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Module 1

Introduction to Mechatronics: Structure of Mechatronics system. Sensors – Characteristics -


Temperature, flow, pressure sensors. Displacement, position and proximity sensing by magnetic,
optical, ultrasonic, inductive, capacitive and eddy current methods.

Encoders: incremental and absolute, gray coded encoder

Resolvers and synchros.

Piezoelectric sensors.

Acoustic Emission sensors.

Principle and types of vibration sensors.

Actuators: Mechanical actuators, Electrical actuators, Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators.

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Introduction
Mechatronics is a synergic combination of mechanical and electrical engineering, computer science
and information technology, which includes control systems as well as numerical methods used to
design products with built-in intelligence. A mechatronic system requires multi-disciplinary approach
for its design, development and implementation. In mechatronics, entire electro mechanical system
is treated concurrently in an integrated manner. The term mechatronics is used for the integration of
microprocessor control systems, electrical systems and mechanical systems. A mechatronic system is
not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a
complete integration of all of them.

Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary approach for the product and manufacturing system design. It
involves application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer engineering to develop products,
processes and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming. All these
disciplines are simultaneously being applied in the system design or in the product design. It is the
integration of many things to make a system that works better than any of them individually. This can
be considered to be the application of computer based digital control techniques, through electronic
and electric interfaces, to mechanical engineering problems.
Examples of mechatronics products include digital cameras, microwave oven, heating control, and
automatic material conveying systems etc. A humanoid robot is another intelligent mechatronic
system. Mechatronic components are more efficient, and cost effective, precise, accurate, reliable
and flexible and have mechanically fewer complexities.
Definitions of mechatronics
The term Mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer in 1969, as a combination of ‘mecha’
from mechanisms and ‘tronics’ from electronics.

To define mechatronics with single sentence “Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of


mechanical engineering with electronics and electrical with intelligent computer control in the design
and manufacture of industrial products, processes and operations”. 2
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There are four main engineering technologies to be integrated to work as a team
 Mechanical engineering contributes in mechatronics by providing various machines and
mechanisms.
 Electrical engineering, provide the AC motor or a DC motor or a servo motor.
 Electronics engineering is providing the microprocessors, which are the brain of the
mechatronic system. Control engineering to design equipment and systems with desired
behaviours.
 Computer engineering is providing
o software programme to control machines and mechanisms.
o product design by 2 dimensional or 3 dimensional drawings of the product etc

Comparison of traditional and mechatronics design


S.No Traditional design Mechatronics design
It is based on a traditional systems such as It is based on mechanical, electronics,
1 mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic computer technology and control
systems. engineering
2 Less flexible. More flexible
3 Less accurate. More accurate
4 More complicate mechanism in design. Less complicate mechanism design
It involves more components and moving It involves fewer components and moving
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parts. parts.
5 Low productivity High productivity
Advantages of mechatronics system
1. Highly versatile process or product
2. Mechatronics enhances the system functionality and features.
3. High reliability and safety
4. Easy control
5. High productivity and flexibility
6. It improves the design time and product size
7. Simplified mechanical design
8. High customer satisfaction
Disadvantages:
1. Different expertise is required
2. Initially system investment is high.
3. Not suitable for small scale industry.
4. Maintenance cost high
Applications mechatronics system
1. Smart consumer products- Home appliances- washing machine, camera, micro-wave, AC etc
2. Automotive –ABS, air bags, cruise control, Aeroplanes and helicopters etc
3. Medical - implant devices, ultrasonic probes, assisted surgeries etc
4. Defence- Unmanned vehicles, jet engines etc
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5. Manufacturing sector-CNC, robotics, Elevators, escalators, sorting and packaging systems in


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production lines etc.


Structure of Mechatronics system or architecture or key elements of mechatronics
A basic structure of the mechatronic system is created by a mechanical system, sensors, actuators and
devices for information processing.
The actuators produce motion or cause some action, the sensors detect the state of the system
parameters, Inputs and, outputs; digital devices control the system; conditioning and interfacing
circuits provide connections between the control circuits and the input/output devices; and graphical
display provide visual feedback to users.
The sensors supply input variables for the information processing, at present usually digital, i.e.
discrete in terms of values and time. The information processing is usually done by a microprocessor.
The information processing determines actions needed to affect appropriately the state variables of
the system. An implementation of the actions is directly in the system by actuators.
A closer look at relations between the system, the sensors, the information processing and the
actuators shows that a description of the relations using flows is useful. In principle, there are three
different types of flows:
 material flow,
 energy flow,
 information flow.

Example of mechatronic system


Automatic washing machines have integrated sensors, controllers and a programmer to
measure the load, fill with water and adjust the temperature. Various programmes are executed
to agitate, wash, rinse and spin dry. The system uses solenoid valves to fill and drain the drum.
It has level and temperature sensors, weight sensor and speed sensor. Depending on the
programme, these are all processed to activate the power control and speed of the motor.

Actuators
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AC or DC Motors, Water inlet/drain and Sensors like Water level, Load, speed sensors
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Mechatronics based Engine management system
This car includes many electronic control systems such as microcontrollers for the control of various
engine factors. The main objective of the system is to ensure that the engine is operated at its
optimum settings. The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing the ignition
and fuelling requirements of the engine. The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying
the ignition timing and the Air fue1 mixture. In modern cars, this is done by microprocessor.

Mechatronics based automatic camera


The modern camera is likely to have automatic focusing and exposure. When the switch is operated
to activate the system and the camera pointed at the object being photographed, the microprocessor
takes the input from the range sensor and sends an output to the lens position drive to move the lens
to achieve focusing. The lens position is fed back to the microprocessor so that the feedback signal
can’ t be used to modify the lens position according to the inputs from the range sensor.

The light sensor gives an input to the microprocessor which then gives an output to determine, if the
photographer has selected the shutter controlled rather than aperture controlled mode, the time for
which the shutter will be opened. When the photograph has been taken, the microprocessor gives an
output to the motor drive to advance the film ready for the next photograph.

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Mechatronic Systems
The mechatronic system is made of several systems like measurement system, drive and actuation
system, control system, microprocessor system, and computer system.
System:
A system can be thought of as a box which has an input and an output and where we are not concerned
with what goes on inside the box but only the relationship between the output and the input.

The system can be purely mechanical, electrical or electronic requiring compatible inputs. But the
mechatronic system is the combination of these systems.

Control System
Everything Needs Controls for Optimum Functioning. A control system is defined as a system of
devices that manages, commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to
achieve a desired result. A control system achieves this through control loops, which are a process
designed to maintain a process variable at a desired set point.

In general representation of control system is output quantity is controlled by varying the input
quantity is called control system. According to two classification open loop, closed loop.

Requirements of a control system


There are three essential requirements of a control system, namely stability, accuracy, and response.

For example, a domestic central heating control system has as its input the temperature required in
the house and as its output the house at that temperature

Open loop control system: If there is no feedback device to compare the actual value with desired
one. No control over its input

Closed loop control system: If there is feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one
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Measurement System:
Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. It has as its input the quantity
being measured and its output the value of that quantity. Its main function is to collect the
information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processors for controlling the whole system.
Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices.
The accuracy of the information and efficient feeding to the microprocessor system, are the two at
most important requirements of the efficient measurement system.

Advantages of sensor technology


1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of manufacturing
system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by
carrying out the preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labours.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.
Sensor
A sensor is a device that detects any physical quantity such as pressure, light, heat, temperature,
humidity, etc. from the outside environment and responds according to the input to produce a desired
output in a format that is easy to read for the user. The output signal of a sensor is not necessarily in
a readable form and it is processed further such as amplify, attenuate or convert using an electronic
circuit into a readable signal.

Transducer
The basic definition for transducer is device that is used for transforming energy from one form to
another form is known as transducer. The main difference between a sensor and a transducer is the
output signal. Transducer output is readable to micro-processor, that means electric pulses (digital
form)

Transducer = Sensor + signal processing =transducer


The term sensor and transducer is used interchangeably in electronics engineering. The terms
“sensor” and “transducer” are often used to describe the same devices.
 Sensor: A device that converts a physical motion into an electrical output.
 Actuator: A device that converts an electrical signal into a physical output.
 Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy into another
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Sensors Characteristics
Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or
measurement system to properly assess its performance. There are a number of performance related
parameters of a transducer or measurement system. These parameters are called as sensor
specifications. The static and dynamic performance characteristics play important role in the selection
of the type of sensors needed for the applications suitable to the mechatronic system.

Sensor static performance characteristics


The range, error, accuracy, sensitivity, repeatability, stability and resolution are some of the static
performance parameters to be looked into before selecting a right sensor.
Dynamic performance characteristics
Response time, rise time, settling time and time constant are the main dynamic characteristics usually
considered in mechatronic application of sensors.
Various specifications or Characteristics of a sensor/transducer system
1. Range
The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For example, a
thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25- 225 °C.

2. Span
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, the above-
mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C

3. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the quantity
being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the actual
displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2mm.
4. Accuracy
The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement result and a
true value of the measurand.
5. Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to the per unit
change in input value that causes the output change.
6. Nonlinearity
The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor from the
ideal curve. The static nonlinearity is dependent upon environmental factors, including temperature,
vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity.
Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input.
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7. Hysteresis
The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in output at any
measurement value within the senso's specified range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. The hysteresis error value is normally
specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified input range.
8. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected
in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full scale reading
or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and
it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device
is 0.2mm.
9. Stability
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a constant
input over a period of time. The term drift is used to indicate the change in output that occurs
over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.
10. Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no
output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of an input
until the output begins to respond or change.
11. Repeatability
It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of same input
value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:
Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range
12. Response time
Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of The
measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output range for which
the response time is defined
Classification of Sensors
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand,
application fields, conversion principle and energy domain of the measurand. 9
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Displacement, Position and Proximity
Displacement sensor
We need to measure an amount by which an object has been moved. This object maybe the
mechanism or the element of a mechanism or machine or an equipment or it may be the object.
Position sensor
These sensors are used to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference point.
This reference point maybe a reference point of the equipment or it may be the reference point of
the space in which the objects are moving.
Proximity sensor
The proximity sensors are the type of position sensors only and they are detecting the movement of
the object with some particular critical distance of the sensor. If the object is coming closer to the
sensor and if it is crossing the critical distance, then the sensor detects that object.
In selecting a displacement, position or proximity sensor, consideration has to be given to:
1. The size of displacement.
2. Whether the displacement is linear or angular.
3. The resolution required.
4. The accuracy required.
5. The cost.
Potentiometer sensor
A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved
over the length of the element. Such elements can be used for linear or rotary displacements.
This device then converts linear or angular movement into a changing resistance that may be
converted directly to voltage and/ or current signals. A known voltage is applied to the resistor
ends.
The length of the sliding contact is affecting the resistance of the system and it is affecting the
potential difference across the connections. If the sliding contact is connected with the physical
element of which the displacement is to be measured.

Galvanometer reading represents Output voltage is the representation of linear and rotary movements
the shaft movement
𝑅𝐴 𝜌𝐿
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦) = ∴𝑉=𝐼∗ (𝜌, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑠𝑜 = 𝑉 ∝ 𝐿 (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝐿 𝐴

As the cable moves linearly, the wiper turns changes the resistance and output.
Applications
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Aerospace applications including fin actuation, flight controls, and valve position measurement,
robotics, lifting devices, manufacturing devices etc
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Strain gauge
Strain gauges are resistance sensor whose electrical resistance change when it is stretched or
compressed (mechanically strained) under the application of force. Strain Gauge is a device whose
electrical resistance varies in proportion to the mechanical factors like Pressure, Force or Strain. The
electrical resistance is changed due to the change in length (increases) and cross sectional area
(decreases) of the strain gauge. The strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a strict of
semiconductor material which can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp.

Operation
The strain gage is tightly bonded or pasted to a measuring object so that the sensing element
(metallic foil) may stretch or contract according to the strain on the measuring object. The
stretching and contraction may result in change length of the strain gauge. The change in length
results change in resistance.
Therefore, we can say,
∆R/R α ε;
∆R/R = G ε
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor

When strain or force is applied on beam of cantilever, it is displaced, then the strain gauges
mounted on the cantilever are also strained which results in one strain gauge is under tension
and one is under compression as shown above and give a resistance change which can be
monitored. The change in resistance is thus measure of displacement of beam of cantilever.

pipe
Wheatstone bridge where the unknown resistor is replaced with a strain gauge. Due to the
external force, the resistance of the strain gauge changes and as a result, the bridge becomes
unbalanced. The output voltage can be calibrated to display the changes in strain.
Based on mounting:
a. Bonded strain gauge
b. Un-bonded strain gauge
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The unbonded resistance strain gauge uses strain-sensitive wire with one end fixed or the other end
attached to a movable element
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Capacitive sensor element-proximity sensor
Capacitive Proximity sensor which detects movement or presence of an object without making any
physical contact with the object and converts that information into an electrical signal. Capacitive
sensors are designed also for measurement of displacement and position.
Capacitance is a measure of the amount of charge that can be stored under the application of an
applied voltage. When two charged plates are closer to each other; then the capacitance developed
in between these two charge plates is directly proportional to their area of overlap, and it is inversely
proportional to the distance between these two plates. This change in capacitance is further utilized
to get the displacement.
𝐴
𝐶=𝜀
𝑑
𝜀 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (constant of proportionalities )
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
The linear displacement can be measured by any of below methods.
1. one of the plates is moved so that the plate separation changes -vertical plate movement
2. Area of overlap changes due to lateral movement of plate
3. moving the dielectric
Let us consider one of these plates is attached to the mechanical element whose displacement is to
be measured. The movement of plate changes the capacitance and capacitance change is a measure
of displacement.

A Capacitive Wheatstone bridge can be used as a sensor signal conditioning circuit that converts its
capacitance to a voltage. The circuit below produces a change in differential voltage as a function of
the capacitance change.
Capacitive sensor as proximity sensor (working)
When an object comes near the sensing surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and
changes the capacitance of the takes place.
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These kind of sensors are used as a proximity for automated guided vehicles, which are mounted on
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the front side of the automated guided vehicles.


Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
The principle of operation is very simple. In linear variable differential transformer, three coils are
used; the first coil is the primary coil; then a set of secondary coils, secondary coil number 1 and
secondary coil number 2. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs
oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored
is placed inside the coil. An alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic
forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its
half portion in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero.

If the core is displaced from the central position as shown in Figure, say more in secondary coil 1 than
in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant
voltage from the coils. The value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with the displacement.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. Since there is no contact or sliding between the
constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable and these sensors are widely used in
servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine tools
The pressure is converted into a displacement by an elastic element like Bourdon tube, diaphragm,
bellows, etc. The change in the electrical parameter is a measure of the magnitude of the pressure.
Inductive proximity switch
An inductive sensor is a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect or
measure objects displacement. Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect
nearby metal objects.
Eddy current proximity sensors
Eddy-current sensors employ the laws of magnetic induction. When the sensing coil is supplied with
an alternating current, it causes a magnetic field to form around the coil.
If there is a metal object near the changing magnetic field, current will flow in the object. This resulting
current (eddy current) flow sets up a new magnetic field that opposes the original magnetic field. The
net effect is that it changes the inductance of the coil in the inductive sensor. This effect can be used
to detect metallic objects that interact with a magnetic field.

The eddy current sensors are used to measure displacement to a nanometer. The eddy current
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technology uses non-contact displacement sensors to measure positional changes in a conductive


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target with high precision and high resolution.


Magnetic sensor
Magnetic sensors are used in detecting and sensing the distance, speed, rotation and position by
converting magnetic information into electrical signals.
When a magnet is brought close to the coil, the magnetic flux density in the coil changes and generates
the voltage at the terminals of the coil. There is no change in the magnetic flux density when the
magnet is not moved. This voltage can be used to measure fluctuations in the magnetic field caused
by changes in position, proximity, pressure, speed, temperature, or other factors.

Hall Effect sensor


Hall sensor is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using
the Hall effect.
Working
In a Hall sensor, a current is applied to a thin strip of metal. In the presence of a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of the current, the charge carriers are deflected by the Lorentz force,
producing a difference in voltage between the two sides of the strip. This voltage difference (the Hall
voltage) is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
If we have a thin conductive plate like the one shown and apply current to it, the charge carriers will
flow in a straight line from one side to the other. Now, if we apply a magnetic field near the plate,
can disrupt the charge carriers' straight flow due to a force known as the Lorentz Force. The electrons
would deflect to one side of the plate, while the positive holes would deflect to the other. This means
that if we now connect the other two sides with a meter, we can get a voltage that can be measured.

The moving gear creates a varying flux that induces a voltage in the coil; the frequency of which is
related to the rotational speed.
The sensor contains a coil that is wrapped
around a magnet which causes a change in the
magnetic field (flux) and the coil as the teeth of
a gear pass the sensor.
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Pneumatic Sensors
Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an
object close to it using compressed air. The displacement and proximity are transformed into
change in air pressure. The physical distance between the baffle and the nozzle alters the
resistance of air flow through the nozzle. The slightest motion imparted to this baffle by changes
in the process variable detected by some sensing element will cause the air pressure to change in
response.

Shaft diameter checker, using air to determine whether or not a machined shaft inserted by a
human operator is of the proper diameter after being manufactured on an assembly line.
Ultrasonic sensors
An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the distance to an object or proximity using
ultrasonic sound waves. The sensor determines the distance to a target by measuring time lapses
between the sending and receiving of the ultrasonic pulse. The acoustic wave signal is an ultrasonic
wave traveling at a frequency above 20kHz. It sends an ultrasonic pulse out at 40kHz which travels
through the air and if there is an obstacle or object, it will bounce back to the sensor. By calculating
the travel time and the speed of sound, the distance can be calculated.

Optical sensor (Photo-electric sensors)


An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic signal. The object to be detected reflects or
interrupts a light beam sent out by an emitting diode and measuring the incident light’s intensity &
changing it into a readable form. Two components in optical sensing viz. transmitter (optical source)
and receiver (optical detector).
Retro-reflective type
The light from the Emitter is normally reflected back to the Receiver by a Reflector installed on the
opposite side. When the sensing object interrupts the light, it reduces the amount of light received.
This reduction in light intensity is used to detect the object.
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Pressure sensors
A pressure sensor is a device that can sense a pressure signal and convert the pressure signal into a
usable output electrical signal according to certain rules. Generally, a pressure transducer consists of
two parts, an elastic material that deforms under the application of pressure and an electrical part
which detects this deformation.
1. Strain gauge pressure sensors
2. Capacitive pressure sensors
3. Piezoelectric pressure sensors
4. Optical pressure sensor etc

Strain gauge pressure sensor


The change in resistance in the sensor is usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This
allows small changes in the resistance of the sensor to be converted to an output voltage. Strain is the
deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress or pressure. Strain gauge
elements can be made of metal or a semiconducting material.

Strain gauge pressure sensor Piezoelectric pressure sensors


Piezoelectric pressure sensors
When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated across the faces of
the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure. The charge magnitude is
proportional to the force applied, and the polarity expresses its direction.
Capacitive pressure sensor
Capacitive pressure sensors measure changes in electrical capacitance caused by the movement of a
diaphragm. A capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a small gap. One of the
plates acts as the diaphragm that is displaced by the pressure, changing the capacitance of the circuit.

Capacitive pressure sensor


Optical pressure sensor
Optic sensor in which light travels from a light source, down an optical fibre, is reflected back from a
diaphragm, and then travels back along a second fibre to a photodetector. The relationship between
the light reflected and the distance from the fibre ends to the diaphragm, thus making the amount of
reflected light dependent upon the diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.
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Tactile sensor
A tactile sensor is also called touch sensor. The tactile sensors act as a switch. Upon contact, pressure,
or force, they activate and behave like a switch. When contact pressure is released, and they behave
like closed switches.
 Capacitance – A change in capacitance is proportional to the applied pressure
 Piezo-resistivity – The resistance varies with applied force because of deformation of the shape.
 Piezoelectricity –magnitude of voltage generated during deformation of the crystal lattice.

Flow sensors
A flow sensor (referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that measures or regulates the
flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes. Flow sensors utilize both mechanical and
electrical subsystems to measure changes in the fluid's physical attributes and calculate its flow. Flow
sensors come in several varieties, which include:
 Mechanical (e.g. Turbine, Propeller, and Paddle Wheel)
 Electromagnetic
 Ultrasonic
With mechanical flow sensors, a rotating mechanical device, such as a paddle wheel mounted on a
bearing, extends from the sensor and sits directly in the flow path. As the fluid moves, the paddle
wheel rotates and its rotation is detected by a sensor such as a Hall effect, or infrared sensor or the
flow sensor then converts the rotations into an output voltage signal which is proportional to the flow
rate. The faster the flow the higher the frequency and the voltage output.

Ultrasonic flow meter sensor


Ultrasonic flow meters use the principles of echo, and variation in the speed of sound across different
mediums to measure flow. The meters typically contain two ultrasonic transducers with one acting as
the transmitter and the other as the receiver. The transmitter timer sends and receives ultrasonic
waves in both directions in the pipe. These sensors measure the time between the emission of the
sound and its contact with the sensor’s receiver to determine the flow rate of the gas or liquid.
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Temperature sensors
Temperature measurements are most widely monitored parameter in science and industry. Most of
the temperature measuring or monitoring systems use the principle of expansion or contraction of
liquids, gases, or solids. This uses the principle of expansion or contraction of liquid to measure the
change in temperature. There are also other techniques such as change in electrical resistance of
conductors and semiconductors and thermoelectric e.m.f. used to measure the temperature.
Contact type temperature Sensors
These types of temperature sensors are needed to be in direct contact with the target being sensed.
Examples
 Bimetallic Thermometers
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 Thermocouples
 Full System Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic strip which converts the temperature into the
mechanical displacement. The working of the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal expansion
property of the metal. The thermal expansion is the tendency of metal in which the volume of metal
changes with the variation in temperature.
It contains two different metal strips of different coefficients of expansion bonded together. On
heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the
outside of the curve and the movement of the strips correlates to temperature and can be indicated
along a scale.

 As the current starts flowing through the circuit, bi-metallic strip gets heated up causing bend
downward (upper materials higher thermal expansion) and circuit breaks. As it cools, circuits
gets closed again.
 As the strips heated, it bend and the electric circuit closed and generates an alarm. In this way
bimetallic strips help to protect the desired application from heating above the pre-set value
of temperature.
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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) sensor
RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. When the temperature of a metal increases, the resistance to the flow of electricity
increases as well. An electrical current is passed through the sensor; the resistance element is used
to measure the resistance of the current being passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance
element increases the electrical resistance also increases.

Thermocouple
Thermocouples are the temperature sensors which are extensively used for the measurement of the
temperature variations. The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This
effect states that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions,
and junctions are maintained at different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced
in this closed circuit.
When two dissimilar metal or conductors are connected together to form a closed circuit and the two
junctions are kept at different temperatures, thermal electromotive force (EMF) is generated at the
temperature gradient zone along the conductor’s length in the circuit. Thus, when one end (cold or
reference junction) is kept constant at a certain temperature, normally 0℃, and the other end
(measuring junction) is exposed to unknown temperature, the temperature at the latter end can be
determined by measuring EMF so generated. Such a combination of two dissimilar metal conductors
is called “Thermocouple.”

Filled System Thermometers


The filled thermal device consists of a primary element that takes the form of a reservoir or bulb, a
flexible capillary tube, and a hollow Bourdon tube that actuates a signal-transmitting device and/or a
local indicating temperature dial. A typical filled-system thermometer is shown in Figure In this
system, the filling fluid, either liquid or gas, expands as temperature increases. This causes the
Bourdon tube to uncoil and indicate the temperature on a calibrated dial.
Thermistors
Thermistors are similar to RTDs in that temperature changes cause measurable resistance changes.
Thermistors are usually made from a polymer or ceramic material. Thermistors are cheaper but are
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also less accurate than RTDs. Thermistors are constructed from semiconductor substances.
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Noncontact Sensors
Most noncontact temperature sensors using thermal radiation principle to measure temperature
ranges from 700 to 40000C
IR sensor- Thermal radiation sensor (radiation thermometers) using IR sensing method
Temperature sensors can also be based on measuring the intensity of thermal radiation emitted by
objects. Each body with a temperature above the absolute zero (0 kelvin) emits an electromagnetic
radiation from its surface, which is proportional to its intrinsic temperature. With the help of a lens
the beams are focused on a detector element, which generates an electrical signal proportional to the
radiation. The signal is amplified and, using successive digital signal processing, is transformed into an
output signal proportional to the object temperature

Optical pyrometer (optical sensor) - In an optical pyrometer, the temperature measurement principle
is used by comparing the brightness. A color disparity with the increase in temperature can be taken
as an index of the temperature. The current within the lamp is regulated until the lamp’s brightness is
equivalent to the image brightness generated through the source of temperature. The flow of current
through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature source when adjusted

Pyroelectric sensors
Pyroelectricity is the property of certain crystalline materials experience a change in their polarization
proportionally to a change in heat. Temperature fluctuations produce a charge change on the surface
of pyroelectric crystals, which produces a corresponding electrical signal. when infrared light strikes
on the face of detector, it is absorbed as heat. This will create polarization generates an electric
output.

Force sensors
A force sensor, also known as a load cell sensor, is a type of transducer, specifically a force transducer.
It converts an input mechanical force such as load, weight, tension, compression or pressure into
another physical variable. In this case, it is converted into an electrical output signal that can be
measured, converted and standardized. As the force applied to the force sensor increases, the
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electrical signal changes proportionally. Any sensor using for pressure sensors can also be used for
force measurements also. Refer the pressure sensors
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Vibration sensors- principle and types
It senses the vibration or to-and-fro movement of any equipment or system at the location where it
is applied. The common application of vibration sensors is found to measure the vibration of rotating
equipment and machines like pumps, compressors, steam turbines, and connected lines. One can
predict possibilities of equipment failure and they can safeguard from breakdown by taking proper
action. Vibration sensors operate based on mechanical, electromagnetic, or optical principles to
detect equipment vibration.
Piezoelectric vibration sensor
Sensor that converts mechanical force caused by vibration or a change in motion, into an electrical
current using the piezoelectric effect.

Strain gauge vibration sensor


One type of vibration sensor is the strain gauge, which is a foil that’s applied directly to the surface of
the machine being monitored. As the grid is stretched or compressed such as when that piece of
equipment is vibrating, it changes the electrical resistance of the grid.

Accelerometers
An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a structure.
The main working principle of an accelerometer is that it converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. When a mass is kept on the sensor which is actually just like a spring it starts moving down.
Since it is moving down it starts experiencing acceleration. That acceleration gets converted into an
amount of electric signal which is used for the measurements of variation in the position of the device.
Piezoelectric, piezoresistive, eddy current and capacitive components are generally used to convert
the mechanical motion caused in accelerometer into an electrical signal.
Piezoelectric accelerometer
The device consists of a piezoelectric quartz crystal on which an accelerative force, whose value is to
be measured, is applied.

Eddy Current type accelerometer


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If a measurement target (metallic) is inserted into this magnetic field, electromagnetic induction
causes magnetic flux to pass over the surface of the object and eddy currents to flow in the vertical
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direction. This causes the inductance of the sensor to change.


Strain gauge Load cell sensor
A load cell converts a force such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into an electrical signal
that can be measured and standardized. It is a force transducer. As the force applied to the load cell
increases, the electrical signal changes proportionally. The common types of load cell are pneumatic,
hydraulic, and strain gauges. Strain gauge load sensors are the most commonly used among the three.
Strain gauge load cells contain strain gauges within them that send up voltage irregularities when
under load.

Piezoelectric sensors
Piezoelectricity is the phenomenon that some materials will produce an electrical voltage when
subjected to mechanical stress and vice versa.
The piezoelectric effect to measure the electrical potential caused by applying mechanical force to a
piezoelectric material. They are based on the principle of electromechanical energy conversion and
primarily measure force, as well as other quantities such as pressure, acceleration, temperature, and
strain by converting the acquired data to an electrical charge.

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Velocity and motion sensors
Encoders
Encoder sensors are a type of mechanical motion sensor that create a digital signal from a motion. It
is an electro-mechanical device that provides users with information on position, velocity and
direction.
Rotary encoders working
The disc has perforated holes along its circumference. Optical encoders have an arrangement of a LED,
light source, and light receiver. There is a continuous passage of light from the LED and the light sensor
is sensing it in a continuous mode. When disc rotates, there is an obstruction for the passage of light.
There is no reception of light at the light sensor. When this perforated hole come in the passage of
the LED light, then the light will pass through this holes and we are getting sensing of the light at the
light sensor. When light passes through one hole, we are getting one pulse. In this way, the number
of pulses are giving us the idea about the angular movement of the disc. The frequency of pulse will
give us the angular velocity.

To find out the direction of rotation as mentioned, we are having outer track, there is a middle track
and there is an inner track. The outer track has number of holes and the middle track also has equal
number of holes. But, here we can notice, there is a change in arrangement of holes in the middle
track. The sets of LED and light sensors are arranged in line.
In a clockwise rotation in the given figure, the light passing through the A hole of the outer track, will
generate volt pulse at the light sensor first and the corresponding hole in the middle track will
generate the pulse of volt, due to reception of light after some time. Middle track signal lags behind
the outer track signal, we are getting clockwise rotation. Middle track will generate the electrical
signal, before or first then the signal it is produced in the outer track it is anti-clockwise direction
Types of encoder
There are two types of encoder they are linear and rotary encoder, the linear encoder would respond
to motion along a path, while the rotary encoder would respond to rotary motion. The linear and
rotary encoders are again divided into two types and they are absolute and incremental encoder.

Based on measurements methods


The designs of absolute encoders and also incremental encoders are virtually the exact same, the
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only distinction remains in the method of measurement.


 Absolute encoder-measure position
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 Incremental encoder-measure distance, speed and relative position


The difference between incremental and absolute encoders can be seen as the difference between a
stopwatch and a clock. A stopwatch measures the relative time that elapses between its start and its
stop, so you can read the time by adding the value of the elapsed time. A clock, on the other hand,
shows the exact current time within a day.

Absolute encoder
With an absolute encoder, the entire rotation circle is divided into a certain number of sectors. These
sectors are numbered. The encoder, during operation, gives the number of the sector in which it is
currently located. That is why it is called absolute. With this type of encoder, it is always possible to
determine at what angle relative to the zero sector the encoder is rotated at a particular moment,
when turning. An absolute encoder produces a code signal at its output.

Advantages of absolute encoders


 The memory is non-volatile so in case of power failure the true position won’t be lost
 Each position is unique
Incremental encoders
An incremental encoder indicates the relative position and direction of movement by adding
incremental pulses to a known start position. The incremental encoder, sometimes called a relative
encoder, is simpler in design than the absolute encoder. It consists of two tracks and two sensors
whose outputs are called channels A and B. As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occur on these channels
at a frequency proportional to the shaft speed, and the phase relationship between the signals yields
the direction of rotation. When the disc is rotated, the output is shown in terms of pulses and these
pulses being proportional to the angle of disc rotation. So the angular position of the disc is
determined by the number of pulses produced. The angle is determined by the number slots on the
disc.
An incremental encoder can measure the change in position, not the absolute position. Every time the
device is switched on or reset, it begins counting from zero and it generates an output signal each time
the shaft moves.
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Gray Code encoder
Gray code is a special class of absolute encoders that provides maximal accuracy. Gray Code is a form
of binary that uses a different method of incrementing from one number to the next. Grey code is defined
as an ordering of the binary number system such that each incremental value can only differ by one bit.

For example,
The representation of the decimal value "1" in binary would normally be "001" and "2" would be
"010". In Gray code, these values are represented as "001" and "011". while changing from decimal 1
to 2, binary code has two changes, 1 to 0 and 0 changed to 1 (digit 2 and digit 3). In gray code, 0 to 1.
That way, incrementing a value from 1 to 2 requires only one bit to change, instead of two. Gray codes
play an important role in error correction. In gray code, while traversing from one step to another step
only one bit in the code group changes.
The encoder, during operation, gives the number of the sector in which it is currently located. The
absolute encoder with binary code faces a drawback which can be solved by gray code encoder. This
avoids the possibility that, when multiple bits change in the binary representation of a position, a
misread will result from some of the bits changing before others.

Binary encoder –possibility of error

Gray encoder-no such possibility


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Synchros and Resolver
It is used for measuring the angle of a rotating shaft into an electric signal (position and speed
measurements). The principles of Synchro are similar to those of an electrical transformer. The
magnitude of the magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary windings varies according to
the position of the rotating element.
Synchro
Synchro has a single winding rotor that rotates inside a stator of three windings, much like an electric
motor as shown below. A synchro sensor provides accurate angular and rotational information. When
the rotor is excited by ac voltage, induces an emf in the stator coils by transformer action. The effective
voltage induced in any stator coil depends upon the angular position of the coil’s axis with respect to
the rotor axis

When a synchro emitter is driven by an AC current, the stator has three output voltages S1–S2,
S2–S3, and S1–S3. Therefore, each set of voltage output (S1–S2, S2–S3, and S1–S3) corresponds
to a unique rotor position.
Resolver sensor
A resolver uses the same basic physical principles as an electrical transformer. It is a special kind
of rotating transformer, includes a stator and rotor in a cylindrical shape.
As the rotor turns, the amplitude of the secondary voltage changes, and establishes two separate
outputs having a relationship. The Reference Winding (rotor windings) is excited by an AC voltage
called the Reference Voltage (Vr). The induced voltages in the Windings are equal to the value of
the Reference Voltage multiplied by the sin or cos of the angle of the input shaft from a fixed zero
point. Thus, the resolver provides two voltages whose ratio represents the absolute position of
the input shaft. (sin θ / cos θ = tan θ, where θ = shaft angle). The output of the transducer has two
signals, one is proportional to the sine of the angle and other is proportional to the cosine of the
angle.

The advantages that resolvers offer over encoders make them better suited for extremely harsh
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applications, such as military and aerospace equipment. Resolvers are ideal for applications where
high temperature, high shock and vibration, and dust/ dirt are factors. Encoders are simple
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construction with high accuracy.


Acoustic Emission sensors
Acoustic emissions happen when a material is under stress or deformation, either from holding a
heavy load or from extremes of temperature. As an acoustic wave travels on or through the
surface of an object any defect it encounters can change that wave, both in terms of its speed and
in terms of its amplitude. Acoustic emission can be thought of as tiny earthquakes that occur in
the material.
The sensors used to record acoustic emissions use a piezoelectric material. Piezoelectricity is the
production of electrical charges by the introduction of mechanical stress.

Applications
Acoustic emission can be applied to a range of applications and materials. These include:
Structures
 Concrete structures such as bridges and buildings
 Metallic structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines, storage tanks, aircraft structures
etc
 Composite structures such as aircraft structures, motorsport structures and composite
beams
 Rotating machinery such as detecting early wear in bearings and gearboxes
 Additive manufacturing for assessing build quality during build
 Leak detection in pipelines and pressure systems

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Actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism
or system, for example by opening a valve. An actuator requires a control signal and a source of
energy. An Actuator is a device which converts electrical energy into physical energy. Actuator
function is opposite to Sensor function. It is used for converting hydraulic, pneumatic, and electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

Most common types of actuators


1. Electric Actuator
2. Mechanical Actuators
3. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Actuator
o Electrical actuators -Ex: Solenoids, Diodes, transistors, and stepper motors etc
o Mechanical actuators --Ex: Gears, Belt and chain drives and bearings etc.
o Hydraulic and pneumatic actuator-- hydraulic and compressed fluid operated devices
On the basis of the movement of the mechanical part, actuators can be divided into
Linear Actuators
If an actuator tends to move an object along a straight line, then such an actuator is known as a linear
actuator. A simple linear actuator typically consists of a nut, a cover, and a sliding tube.
Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators help the object connected to it or a part of the machine rotate about its axis or simply
allows it to exhibit a circular motion.
Solenoid (relay)
If the switch is closed and coil gets energized, the electromagnetic force it will lift the plunger and the
valve opens. Solenoid operated valve operates the opening and closing of valve as per the signals from
the controller.

The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic force which pulls the armature into the coil. This
movement of armature controls the spool position. The main advantage of solenoid actuation is its
less switching time.
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Electric motors
The electric motor is a typical example of an electrically driven actuator. The basic principle for all
working motors is the magnetic attraction and repulsion between two magnetic field. The motor can
be started, stopped and reversed, and the speed can be varied

 Servo motors- Servo motors provide control of position, speed, and torque.
 Stepper motors -Able to rotate by a small fixed angle with precision
 Linear motors- Operate on the same principle as an electric motor but provide linear motion
Stepper motors
A stepper motor is an electric motor whose main feature is that its shaft rotates by performing steps,
that is, by moving by a fixed amount of degrees. The full rotation of the motor is divided into a number
of 'steps'. Stepper motor which is a brushless, synchronous DC motor, moves in discrete steps to
complete its rotation

It includes a rotor which is made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with electromagnets.
As the rotor rotates, the lead screw rotates up and down the precision nut, creating linear motion
without the need for outside mechanical components. In this way, stepper actuators can simplify
many rotary-to-linear applications, while offering high resolution and accuracy.

The stepper motor to be well suitable for the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact
number of pulses without using a feedback sensor. They have a number of industrial applications such
as 3D printing, robotics, CNC machining, medical imaging, and so on.

Advantages of Electrical Actuators:


1. High power conversion efficiency.
2. No pollution of the working environment.
3. The basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than that for fluid power.
4. The drive system is well suited to electronic control.
Disadvantages of Electrical Actuators:
1. A larger and heavier motor must be used which is costly.
2. Compliance and wear problems are causing inaccuracies.
3. Conventional gear-driven creates a backlash.
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Hydraulic actuator
The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful
work. These actuators are driven by the pressure of hydraulic fluid. A hydraulic system is used to
amplify force. In figure, movement of spool valve determines the direction of cylinder movement.

Hydraulic actuators are classified into


 Linear hydraulic actuators: These devices convert hydraulic energy into linear motion.
 Rotary hydraulic actuators: These devices convert hydraulic energy into rotary motion.
Linear hydraulic actuator
They can be classified into
 Single acting cylinder units- apply pressure to only one side of the piston. As a result, a spring
or gravity is required to provide the piston with a return stroke.
 Double acting units- apply pressure on both sides of the piston. The difference in pressure
between the two sides determines to which side the piston moves.

Rotary hydraulic Actuators/hydraulic motors


Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized fluid into rotary motion. A hydraulic motor performs
the opposite function of pump. High pressure oil is ported into one side of the gears, where it flows
around the periphery of the gears, between the gear tips and the wall housings and it flows out making
the rotor to rotate.

Gear motor Vane motor


Vane Motor
A rotary vane motor consists of a rotor with sliding vanes in the slots provided on the rotor. The rotor
is placed eccentrically with the housing. Fluids enters from the inlet port, rotates the rotor and thus
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torque is produced.
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Advantages of hydraulic actuators
1. Generating extremely large force from a very compact actuator.
2. It can also provide precise control at low speeds
3. robust.
4. No mechanical linkages are required.
Disadvantages of hydraulic actuators:
1. Required for a large infrastructure is high-pressure pump, tank, distribution lines.
2. Leakage can occur causing a loss in performance.
3. High maintenance.
Pneumatic actuators
Pneumatic actuators convert energy in the form of compressed air into mechanical motion. Pneumatic
linear actuators work with compressed air, usually at a pressure of between 2 and 8 bar. Pneumatic
actuators can be used for various applications, including pulling/pushing, lifting/moving, or pick-and-
place applications

Often used with valves to control the flow of air through the valve, these actuators generate
considerable force through relatively small pressure changes.
Application
Include lifting devices and humanoid robots with arms and limbs, typically used for lifting.
Advantages of Pneumatic Actuators:
1. Control is simple.
2. It is the cheapest form of all actuators
3. No mechanical transmission is usually required.
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Actuators:
1. More noise and vibration.
2. Since air is compressible, not typically used for applications requiring
3. Pneumatics are not suitable for heavy loads.
Mechanical actuators
Mechanical Actuators are used as a mechanism to translate mechanical motion into linear
motion or with the help of gearing into rotary motion at a different speed. Say for instance, a
rack and a pinion. Rack and Pinion, gears, screw, cam, chain block, belt and chain drive are example
of mechanical actuators
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Pneumatic cylinder cushioning
When the piston of a normal cylinder is about to complete its stroke, the piston runs into a cylinder’s
ends and the cylinder may experience a shock that could be damaging. Hydraulic cylinder cushioning
slows the speed of a cylinder piston before it reaches the end caps. Cushioning is done to reduce
shocks, noise and vibration. The end of travel shock loads can be reduced with fixed cushions or valves
built into the end caps.
 Mechanical and elastic damping: a material (rubber or seal) is used that deforms elastically
when the cylinder collides with it at a specific speed.
 Pneumatic and servo-pneumatic damping. With pneumatic damping, the cylinder is slowed
down by absorbing the energy using compressed air.
 Hydraulic damping. Finally, cylinders can be slowed down by storing the kinetic energy in
viscous fluids such as oil

Hydraulic Accumulator
It is a simple hydraulic device which stores energy in the form of fluid pressure. This stored pressure
may be suddenly or intermittently released as per the requirement. In the case of a hydraulic lift or
hydraulic crane, a large amount of energy is required when the lift or crane is moving upward. This
energy is supplied from the hydraulic accumulator. But when the lift is moving in the downward
direction, it does not require a huge amount of energy. During this particular time, the oil or hydraulic
fluid pumped from the pump is stored in the accumulator for future use.

Comparison between hydraulic and pneumatic systems


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General Advantages or requirements of any sensor
1. Good accuracy,
2. High repeatability,
3. Quick response to variations
4. low cost
5. simple design
6. less environment influence
7. Absence of friction in between
8. There is no hysteresis.
9. Have a good stability
10. Have an excellent resolution
11. Easy for calibration
12. Easy for installation etc
General application areas of sensors
1. Machine tool monitoring
2. Navigation, industrial and scientific applications.
3. Automated guided vehicles(AGVs)
4. Modern computer-numerical control (CNC) machine tolls
5. Factory robots (for welding, spray painting, assembly, inspection, etc.)
6. Micromachining systems
7. Home security systems and robots
8. Surveillance vehicles
9. Space station robots
10. Accelerometers for airbag sensors
11. Controlling and handling equipment,
12. Managing robots, cars, grippers etc
Comparison of temperature sensors
Designers have many choices for contact temperature sensors: thermistors, resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), solid-state current sources, and thermocouples.

Active sensors and static sensors


All sensors may be of two kinds: passive and active.
Passive sensor: it does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an electric signal
in response to an external stimulus. That is, the input stimulus energy is converted by the sensor into
the output signal. Example: a thermocouple, a photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor.
Active Sensor: it requires external power for its operation, which is called an excitation signal. That
signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output signal. Example: a thermistor is a temperature
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sensitive resistor. It does not generate any electric signal, but by passing an electric current through it
its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in current and/or voltage across the thermistor.
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General notes
Proximity Sensors are widely used in industrial and manufacturing applications, especially for safety
and inventory management applications. In an automated production line, for example, it is used for
object detection, positioning, inspection and counting. It is also used for part detection in an industrial
conveyor system.
Types of proximity/position sensor
1. Inductive proximity sensors
2. Capacitive Proximity Sensors
3. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
4. Infrared proximity sensor
5. Optical proximity sensor
6. Hall Effect-Based Magnetic Position Sensors
7. Eddy Current-Based Position Sensors
Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types: contact sensors in which the
measured object comes into mechanical contact with the sensor or non-contacting where there is no
physical contact between the measured object and the sensor.

Advance applications of mechatronics


Modification and improvements to conventional designs by using a mechatronics approach.
Transportation:
o Airbag deployment systems
o Antilock braking systems(ABS)
o Control in intelligent vehicular highway systems(IVHS)
o Navigation systems
o Flight control system
Manufacturing and production engineering:
o Factory robots (for welding, spray painting, assembly, inspection, etc.)
o Automated guided vehicles(AGVs)
o Modern computer-numerical control (CNC) machine tolls
Medical and healthcare;
o robotic technologies for Surgery
o Drug dispensing (intermediary drug)
Modern office environment
o Automated filing systems
o Multi-functional copying machines (perform copying, scanning, printing, fax, etc)
o Climate control system, incorporate mechatronics technology
Household application;
o Home security systems and robots
o Garage door openers
Civil engineering;
o Cranes
o Excavators
Space application;
o Mobile robots such as NANA’s mars exploration rover
o Space station robots
Military Applications:
o Bomb detection robot
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o Surveillance vehicles
o Drones
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*********************************************
Module 1 Questions (KTU questions)
K TU 2018
1. Explain the working principle of thermocouples.
2. What is a thermos pile? What is the principle used to increase the sensitivity of thermopile?
3. Explain the working of any one non-contact temperature measurement system.
4. Illustrate the working of a strain gauged load cell.
5. List four examples of temperature sensors.
6. Explain any two situations when pneumatic actuators are preferred over hydraulic ones.
7. Explain the configuration of a pneumatic actuation system with a block diagram (4)
8. Explain the basic structure of a simple hydraulic circuit?
9. Design a hydraulic circuit for two hand operation of a hydraulic press?

KTU May 2019


1. Compare the working of resolver and synchro.
2. Suggest two applications of Hall effect sensor in mechatronic systems.
3. Describe the terms hysteresis error and non-linearity error.
4. Differentiate between absolute and incremental encoders
5. Explain the working of an optical absolute encoder. How the number of tracks and sectors of
absolute encoder is related to the resolution of the encoder?
6. Draw the encoder wheel layout of a grey coded absolute encoder with 45 degree resolution
7. Explain the working of a double acting hydraulic actuator
8. Why cushioning is necessary for pneumatic actuators
9. Explain how cushioning is achieved in pneumatic actuators with a sketch.

December 2019
1. Explain the working of incremental and absolute optical rotary encoders. Why gray code is
used in coding absolute encoders.
2. Describe the working of LVDT with a neat sketch. (6)
3. Explain the working of any one type each of flow and pressure sensors. (4)
4. Illustrate the working of any one type of (i) Force sensor (ii) Tactile sensor. (10)

March 2020
1. Suggest a method of sensing temperature using non-contact method. Explain the method
with suitable sketch.
2. Distinguish between the features of synchros and resolvers
3. List any two active sensors
4. Describe the working of piezoelectric vibration sensor
5. Describe the working principle and application of acoustic emission sensor system.
6. Explain the working of the elements of a hydraulic power supply unit

June 2020
1. Describe the role of mechatronics in daily life with examples
2. A fluid storage tank set pressure is 5KPa. With neat sketch propose a method to maintain
the set pressure?
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3. Describe the below actuators in detail with neat sketches


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a. Cams, Stepper motor, Linear hydraulic actuator


September 2020
1. Define the following sensor characteristics (i) Time constant (ii) Hysteresis
2. Explain the principle of Hall effect. How a proximity sensor works on the basis of Hall effect?
3. Illustrate the working principle of incremental and absolute rotary encoders.
4. Compare binary and grey code encoders
5. With a neat sketch explain the working of diaphragm operated process control valve
6. Explain the working of any one type of rotary actuator with a neat sketch
December 2020
1. Explain with schematic diagram the working of synchro’s.
2. Illustrate the principle of operation of turbine meter for the measurement of liquid flow.
3. Some temperature-controlled switches are operated by bimetallic strips. Describe how they work.
4. Explain any two static characteristics of a sensor
5. What is meant by rotary actuator?
6. Draw a vane motor and show important parts.

August 2021
1. Illustrate the working of two modes in an ultrasonic proximity sensor.
2. Comment on the dead band of an ultrasonic proximity sensor.
3. Graphically represent the method to find out the non-linearity error. (3)
4. Distinguish between incremental and absolute encoders with neat sketches. (7)
5. Compare binary and grey code encoders (3)
6. With a neat sketch illustrate the function of cylinder end cushioning (5)
December 2021
1. Explain the main components of a Mechatronic Measurement system using block diagram
2. Describe the terms (i) Non Linearity Error (ii) Response time (iii) Output impedance
3. Explain the principle of (i) Eddy current proximity sensors (ii) Pyroelectric sensors
4. Explain the basic principle of an Accelerometer (4)
June 2022
1. What is the working principle of RTD? List out its advantages and disadvantages
2. Explain the working of eddy current proximity sensor
3. Compare the encoder wheel layout of binary code absolute encoder and grey code absolute
encoder with 450 resolutions. Mention the binary to grey code conversion using tabular format.
4. Illustrate the working of an accumulator in hydraulic power supply.

Model Questions from 2019 syllabus


1. Which type of sensor can be used for determining angular movement of a shaft?
2. What is the significance of grey scale in absolute encoders?
3. Which type of actuator can be used for a mechanical system?
4. Explain the significance of grey codes in an absolute optical encoder?
5. Explain cushioning in pneumatic actuator?
6. List and explain in detail the static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor (10 marks)
7. Write a note on rotary actuators. (3 marks)
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8. Explain with a suitable diagram various component of a pneumatic system.


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Questions from other universities
Questions from Introduction
1. Describe the role of mechatronics in daily life with examples
2. Explain merits and demerits of mechatronic system with suitable example.
3. What is 'Mechatronics'? Explain the components of a mechatronic system
4. Explain in detail the scope and importance of mechatronic system
5. What are the key elements of any mechatronic system? Explain its elements in brief.
6. What do you mean by flexible manufacturing system (FMS)? Write merits and demerits of
FMS
7. Explain the basics of micro and nanotechnology including their applications.
8. Explain any two mechatronic systems with suitable diagrams.
a. Engine Management system
b. Automatic Camera
c. Automatic Washing Machine
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Control system
9. With a block diagram, illustrate the elements of a control system.
10. Explain the working of a mechanical device using closed loop control system with the help of
a suitable example.
11. Draw a block diagram of a feedback control system.
12. Differentiate between an open loop and closed loop control system
13. Explain the role of control in mechatronics design.
14. What are the requirements of a control system?
15. Explain the main components of a Mechatronic Measurement system using block diagram
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Sensors
16. What are the selection criteria of any sensor/transducer?
17. Which type of sensor can be used for determining angular movement of a shaft?
18. Explain the working principle of thermocouples.
19. What is a thermos pile? What is the principle used to increase the sensitivity of thermopile?
20. Explain the working of any one non-contact temperature measurement system.
21. Illustrate the working of a strain gauged load cell.
22. List four examples of temperature sensors.
23. List any four techniques to measure an unknown force.
24. Suggest two applications of Hall Effect sensor in mechatronic systems.
25. Explain the principle of Hall Effect. How a proximity sensor works on the basis of Hall Effect?
26. Describe the terms hysteresis error and non-linearity error.
27. Describe the working of LVDT with a neat sketch.
28. Explain the working of any one type each of flow and pressure sensors.
29. Illustrate the principle of operation of turbine meter for the measurement of liquid flow.
30. Distinguish between the features of synchros and resolvers
31. Explain with schematic diagram the working of synchros.
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32. List any two active sensors


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33. Describe the working of piezoelectric vibration sensor


34. Describe the working principle and application of acoustic emission sensor system.
35. Define the following sensor characteristics (i) Time constant (ii) Hysteresis
36. Explain the working of piezoelectric type tactile sensor
37. Some temperature-controlled switches are operated by bimetallic strips. Describe how they
work.
38. Explain any two static characteristics of a sensor
39. List main characteristics of generally used transducers
40. List and explain in detail the static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor
41. Illustrate the working of two modes in an ultrasonic proximity sensor.
42. Comment on the dead band of an ultrasonic proximity sensor.
43. Graphically represent the method to find out the non-linearity error.
44. Describe the terms (i) Non Linearity Error (ii) Response time (iii) Output impedance
45. Explain the principle of (i) Eddy current proximity sensors (ii) Pyro-electric sensors
46. What is the working principle of RTD? List out its advantages and disadvantages
47. Draw a schematic of a magneto-resistive tactile sensor and any three features of the sensor.
48. Illustrate the working of any one type of (i) Force sensor (ii) Tactile sensor.
49. List various types of temperature sensors Give the comparison between RTD and
thermocouple
50. Define the terms stability and resolution
51. Explain types of control systems. (Open and closed loop control system)
52. Explain the methods of high temperature measurement.
53. Explain the working of LVDT
54. Explain about sensor and transducer and differentiate between them?
55. Explain the dynamic characteristics of transducers and their effects on performance of the transducer.
56. What is a Coriolis’s flow meter?
57. Describe the working of an acoustic emission sensing system. List any three applications
58. Sketch the scheme of a piezoelectric vibration sensor. Describe it’s working.
59. Explain the principle, construction and working of Position sensors.
60. Briefly explain any one type of flow sensor:
61. Describe about resolvers and Synchros.
62. Explain how rotary position can be sensed using Synchros:
63. Differentiate between RTD and thermocouple: refer note

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Actuators
64. Explain cushioning in pneumatic actuator?
65. Write a note on rotary actuators.
66. Describe the below actuators in detail with neat sketches
a. Cams b. Stepper motor c. Linear hydraulic actuator
67. Discuss the use of diaphragm actuator in process control valves.
68. Illustrate the working of an accumulator in hydraulic power supply.
69. Draw a vane motor and show important parts.
70. Explain the working of any one type of rotary actuator with a neat sketch
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71. What is the significance of actuators?


72. Write a short note on electrical and mechanical actuators
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Encoder
73. Explain the significance of grey codes in an absolute optical encoder?
74. Differentiate between absolute and incremental encoders
75. Explain the working of an optical absolute encoder. How the number of tracks and sectors of
absolute encoder is related to the resolution of the encoder?
76. Draw the encoder wheel layout of a grey coded absolute encoder with 450 resolution
77. Explain the working of incremental and absolute optical rotary encoders. Why gray code is
used in coding absolute encoders.
78. Illustrate the working principle of incremental and absolute rotary encoders.
79. Compare binary and grey code encoders
80. Compare the encoder wheel layout of binary code absolute encoder and grey code absolute
encoder with 450 resolutions. Mention the binary to grey code conversion using tabular
format.
81. Explain the working of incremental and absolute encoder or Differentiate between absolute
and incremental encoders or Describe the working of an incremental rotary encoder to sense
angular displacement and rotation speed of a shaft or Illustrate the configuration of grey
coded absolute encoder
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