for example, be specified
as having an accuracy of ±2°C. This would mean that the reading given by
the instrument can be expected to lie within plus or minus 2°C of the true
value.
4. Sensitivity
• The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is per unit input, i.e. output/input.
• Eg: A pressure sensor that has a measurement range of 0–100PSI and an output range of 0–5V. Its
sensitivity is .05 Volt/PSI.
• If the sensitivity or output level changes with time, temperature or any other parameter, it is known as sensitivity
drift.
5. Hysteresis
• Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being
measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change.
• This effect is called hysteresis.
• It is reduced by taking measurements on both direction and taking its arithmetic
mean.

6. Non – Linearity Error

• For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and output is
assumed over the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is
assumed to give a straight line.
• The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
• Eg: transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as
having a non-linearity error of ±0.5% of the full range.
7. Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Ability of an instrument to repeat a group of measurements with the following conditions such as,
• Same Location
• Same Instrument
• Same Procedure
• Same Observer
- Under same condition and repetition over a period of time.
• Reproducibility refers to the degree of agreement between the results of experiments conducted by
• Different Individual
• Different Instrument
• Different Location
8. Stability
• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
• The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
• The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero input.

9. Dead Band / Time

• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output.
• Eg: Bearing friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might mean that there is no output until the input has
reached a particular velocity threshold.
• The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to respond and change.

10. Resolution
• The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an observable change in the output.
• Eg: A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output going up in steps as the
potentiometer slider moves from one wire turn to the next
Dynamic Characteristics
1. Response Time
• This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a step
input, is applied to the transducer up to the point at which
the transducer gives an output corresponding to some
specified percentage.
• 95%, of the value of the input

2. Time Constant
• The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to changes in its input.
• Bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a changing input signal. 63.2% response time

3. Rise Time
• This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady-state output.
• The time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90 or 95% of the steady-state value.

4. Settling Time
• This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some percentage.
• 2%, of the steady-state value.
 Displacement Sensor
► Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of
an object (or) measure the amount by which an object has been moved.
► Types of Displacement Sensor
1. Potentiometer sensor
2.Strain gauge sensor
3. Capacitive sensor
4.Inductive sensors (LVDT)
Potentiometer Displacement Sensor
1. POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used device for
measuring the displacement of the body.
• The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because
it works on the principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length.
• The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, thus as the length of
the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.
• It measures the displacement of an object in a linear or rotary motion.
1-a). Linear Potentiometer
• The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be
changed manually by the sliding contacts.
• Here the voltage Vs is applied across the two points of the wire A and B.
• C is the variable contact point between A and B. V C
• The point C is the slider whose position is changed by the operator or by s

the motion of the body whose displacement is to be measured.

• The voltage Vo is measured between the points B and C.
• As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the
conductor BC changes as the length of the wire BC changes.
• Accordingly the output voltage Vo between B and C also changes.
• The change in voltage or the resistance is proportional to the change in
the displacement of the body.
 

Note: Refer videos for Multimeter readings

1-b). Rotary Potentiometer
• Rotary potentiometer (the most common type) vary their resistive
value as a result of an angular movement.
• Rotating a knob or dial attached to the shaft causes the internal
wiper to sweep around a curved resistive element.
• The most common use of a rotary potentiometer is the
volume-control pot.
• As they are mechanically controlled, they can be used to the
measure the rotation of a shaft, but a single-turn rotary
potentiometer normally offers less than 300 degrees of angular
movement from minimum to maximum resistance.
• However, multi-turn potentiometers, called trimmers, are available
that allow for a higher degree of rotational accuracy (to implement
in printed circuit boards)
Applications
• Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing
loudness, frequency attenuation, and other characteristics of audio signals.
• Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response.
• Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop" control, such as
in a servomechanism.
• Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the simplicity
of construction and because they can give a large output signal.
2-a). LVDT (Linear Variable Diff. Transducer)
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general.

• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.

• The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in
series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
• A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the
insulated tube.
• The working principle of the LVDT is the mutual induction.
• In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor windings flux will equal,
so the induced emf is similar in the windings. The output voltage is, ES1 = ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = 0.
• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted up from the null point. In this case, the flux involving with
minor winding S1 is greater than S2 winding. ES1 > ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = Positive.
• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down from the null point. In this case, the flux involving
with minor winding S1 is lesser than S2 winding. ES1 < ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = Negative.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Friction Free Operation 1. Gets damaged by temperature and vibration.
2. Unlimited Mechanical Life 2. The receiving element must be operated on AC signals,
3. Single Axis Sensitivity otherwise demodulator network is required.
4. Environmentally Robust

Applications
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
• Used in elevators.
Advantages
1. Durability
2. Inexpensive
3. Easy to manage electronic parts
4. Compact Size

Applications
• RVDTs have a well-established reputation for reliability even in the harshest working conditions.
• As such, it is a preferred sensor in manufacturing heavy duty equipment within the aerospace and oil and
gas industries.
• In addition to these, other typical applications of RVDTs include:
• Hydraulic pumps
• Rotary actuators
• Valve positioning
• Throttle lever positioning
3. Capacitive Transducer
• The capacitive transducer or sensor is a capacitor with variable capacitance.
• It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure, force and other physical
quantities.
• The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechanical
movement into an electrical signal.
• In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is fixed, but in variable capacitance
transducers the distance between the two plates is variable.
The capacitive transducer uses the following three effects.
• Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
• The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
• The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
1. Overlapping of capacitor plates
• Here one of the plates is fixed while the other is movable, depending on the nature of the movement,
there may be variation in the area A or the distance d.
• The change in capacitance is given as,
• In case of area variation, where the capacitance plate moves x,
1-a). Overlapping of capacitor plates (Circular)
2. Change of dielectric between plates.

3. Change of distance between plates.

Push Pull Sensor:
(i) Push pull displacement sensor is used to overcome the
non-linearity error.
(ii) The sensor consists of three plates with the upper pair forming
one capacitor and the lower pair forming another capacitor.
(iii) The displacement moves central plate between the two other
plates.
(iv) If the central plate moves downwards.
(v) The plate separation of the upper capacitor increases and the
separation of the lower one decreases.
Advantage of Capacitive Transducer
• It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
• The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
• It requires small power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer
• The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
Applications
• Determining humidity. (Dielectrically glass-ceramic materials for capacitive sensors).
• Linear and Angular displacement.
• Pressure variations by using the variable capacitance.
❖ Strain gauges are passive type resistance sensor whose electrical resistance change
when it is stretched or compressed (mechanically strained) under the application
of force.
❖ The electrical resistance is changed due to the change in length (increases) and
cross sectional area (decreases) of the strain gauge.
❖ This change in resistance is then usually converted into voltage by connecting one,
two or four similar gauges as an arm of a Wheatstone bridge (known as Strain
Gauge Bridge) and applying excitation to the bridge. The bridge output voltage is
then a measure of strain, sensed by each strain gauge
Change in Resistance relation Equation
8. Strain Gauge Sensor
 
Types of Strain Gauges
• Based on the principle of their working – Mechanical, Optical, Acoustical, Pneumatic or Electrical.
• Based on mounting – Bonded and Unbonded.
• Based on construction – Foil, Semiconductor and Photoelectric

Applications
• Rail monitoring
• Cable bridges
• Aerospace
• Nuclear power plants
 Unbonded Type Strain Gauges

► In unbonded type, fine wire filaments (resistance wires) are stretched around
rigid and electrically insulated pins on two frames.
► One frame is fixed and the other is movable.
► The frames are held close with a spring loaded mechanism.
► Due to the relative motion between two frames, the resistance wires are
strained.
► This strain is then can be detected through measurement of the change in
electrical resistance since they are not cemented with the surfaces, they can
be detached and reused
 Bonded Type Strain Gauges

► Bonded type strain gauges consists of resistance elements arranged in the

form of a grid of fine wire, which is cemented to a thin paper sheet or very
thin Bakelite sheet, and covered with a protective sheet of paper or thin
Bakelite
► The paper sheet is then bonded to the surface to be strained. The gauges
have a bonding material which acts an adhesive material during bonding
process of a surface with the gauge element.
► Classification of Bonded Type Strain Gauges:
(i) Fine wire gauges
(ii) Metal foil gauges
(iii)Semiconductor filament type
THANK YOU
 SENSORS &
TRANSDUCER
PART-2
 Eddy current proximity sensors

► Eddy currents, also known as “Focault Currents”, are loops of electric currents
induced in a conductor due to the magnetic field produced by the active coil.
► The conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field and the current is
produced according to the change of magnetic field with time.
► The amount of eddy current produced will be more if the field strength is
greater. When there is high field strength, the conductivity of the metal
conductor increases, causing faster reversals of the field and hence more flow
of eddy currents.
 PRINCIPLE

► When a coil is supplied with alternating

current, an alternating magnetic field is
produced which induces an EMF on it. If
there is a metal near to this alternating
magnetic field, on EMF is induced in it. The
EMF cause current to flow. This current
flow is eddy current.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
Circuit Diagram
 Effective Depth
► The Effective Depth is given by:

δ=1/√fπμσ
δ-Penetration Depth (m)
f-Frequency (Hz)
μ-Magnetic Permeability
σ-Electrical Conductivity (S/m)
Eddy Current Sensor
• Eddy Current sensor – primarily used for displacement and position
measurement of electrically conductive targets.
• Applications in harsh industrial environments due to their superior
tolerance for oil, dirt, dust, moisture and magnetic interference fields.
• Available in miniature and sub-miniature models, they can also be used
for measurement in a space where area is restricted.
Operation
• If a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced.
• If there is a metal object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic field, then eddy currents are induced in it.
• The eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field.
• This distorts the magnetic field responsible for their production.
• As a result, the impedance of the coil changes and so does the amplitude of the alternating current.
• At some preset level, this change can be used to trigger a switch.
• When the object moves, it causes the change in the impedance of the coil, which is proportional to the change in
the distance between the sensor and the target.
 Applications of eddy current proximity
sensors
► Automation requiring precise location
► Machine tool monitoring
► Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
► Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating
element
► Drive shaft monitoring
► Vibration measurements
 Advantages
1. Measurement of distance can be carried out even
in rough or mixed environments.
2. Cost-effective.
3. The device is insensitive to material in the gap
between the probe and the conductor.
4. The device is less expensive and has higher
frequency response than a capacitive transducer.
 Disadvantages

1. The result will be precise only if the gap between the probe and
the conductor is small.
2. The device cannot be used for finding the position of
non-conductive materials. Another way is to connect a thick
conductor onto the non-conductive material.
3. There always occurs a non-linear relationship between the
distance and impedance of the active coil of the device. This
problem can be overcome only by calibrating the device at fixed
intervals.
4. The device is highly temperature sensitive. This can be
overcome by adding a suitable balance coil to the circuit
Hall Effect Transducer
• The Hall effect device is probably the most commonly used
magnetic sensor.
• When the current carrying semiconductor is subjected to a
magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the
semiconductor.
• The effect of the interaction between the moving charge
carriers in the material and the applied field, the Lorentz
force - will be to produce a voltage between the edges of the
semiconductor at right angles to the current and field which
is proportional to the current and the applied magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for
• The polarity of this Hall voltage is determined by the proximity sensing, positioning,
semiconductor material used (p-type or n-type), the direction speed detection, and current
of the current and the direction of the magnetic field. sensing applications.
 Analog Hall-Effect Sensors

❖ These sensors operate over a broader voltage range and also stable in
noisy environments as compared with a basic Hall-sensor. The analog
output Hall-effect device that produces the analog voltage proportional to
the magnetic field to which it is exposed.
Principle of Hall Effect
 Principle

► When a current carrying semiconductor plate is placed in a transverse

magnetic field, it experiences a force (Lorentz force). Due to this action a
beam of charged particles are forced to get displaced from its straight path.
This is known as Hall Effect.
► A current flowing in a semiconductor plate is like a beam of moving charged
particles and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field. The side towards
which the moving electron deflected becomes negatively charged and the
other side of the plate becomes positively charged or the electrons moving
away from it.
► This charge separation produces an electrical voltage which continues until
the Lorentz force on the charged particles from the electric field balances the
forces produced by the magnetic field. The result is a traverse potential
difference known as Hall voltage.
Working
• In a Hall effect sensor, a thin strip of metal has a current applied along it.
• In the presence of a magnetic field, the electrons in the metal strip are deflected toward one edge,
producing a voltage gradient across the short side of the strip (perpendicular to the feed current).
• Hall effect sensors have an advantage over inductive sensors in that, while inductive sensors respond to
a changing magnetic field which induces current in a coil of wire and produces voltage at its output.
• Hall effect sensors can detect static (non-changing) magnetic fields.

This output Hall voltage is given as

Where:
VH is the Hall Voltage in volts
RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
t is the thickness of the sensor in mm
B is the Magnetic Flux density in Tesla
I is the current flow through the sensor in amps
Fluid Level Hall Effect Sensor
Applications
1. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder.
2. Used in consumer equipment, computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers.
3. Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion
engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems.
4. Mobile phone cases have hall effect operation
 Temperature sensors

► Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion

or contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of
conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs.
► Common methods used to measure the temperature are:
(i) Bimetallic strips
(ii) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
(iii) Thermistors
(iv) Thermocouples
(v) Thermo Diodes and Transistors
Bimetallic strips
 Bimetallic strip

► A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips bounded

together and they cannot move relative to each other.
► These metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the
temperature changes the composite strips bends into a curved strip, with the
higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve.
► The principle is that as the temperature changes, one strip will expand more
than the other causing the pair to bend at the free end. Most bimetallic strips
use a high thermal expansion alloy such as steel or stainless steel coupled
with a low thermal expansion alloy such as Invar. Steel and copper or in some
cases, brass is also used instead of copper for bimetallic strips.
► This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as in the
simple thermostat.
 Configuration Of Bimetallic
Temperature Controlled Switch
RTD (Resistance Temp. Detector)
• An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of
a metal changes with changes in temperature.
• In practice, an electrical current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element) located in
proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument.
• This resistance value is then correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance
characteristics of the RTD element.
• RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly replacing thermocouples in industrial
applications below 600 °C.
• RTD have a positive temperature
coefficient (resistance increases with
temperature increases).
• The variation of resistance R with temperature T (°K) can be represented by
Rt = R0 [1+ α (t - t0) + β (t – t0)2 + . . . . ]
• Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at t ℃ and t0 ℃ temperatures. α and β are the constants
depends on the metals.
• This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of temperature, the expression
can be, Rt = R0 [1+ α (t - t0)

• The metals used for RTD are,

1. Platinum
2. Copper
3. Nickel
4. Tungsten
5. Gold and Silver
Construction
• In this RTD, the change in resistance value is very small with respect to the temperature.
• So, the RTD value is measured by using a bridge circuit.
• By supplying the constant electric current to the bridge circuit and measuring the resulting voltage drop
across the resistor, the RTD resistance can be calculated.
• Thereby, the temperature can be also determined. This temperature is determined by converting the RTD
resistance value using a calibration expression.
• The different modules of RTD are shown in below figures.
Limitations
• In the RTD resistance, there will be an I2R power dissipation by the device itself that causes a slight
heating effect. This is called as self-heating in RTD.
• This may also cause an erroneous reading. Thus, the electric current through the RTD resistance must be
kept sufficiently low and constant to avoid self-heating.

Advantages
1. High Accuracy
2. Wide Operating range (Not above 660 ℃)
3. Suitable for precision applications
Applications
Disadvantages
1. Outside air temperature sensor
1. Expensive
2. Transmission oil temp. sensors
2. Inaccuracies from self heating.
3. Uninterruptible power supplies
4. Toasters
5. Electric water heaters
Thermistor
• Thermistor is a special type of variable resistive element that changes its physical
resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.
• Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:
• With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises.
• An NTC is commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in series with a
circuit as an inrush current limiter.
• With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises.
• PTC thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and
used to protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
• Thermistors differ from RTDs in that the material used in a thermistor is
generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.
• The thermistors are in the form of beads, rods and discs but RTDs are in
different shapes and sizes.
• Operating temperature range: typically −90 °C to 130 °C.
Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is linear,
then: ∆R = K ∆T,
where, ∆R – Change in resistance, ∆T – Change in temp, K – First order temp. coefficient of resistance.

Applications • Air conditioners

• Home weather stations
• Welding Equipments
• Audio Amplifiers
• Engine Oil Temperature
• Fast Food Processing
Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming
electrical junctions at differing temperatures.
• A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric
effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
• Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.
Construction & Principle
• A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions.
• One is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring
junction.
• The other junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or reference junction.
• Therefore the thermocouple measures unknown temperature (T1) of the body with reference to the
known temperature (T2) of the other body.
• Thus T1>T2, the electrons at the hot junction is highly
energized than the electrons at the cold junction.
• The highly energized electrons at junction A will move
towards the junction B.
• The electron passes through the copper metal because only
one metal reacts with unknown temperature T1.
• This movement creates a holes at the junction A making it as
positively charged.
• The accumulation of charges at junction B makes it negatively charged.
• Since the junction A is positively charged, it attracts the electrons from junction B, which makes a little
electrons flow through the iron metal slowly.
• The direction of current flow in the hot junction is from copper to iron and at the cold junction is from iron
to copper.
• Thus the current flowing through the thermocouple is measured using a voltmeter connected to the
circuit.
• The measured voltage is proportional to temperature difference.

• V α (T1 – T2)
• V = S (T1 – T2)
• S = S1 – S2
• S1, S2 – Seebeck coefficient
of different metals.
Thermocouple Effects
• Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are
joined together at two junctions (hot & cold), an electromotive force (emf) is
generated at the two junctions. The amount of emf generated is different for different
combinations of the metals.
• Peltier effect: This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states
that the difference of the temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar
conductors by applying the potential variation among them.
• Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals
are joined together forming two junctions, the potential exists within
the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire length of the
conductors within the circuit.
• In most cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small
and it is neglected by proper selection of the metals.
Thermocouple Laws
1. Laws of Homogeneous Circuit 2. Laws of Intermediate Circuit 3. Laws of Intermediate
Temperature.
Law of Homogeneous Circuit
• A circuit composed of a single homogeneous metal, cannot generate an electric potential by the
application of even enough temperature difference between two different points of the circuit.
Law of Intermediate Circuit
• The net EMF in a circuit consisting of an interconnection of several unlike metals, maintained at the
same temperature is zero (No change).
Law of Intermediate Temperature
• It states that the sum of the emf developed by a thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures T1 and T2, and
with its junctions at temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions
are at temperatures T1 and T3.

E1 + E2 = E3
Advantages
• Follow the temperature changes with a small-time lag.
• Convenient for measuring the temperature at one point in an entire apparatus.

Disadvantages
• Low accuracy.
• Should be protect against contamination to ensure long – life.
• Placed remotely from measuring devices.
IC Temperature sensors
 Thermodiode and Thermo Transistor

► Thermodiode is a junction semiconductor diode is

widely used in temperature-measuring
instruments . Such sensor is compact in size and it
has the advantage of giving a response which is a
linear function of temperature.
► Thermo transistor : The base-to-emitter voltage
drop of a transistor operating at a constant
current is a simple function of absolute
temperature. Thus ,any transistor can be used as
a temperature sensor.
Photoelectric Transducer
• The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy into electrical energy.
• It is made of semiconductor material which is a photosensitive element, which ejects the electrons when
the beam of light absorbs through it.
• The discharges of electrons vary the property of the photosensitive element which induces the current.
• The magnitude of the current is equal to the total light absorbed by the photosensitive element.
• The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which falls on their semiconductor material.
• The absorption of light energizes the electrons of the material, and hence the electrons start moving.
The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects.
1. The resistance of the material changes.
2. The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3. The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
Classification
1. Photo emissive Cell
• The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy.
• It consists the anode rode and the cathode plate.
• The cathode is coated with a Photoemissive material called cesium
antimony, Anode is a thin wire.
• Both the anode and the cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated
tube.
• When the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts
emitting from the cathode and moves towards the anode.
• The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric current
starts flowing through the anode.
• The magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the intensity of light
passes through it.
• Application – Controlling the temperature of furnaces.
2. Photo Conductive Cell • The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric
current.
• It uses the semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a
photo sensing element.
• When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their
conductivity increases, and the material works like a closed switch.
• The current starts flowing into the material and deflects the pointer
meter.
• Application: Automatic Street Lights, Automatic Headlight Dimmer
3. Photo Voltaic Cell
• The photovoltaic cell or solar cell is the type of active
transducer.
• The current starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when the
load is connected to it.
• The silicon and selenium are used as a semiconductor material.
• When the semiconductor material absorbs heat, the free
electrons of the material starts moving. This phenomenon is
known as the photovoltaic effect.
• The movements of electrons develop the current in the cell, and
the current is known as the photoelectric current.
4. Photo Diode
• The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the
light into the current.
• The electrons of the semiconductor material start moving when
the photodiode absorbs the light energy.
• The response time of the photodiode is very less. It is designed for
working in reverse bias.
5. Photo Transistor • The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into electric
energy.
• It produces both the current and voltage.
• The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is made of semiconductor
material.
• The semiconductor material is enclosed in an opaque container in which
the light easily reaches to the photosensitive element.
• The element absorbs light, and the current starts flowing from base to
emitter of the device. This current is converted into the voltages.
THANK YOU