300706 BUILDING 1

MODULE 1
Housing design and site assessment
Introduction

Good housing is one of the essentials for a satisfying and comfortable life. There is a hierarchy to the basic human
requirements to support and maintain life. In descending order they are fresh air, clean water, sufficient food, appropriate
clothing and adequate shelter. The forms of shelter provided in any given society relate to economic and locational
factors as well as to building regulations and issues of style. In the Australian context, housing has developed as largely
low rise and low to medium density. There is nevertheless considerable diversity evident in the design, construction and
operation of our built environment. This unit will look at ways of designing housing to make best use of the local climate
and to avoid the need for large amounts of non-renewable energy to keep interiors comfortable throughout the year. It
will look at how to analyse the environmental factors that operate on a particular proposed building site and how to use
such an analysis to guide and manage design decisions. Finally, it will also briefly describe the history of housing styles in
Australia and how style impacts on the way that we build.

Typical new housing estate, Western Sydney

Passive Solar Design

Designers, developers and builders can have considerable impact on energy consumption through attention to Passive
Solar Design (PSD) principles. The first consideration when attempting to plan a building along passive solar design
principles is to understand the impact of the local climate. In Australia, the CSIRO has established climatic zones, which
are useful in indicating the general design approach to be followed. These are described in Hollo (1995) p18. PSD will
involve different strategies in each of these zones. Some principles apply to all zones but generally the tropics are a
special case.

Passive Solar Design principles can be broken down under the following headings:

1 Orientation
2 Thermal Mass
3 Building Envelope and Fenestration
4 Ventilation and Zoning
5 Insulation
6 Landscaping

A detailed discussion of each principle follows:

Orientation

Passive solar designers generally try to orient their buildings towards the equator, that is, to have them face North in the
southern hemisphere and South in the northern hemisphere. Outside the tropics the angle of elevation of the sun varies
considerably between summer and winter. The tropics, as mentioned before, are a special case because the sun can
enter a building from both the North and the South at different times of year.

From Hollo (1995) p20

Speaking of temperate Australia, the best orientation for a building is where the long side of the building faces North and
South and the short sides face East and West. This is because of the way the sun tracks across the sky. (Please note
that magnetic north is not the same as true or solar north. Here in Sydney magnetic north is approximately 12 degrees
east of true north. This correction varies throughout the earth's surface but is well recorded in most places).

From Hollo (1995) p21

The value of orienting a building in the above fashion is that we can arrange the roof overhang to exclude hot summer
sun whilst permitting entry of the desirable winter sun. The vertical angle of the sun varies according to latitude, time of
day and time of year. For example, at noon in midsummer this angle is 68 degrees in Hobart, 76 degrees in Sydney and
82 degrees in Darwin. Charts are available which give the angle of the sun at all times of the year for any part of
Australia. In addition to roof overhangs, sun control louvres can be designed to take advantage of solar angles.

Note that if you are dealing with a tropical location you need to consider having shading devices (either roof
overhangs or sun control louvres) on both north and south sides of the building.

Generally, though this is not a hard and fast rule, a passive solar designed building will have a length to breadth ratio of
around 2:1, that is, the north/south facing walls should be twice as long as the east/west facing walls. In other words the
long axis of the building runs east to west. This allows the majority of the windows to be along the north side. East facing
and especially west facing windows are to be avoided because low angle sun is very difficult to screen with louvres or
roof overhangs. The only likely exception to this rule is very cold climates where some eastern or western sun may be
desirable for additional solar gain.

The internal planning of the building should ensure that daytime living areas (lounge rooms, family rooms, rumpus rooms
and eat-in kitchens) should be situated along the north side of a house and night time or service areas (bedrooms,
laundries, bathrooms or garages) should be along the south side. All of the above are guidelines and do not prevent other
shapes being used following the general guidelines.

Thermal Mass

Thermal mass is the ability of a material to store heat and is a function of its specific heat and density. Heavy, dense
materials, like stone, concrete, brick or earth walls, store a lot of heat while light materials such as timber, fibro (fibre-
cement) or plasterboard store little heat.
In passive solar design, thermal mass is used to store heat for later use. As well as working on a daily or diurnal basis,
this system can work on a seasonal basis. Not all the stored heat need be re-radiated at night, but there can be a gradual
build up over summer, which is re-radiated in winter. This is sometimes referred to as the flywheel effect and works in
very high mass systems such as thick stonewalls. Obviously the use of thermal mass is most appropriate in climates with
big daily and seasonal ranges and it is largely not appropriate in the coastal tropics.

Building Envelope and Fenestration

The shape, fabric and dimensions of a building can have a dramatic effect on its thermal performance and that of
adjacent buildings. Light colours reflect heat whereas dark colours absorb energy. In a climate with hot summers, light
coloured roof and walls (not necessarily white) can be used to enhance solar effectiveness. Unfortunately, however,
some councils in environmentally sensitive areas, like the Blue Mountains, object to light coloured roofs because they do
not blend into the bushland environment. Dark colours can be used on internal walls of high mass in north facing rooms to
aid in heat absorption.

The unique properties of glass can be used to trap heat. This is because glass is transparent to solar radiation but largely
opaque to the long wave radiation emitted by solid objects as they cool down. This is why a car heats up so dramatically
in the sun. It is the original Greenhouse Effect, now used as a metaphor for the build-up of gases in the atmosphere,
which have the same effect as glass. Double-glazing in cold climates enhances this effect. In Australia, where we are
usually dealing with hot summer climates shading of the summer sun is essential in almost all situations. At least, all
north and west facing glazing should have summer sun protection.

Ventilation and Zoning

In hot climates, especially hot / humid climates, ventilation is critical to performance in summer whereas zoning is
critical in winter. Cross ventilation to collect the prevailing breezes allows for evaporative cooling of interiors. Encouraging
airflow in a building helps it cool down but also removes stale air containing water vapour, carbon dioxide and mould
spores. Relatively straight line cross flows through a building are desirable for cooling and to prevent stale air pockets.
Casement or side-hinged windows can be used to catch breezes that angled to the building.

Zoning is the practice of sealing off areas that need winter heating from the rest of the house where heating is
unnecessary, for example the laundry, garage or utility rooms. Good door seals allow different rooms to be thermally
isolated and thus give energy savings over central heating systems. Obviously zoning is more critical in cold winter
climates.

Insulation

Insulation reduces heat flow through a building component such as a wall floor or roof. The correct level of insulation
should produce energy savings in both summer and winter. There are two main types of insulation:
-Bulk insulation - fibreglass, rock wool, treated paper pulp, wool, cotton wadding or expanded plastic.
-Reflective insulation - foil or sarking.

All insulation carries an R or Resistance value. This indicates the ability of the material to slow down heat flow. Insulation
has to be continuous to be effective. Any wall insulation should be extended to overlap the roof or ceiling insulation. In a
climate like Sydney's it is rarely necessary to insulate a concrete floor slab, however in cold climates it often is necessary.
Care must then be taken to insulate the slab edge as well as its base for continuous cover. Reflective foil insulation has to
be placed properly with regard to bulk insulation in order to avoid condensation problems. In general the foil should be on
the warm side of the bulk insulation. Remember that it is also critical to insulate glazed areas either with pelmetted
curtains or sometimes with double or triple glazing.

Landscaping

Landscaping can be an integral part of passive solar design, for example, the use of deciduous trees on the north side of
a building for shade in summer while allowing the sun in during winter. In addition, planting can provide windbreaks to
screen undesirable hot or cold winds. Trees are actually more effective as windbreaks than solid walls as they allow some
penetration and therefore do not create eddies or updraughts on their lee sides.

Generally planting improves air quality by removing carbon dioxide and stabilising water vapour levels. Some people also
claim that plants can remove toxins from the air although this is less proven.
In summary:

Passive solar design in cold climates looks for

– Lots of north (equatorial) facing glass
– Thermal mass elements to store heat
– Zoning to restrict areas requiring artificial heating
– Insulation to prevent heat loss through lightweight building elements

Passive solar design in hot climates looks for

– Shading of all glazed areas to prevent excessive heat gain
– Ventilation to reduce hest stress and clear stale air
– Light colours to reflect heat
– Landscaping to aid evaporative cooling

In temperate areas these strategies need to be combined and, in particular, the most critical climatic conditions need to
be determined and responded to accordingly. In New South Wales a sustainability index known as BASIX incorporates
the issues of Passive Solar Design and applies to all new housing and significant additions to existing housing.

Site Analysis and Evaluation

When considering the design of housing on a particular parcel of land several issues are worthy of careful consideration
and should be analysed and recorded on a site plan of the proposed development area:
– Local climate
– Planning controls
– Available utilities
– Community services
– Size, orientation and slope
– Microclimate, aspect and prospect
– Existing vegetation
– Rare or endangered species
– Site geology
– Site drainage patterns
– Potential hazards Potential development of surrounding area

Local climate has a significant effect on the way sustainable housing is designed. Individuals should decide whether they
are more stressed by hot or cold weather conditions and as a result decide which passive solar strategies should be
emphasised. When housing is being designed for groups or unknown occupants, then average preferences have to be
considered. It is important to be aware of the nature of planning controls affecting a property at the earliest possible
stage in the decision making process. There may be easements, setbacks, site coverage rules, height limits or other
building restrictions. These set the limits, often known as the ‘planning envelope’, in which it is possible to build.

The availability of utilities such as town water, sewer, electricity, telephone and gas supply is important when planning a
housing development. The location of the connection points is important for site layout and the unavailability of any vital
service at the proposed site is likely to mean considerable added expense in order to make a connection or to establish
alternate ‘stand-alone’ systems. Distance to shopping centres, schools, medical facilities and other community services
as well as the frequency and affordability of public transport to places of employment are likely to be crucial to the
suitability of any decisions on housing location. These matters should be analysed and recorded in any site evaluation.

The size, shape and slope of the individual allotments will have a considerable impact on the house design options.
Narrow or awkward shaped blocks are often unsuitable for standard project homes and require individually designed
solutions. Steeply sloping blocks may have the advantage of great views but they usually need split level designs if
expensive, large scale excavations are to be avoided. It is also less environmentally sustainable to do large scale ‘cut
and fill’ than to customise a design to suit a steep block and fit the floor levels to the existing ground levels. The
microclimate of an individual block of land may vary from the general local climate because of the direction of the slope,
overshadowing by existing buildings or trees and/or the presence of watercourses. These features should be identified in
the initial site evaluation. They are sometimes referred to as the aspect of the block. This is in contrast to the outward
looking features of the block or its prospect. Prospect might also be referred to as outlook or views.

Any existing vegetation on a site should be recorded and evaluated for its suitability to be retained as the site is
developed. Existing established trees and shrubs are a considerable asset to a site as well as providing shade,
windbreaks and wildlife refuge they can contribute towards the fast development of ‘lived in look’ for a suburb or locality.
Evidence of any rare or endangered species that inhabit or pass through the site should be recorded as this may affect
the potential for development of the site or the way that it can be developed. Species and habitat loss are serious issues
which are likely to receive more attention in the coming decades. It would unwise of anyone proposing building a house
or establishing a subdivision to ignore such matters in the way that they were commonly disregarded in the past.
The site geology results in particular conditions for the soil and foundation material on a building site. These control the
kinds of footings that are suitable for the building and sometimes affect the construction systems that can be used. A
qualified engineer usually makes these judgements but a well informed observer can draw some initial conclusions from
the nature of the soil in sample test holes. The topography or landform of the surrounding country affects access and
roads to the site. It may also affect the availability and cost of providing utilities to service the block.

Site drainage patterns can be observed and recorded before they are disturbed by construction and this will give a good
indication of how best to manage stormwater both from roofs and from surface run-off. Water Sensitive Urban Design
(WSUD) for new sub- divisions relies heavily on identifying and retaining existing watercourses and drainage patterns in
housing area design.

Finally any initial site analysis should look carefully for potential hazards that might apply to a proposed housing block.
These could include bushfire danger, flood levels, known storm paths, high wind zones, snow loads, land subsidence,
erosion, contaminated land and earthquake frequency. There are construction systems which deal with each kind of
hazard and the earlier they are identified the easier it is to incorporate them into a sustainable design.

Aerial photo and Site Analysis for multi storey housing development at Rhodes
Nation Viney Architects
History of Housing Styles

Often when working in the area of housing the starting point is not a vacant site but an existing older style house. In order
to make valid decisions about whether or not to demolish and rebuild or to renovate and improve an existing building it is
important to understand and identify the common historical housing styles that we are likely to encounter. Style in
buildings is an emotional issue. People may choose a particular historical revival or they may choose the modernism of
the current day but in either case they are making statements about their values, their aspirations and their view of the
world. In the case of housing it can be regarded as a "third skin", with our actual dermis being the first skin and our
clothing being the second skin. It is not surprising therefore that people often have a deep emotional attachment to their
individual housing but also to their neighbourhoods and their neighbourhood style. Professionals in the building industry
need to be aware of this emotional investment in style because they certainly will be forced to confront it by Resident
Action Groups and the like if they chose to ignore it.

It is necessary to look at a brief history of style development in Australia to see if it is possible to understand the basic
processes and stages. The sketches used come principally, from Robin Boyd's "Australia's Home, Its Origins,
Builders and Occupiers", Melbourne University Press, first published 1952 and reissued 1987. Robin Boyd was an
architect and critic who did much to increase Australia's understanding of our unique built environment. It is difficult to
describe and formulate styles until the passage of time makes them apparent. Contemporary work often seems to fit no
pattern although the pattern may emerge later on. Consequently styles up until the 1970s are quite well understood
whereas developments since then are still in a state of flux and debate. They are not yet far enough in the past for all
commentators to detach themselves from the material fully.

The first style we will look at can be described as Georgian Primitive. Simple and childlike this style takes no account at
all of the Australian climate or landscape. These houses are rare nowadays because they were very small and are
therefore difficult to adapt to modern lifestyles. Nevertheless, individual surviving houses of this kind would certainly have
historic value and be worth preserving because of this. In contrast, there are many more surviving examples of our next
style of Colonial Georgian. The addition of a verandah is the first concession to local climate but these houses are far
from passive solar designed. Once again it is very difficult to retrofit these houses for modern lifestyles. Built long before
the invention of cavity brickwork or brick veneer construction Georgian houses have solid walls and therefore commonly
suffer from dampness and mould problems internally.

The Gothic Revival style was used for everything from tiny cottages to large mansions. It was deliberately impressive
and dramatic as contrasted with the naivety and childlike qualities of the Georgian houses. Of course, these styles were
never clearly separated in time, and older adjacent styles continued to be built while new ones were developing. Vaucluse
House in Sydney is a prime example of gothic revival and displays both the romanticism and the pretentiousness of the
style.
The Italianate style is also referred to as Victorian. Ornament is its principal feature. As well as individual detached
houses, terraces were also built in this style. The typical terrace in Paddington or Glebe is an example of this style. The
Boom Style is also known as Late Victorian or High Victorian. This style is the result of a long period of prosperity and
growth, which followed the gold rushes in Australia. Once again the style was used for terraces as well as detached
houses and much of it remains in our inner city areas particularly in suburbs like Annandale and Newtown.

The Queen Anne Revival style when combined with Edwardian and Art nouveau influences became what we now call
Federation style. It was not called this at the time, but as reported earlier, styles often only crystallise in retrospect.
Federation style was largely restricted to detached houses, not terraces or flats and it was the result of the availability of
new materials like terracotta tiles. Suburbs like Haberfield are known for their federation houses.

The Californian Bungalow was the major style of the inter-war years. The eastern suburbs and the north shore of
Sydney are full of Californian bungalows. They very much represent the aspirations of the generation who lived through
World War One, the Great War, as it was then known. These people looked for a return for simple values, independence
and democracy and saw these values reflected in the new suburbs opened up by the train and tram routes. These
houses still have small windows and not much understanding of passive solar design. This is still imported design but less
inappropriate than the Georgian houses of a century earlier.

Built at the same time as the Californian bungalow, Spanish Mission has been a long lasting style. A form of this style is
still built today but it is called Santa Fe or Tuscan depending on the emphasis. Suburbs like Brighton and Ramsgate
contain a lot of these houses. They are intended to make some concession to climate though this is more stylistic than
real. You will see Waterfall Front houses in Double Bay and parts of Bondi. The style is also called P&O, Ocean liner or
Moderne. This style is a conscious attempt to reject the past and find something new. Many of these houses contain Art
Deco features especially fireplaces, light fittings and plasterwork.

Material shortages and rationing resulted in the Austerity style. Many Sydney suburbs are built of these houses. Once
again a post war world wanted to return to simple values and to separate itself from what had gone before. The L -
shaped house represents the beginning of the project home era. Houses are beginning to be mass-produced so that
craftsmanship and uniqueness are disappearing. Home ownership, however, reaches the highest ever level among the
general population.
 From Boyd (1997)

From Boyd (1997)

Today houses are built in variations of almost all previous styles. People choose what speaks to them emotionally. The
difference in today's housing is that there are now real attempts at designing houses that suit our climate and lifestyle.
Whether this will in the future be seen as a formal style remains to be seen.

Many Councils are attempting to codify what kind of infill development they will permit in heritage areas. This is a difficult
area as many prominent architects object strenuously to these kinds of restrictions on their creativity and furthermore
state that councils are not in a position to make aesthetic judgements for the whole community. Decide for yourselves!