Steering System: Automotive Engineering Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY, Kerem Bayar

Automotive Engineering Y.
Samim ÜNLÜSOY, Kerem Bayar
CHAPTER III
STEERING SYSTEM
III-1. Introduction
All vehicles operating on a non-fixed path require some kind of a steering system
for directional control. Railway vehicles which operate on tracks have fixed paths and therefore
do not require steering.
Directional control includes a change of direction as well as the maintenance of a

required path under the influence of external forces.
III-2. Basic Types of Steering Systems
The following basic steering systems have been used for various vehicles depending
on the requirements of the particular application:
1) Differential (Skid) steering system
Introduction of a velocity differential across the two sides of a vehicle results in a

change of direction. The faster running side covers a greater distance in a given time, thus
turning the vehicle toward the slower running track, Figure III-1. It is also possible to make a
point turn. This system is mostly used in tracked (track laying) vehicles and on some special
purpose (such as small loaders and combat vehicles) tired vehicles.
V2
V
1
Figure III-1 Differential (skid) steering
III - 1
Automotive Engineering Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY, Kerem Bayar
2) Articulated body steering
For this type of steering, the vehicle body is articulated (hinged) at the mid-section
about a vertical axis, Fig. III-2. The front half of the vehicle can thus be rotated with respect to
the rear half. The wheels are fixed on the body. As a result of articulation, the direction of the
front wheels change with respect to the rear wheels, thus steering the vehicle.
Figure III-2 Articulated body steering
This system is used in some type of wheeled off-the-road vehicles in which normal
pivoting of the steering wheels with respect to the body is not possible and/or desirable. For
example, a loader with large diameter tires would require an extremely wide track at the front
if the front wheels are to be pivoted with respect to the body.
3) Fifth wheel steering
This is the familiar system used in horse carriages. The front wheels are fixed on
the solid front axle and are always perpendicular to it. The axle is pivoted on the vehicle body
at its midpoint through a vertical axis. Thus, the axle is free to swivel in a horizontal plane and
hence the name "fifth wheel" is given, Fig. III-3.
Figure III-3 Fifth wheel steering
III - 2
This type of steering system requires a lot of space and a heavy axle and therefore
is unsuitable for motor vehicles. It does, however, find applications in certain trailer and
semitrailer design.
4) Fixed pivot steering system
In this system the steering wheels are pivoted about a vertical axis which is fixed
with respect to the body as illustrated in Fig. III-4. The wheels are interconnected by the
steering linkage which controls their relative motion. The steering wheels maintain a prescribed
angular relationship with each other for the reasons explained in the following section.
The steering wheels on the other hand are normally the front wheels due to stability
reasons. If rear wheels are used for steering, the vehicle will have better maneuvrability at low
speed conditions but at high speeds an unstable situation will arise. Therefore rear wheel
steering is used only on some low speed vehicles operating within constrained area conditions
such as fork-lift trucks and some earthmoving and agricultural machinery.

C D 
G G
1 2

1

2
Figure III-4 Fixed pivot steering geometry.
III - 3
Figure III-5. Kingpin offset, or the scrub radius is the distance between the center line of the
tire and the intersection of the kingpin axis with the ground, shown on the right with rs [1] It is
abbreviated by e, in the simplified figure on the left.
The basic properties of a steering system in modern vehicles are defined by four
geometric properties which describe the relationships between position and orientation of the
wheel steering axis (kingpin axis) within the vehicle:
- Kingpin offset
- Caster offset (is the subject of Chapter 5 Suspension)
- Kingpin inclination
- Caster angle (is the subject of Chapter 5 Suspension)
There are also parameters referenced to the wheel center, such as kingpin offset at
wheel center (r in Figure III-5 right) and caster offset at wheelcenter.
III-3. Geometrically Correct Steering
It is desirable, during cornering, to have all the wheels going through a purely
rotational motion without side-slipping, thus turning about a common instant center. This is
called pure rolling. If this condition is not satisfied, the wheels will work against each other
producing increased wear on the tires, increased effort in the steering wheel, and additional
drag which increases fuel consumption and decreases traction. Pure rolling can only be
achieved by maintaining a particular angular relationship between the front wheels such that
when the steering wheels are deflected from the straight-ahead position, the extension of their
axes of rotation intersect on the extension of the rear axle, Fig. III-6. Therefore, in Fig. III-4,
the distance between the points G1 and G2 can be interpreted as a measure of the deviation from
the pure rolling condition.
III - 4
Figure III-6. Geometrically correct steering
The required angular relationship can be obtained as follows:

CG
cot  = (III-1)
AC
DG
cot  = (III-2)
BD
b = CG - DG
a = AC = BD
CG DG CG - DG b
cot  - cot  = - = =
AC BD a a
b
 cot   cot  (III-3)
a
Knowing the relation between the inner and outer wheel steering angles, in terms
of the vehicle parameters, to obtain pure rolling one can now define a steering error for a given
steering linkage as :
  cor  act (III-4)
for a specified  where  cor is the angle obtained from eqn. (III-3) and  act is the actual angle
provided by the linkage.
It must be noted that, the descriptions of the steering conditions, described so far,
are applicable in low speed applications. At high speeds, deformation of the tires results in slip
angles which alters the position of the instantaneous center(s) of rotation. On the other hand
the requirement for pure rolling of the wheels is fully satisfied by the articulated body and the
fifth wheel steering systems. For practical linkages of reasonable complexity and cost, this
III - 5
relation can only be approximately satisfied over a certain range of steering by the fixed pivot
steering systems. However, practical limitations have made the fixed pivot steering universal
on high speed vehicles.
It is possible to achieve better low speed maneuvrability by four wheel steering

(4WS) while satisfying the geometrically correct steering condition as illustrated in Figure III-
7. By steering wheels at the rear in addition to those on the front a smaller turning radius can
be obtained (Section 3.6 & Example III-3). Recent applications, however, have not been
successful because of certain negative effects on high speed behavior.
Front Rear
Figure III-7. Four wheel steering
III-4. Ackerman Linkage
Long before the advent of the car, in 1818, the German inventor Rudolf Ackerman
patented a device based on the principle of geometrically correct steering. It was, however,
Lankensperberger, a carriage maker in Munich, who first deviced it in 1817.
III - 6
Figure III-8. Ackerman linkage
Ackerman Linkage is basically a four-bar linkage. As the track rod is shorter than
the axle assembly, it moves the right wheel through a larger angle than the left in a right turn,
and vice versa when the car is turning left, as illustrated in Figure III-9, and explained
geometrically in Fig. III-12.1
Axle Beam 
 Stub Axle
Steering
Arm
Tie Rod
Figure III-9. Ackerman linkage
The tie rod can be placed behind or in front of the axle beam. Provided that track
arms are suitably inclined to each other a similar action in both cases can be obtained. The rear
1
Link for a simple video showing how Ackerman linkage works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bX3JQgb7GZk
III - 7
position has the advantage that the tie rod is protected by the axle beam. On the other hand, the
front position leaves more space behind the front axle.
Ackerman linkage gives true rolling of the wheels in only three positions of the stub
axles. One is when the wheels are parallel and the vehicle travelling in a straight line, and the
other positions are when the vehicle is turning either to the right or to the left and the inner
track arm has been turned through a certain angle depending on the design. In any other position
the axes of the front wheels do not intersect on the axis of the back wheels and a certain amount
of lateral slip must occur between some of the wheels and the ground. Except when turning in
a circle of very small radius, the error is small.
The Ackerman Linkage is almost universal even though there are several linkages
which give geometrically correct at all locks. This is because these systems are all somewhat
complicated and they have not proved satisfactory in practice.
Furthermore, in practice, the correct geometric relationship does not have to be

satisfied exactly, because pure rolling of the wheels during cornering can never be achieved.
Tyres must always run at a slip angle during cornering and their motion always include sliding
along with rolling. As a result, modern car designers do not heave to follow geometrically
correct steering strictly.
III-5. Determination of Steering Error
There is no general analytical solution for the determination of the optimum

geometry for the Ackerman linkage and both graphical and analytical solutions are commonly
used. The design procedure starts with th eselection of linkage dimensions; then steering error
is determined to see if the design is satisfactory.
III-5.1 Graphical Method
The graphical method is inconvenient particularly for small wheel deflections; the
instant center of rotation lies at a point rather far away from the main part of the drawing. To
overcome this difficulty, the following procedure is suggested. As shown in Fig. III-10:
i) From the steering pivots A and C, draw lines perpendicular to the rear axle,
intersecting it at points E and F.
III - 8
ii) Draw line GE from the midpoint of the front axle.
iii) Then the lines drawn from the steering pivots A and C to any point on line GE
will result in the steering angles  and satisfying geometrically correct steering.
A I G C
 
H
a
Rear Axle
E b F
Figure III-10. Graphical Analysis.
III - 9
The proof is as follows:

AI AG-IG
cot  = =
IH IH
CI CG+IG AG+IG
cot  = = =
IH IH IH
and
2IG 2AG b
cot  - cot  = = =
IH AE a
In the design of a steering linkage, this graphical method can be utilized in the
following manner.
A steering linkage geometry (dimensions and angles) is assumed and the deflections
of the outer wheel for several known angles of the inner wheel deflection are found graphically.
These values are plotted as in Fig. III-11 and the points of intersection are determined. By
connecting these points one obtains the so called "error curve". The deviation from the
geometrically correct steering can, then, be seen as the deviation of the error curve from the
true steering line.
A G C
1 1
2
2
3 3
Geometrically
Correct
Steering
Line
Error Curve
Figure III-11. Error curve.
Depending on the particular application, the maximum error can be adjusted by

changing linkage geometry.
III - 10
III-5.2 Analytical Method
An analytical method which allows the determination of the rotation angle of the
outer wheel for a given inner wheel angle, provided that the steering linkage geometry is
known, has also been developed.
Two different cases have to be considered:

i) Tie rod in front of the axle (leading link),
ii) Tie rod behind the axle (trailing link).
A B
  
l
n Z 
 
  ln

D
M C
b
Figure III-12 Steering linkage geometry for tie rod behind the axle
In Fig. III-12 the track arms are behind the axle, i.e. the second case is illustrated.

 
2
Using the cosine theorem for the triangle ABD, one can calculate Z.
Z  l2n  b 2  2ln b cos  (III-5)
Knowing Z, and calculating the value of M from the relation
M  b  2ln sin 
the angles  and  can also be determined.
 b 2  Z2  l2 
  cos 1  n  (III-6)
 2bZ 
 
III - 11
 Z2  l 2  M 2 
  cos 1  n  (III-7)
 2Zl 
 n 
From Fig. III-9, the angle  can be expressed in terms of the known angles.

Thus, the output angle  can be obtained in terms of the input angle .

  (III-8)
2
Note that the force transmission angle
  M 2  Z2  l 2 
         cos 1  n  (III-9)
2  2MZ 
 
should be less than about 160o for proper operation of the linkage for the whole range of 
values.
One can derive a similar equations for the other case, i.e., where the tie rod is in
front of the beam axle.
The general requirement from a steering linkage is that up to  = 30o, the difference
between the actual value of  resulting from a proposed linkage and the geometrically correct
value satisfying eqn. (III-3) is as small as possible. A practical limit is specified as:
| act - corr |  0.5o (III-10)
The above limiting value is kept quite tight, since possible variations resulting from
deflections of components, unaccounted clearances, wear, etc., may result in a larger steering
error in operation. In certain cases, the designer may relax the requirement such that the above
relation is satisfied at least up to  = 20o.
Actual realized steering function on strut suspensions deviate only minimally from
the idealized Ackerman function (<3o) This is more easily achieved with front mounted rack
and pinion steering (Section III-8.2) than with steering boxes mounted behind the wheel axis.
[1]
III - 12
Example III-1
For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
 = 20o
ln = 180 mm
b = 1080 mm
a = 2400 mm
Prepare a table including the actual and theoretically correct steering angles, the steering
error and the force transmission angle for input steering angles in the range from 10 to 30 o.
Comment on the design.
Solution :
Let us determine first the  value for geometrically correct steering from eqn. (III-3) for the
input steering angle of 10o at the wheel.
   
 1   1 
cor  tan 1    tan 1    9.28o
b 1   1080  1 
 a tan    2400 
   tan10o 

      90  20  10  60o
2
Z  l2n  b2  2ln b cos   180 2  1080 2  2 180 1080  cos  60 

 1002[mm]
 
1  1080   1002   180 
1
 b 2  Z2  l 2  2 2 2
  cos  n   cos   8.95o

 2bZ 
  2 1080 1002  
 
M  b  2ln sin   1080  2 180  sin  20   956.87[mm]
 
1  1002   180    957 
1
 Z2  l2  M 2  2 2 2
  cos  n   cos   70.37o

 2Zl 
  2 1002 180  
n  
      8.95  70.37  79.32o

act       79.32  20  90  9.32o
2
III - 13
Steering error = act - cor = 9.32 - 9.28 = 0.04o
  M 2  Z2  l 2 
        cos1  n 
2  2MZ 
 
 
1   957   1002   180 
2 2 2
 90  20  10  8.95  cos   121o
 2  957 1002  
 
The results of subsequent calculations are summarized in the table below. The variation of the
steering error is plotted in the figure. Note that the force transmission angle should be less than
about 160o for proper operation of the linkage for the whole range of  values.
According to the table and the plot, the proposed design cannot satisfy the requirement set in
eqn. (III-10) even though it satisfies the condition related to the force transmission angle.
i
θcor o  Force
 θact  o    Error
[ ] Z [mm]
o [ ]
o [ ] [ ]
o o
  [o ]
Transmission
[o] Angle [o]
10 60 1002 8.95 70.37 79.32 9.32 9.28 0.04 121
15 55 988 8.58 74.91 83.49 13.49 13.45 0.05 127
20 50 974. 8.14 79.21 87.34 17.34 17.37 -0.02 133
25 45 961 7.61 83.24 90.86 20.86 21.08 -0.22 138
30 40 949 7.00 87.02 94.02 24.02 24.62 -0.60 144
0,1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-0,1
Steering Error [o]
-0,2
-0,3
-0,4
-0,5
-0,6
-0,7
Steering angle [o]
III - 14
III-6. Multi-axle Steering
There are many vehicles which have more than two axles. Here the term "axle" may
refer to a real beam axle or an independent suspension. As a general rule, for a "n-axle" vehicle,
wheels on at least "n-1" axles should be steered to satisfy geometrically correct steering.
Steering all wheels on all the axles is usually preferred only if better maneuvrability, i.e. a
smaller turning radius, beyond that of steering wheels on "n-1" axles is required, as it involves
more complexity at extra cost. An approximation to geometrically correct steering may be
obtained by steering wheels on "n-2" axles, but whether this approximation is close enough to
be acceptable requires a careful evaluation of the steering errors introduced.
For vehicles with three or more axles, common in heavy commercial vehicles such
as trucks, it is possible to obtain a number of configurations that will provide geometrically
correct steering. All wheel steering (AWS) is usually reserved for vehicles where
maneuvrability requirements are strict and thus extra cost and complexity may be justified.
Mining vehicles and heavy military vehicles are the examples. An example of a six wheeled
AWS vehicle is given in Figure III-13.
Front Rear
Figure III-13. All wheel steering for a three-axle vehicle
Simpler solutions satisfying the condition of geometrically correct steering can be

obtained by steering wheels on two axles only as illustrated in Figures III-14 (a) and (b).
Front Rear
Front Rear
(a) (b)
Figure III-14. Simpler geometrically correct steering configurations
III - 15
Note that if there is a fixed (non-steered) axle on a vehicle the turning center is on
the extension of this axle. If there is no fixed axle, then the turning center is located elsewhere,
depending on the limiting steering angles of the steering axles.
In commercial vehicles such as conventional trucks, the design of the steering

system is based usually on the closest possible approximation of the true rolling condition. In
the case of double rear axle configuration common in heavy trucks, the usual (low cost)
approach is to design the rear axles as close to each other as possible and then replace them by
a single imaginary axle located at the midline between the two as illustrated in Figure III-15. It
is obvious that in this case pure rolling cannot be satisfied; nevertheless a close approximation
can still be achieved. It is possible to evaluate the steering system for a four axled vehicle in
the same manner. Figure III-15 (a) and (b) illustrate two configurations; the first one has
potential to provide an acceptable approximation, while the second configuration will be
unacceptable due to large steering errors involved.
A word of caution: The discussion so far assumes low speeds so that the slip angles
of the tires are negligible.
Front Rear
Imaginary axle
Approximate configuration for three-axle vehicles
Front Rear
Front Rear
Imaginary
Imaginary axle axle
(a) (b)
Figure III-15. Possibly (a) acceptable, (b) unacceptable designs for a four-axle vehicle
III - 16
III-7 Turning Radius
The formal definition of track turning radius as follows:
"The turning radius of an automotive vehicle is the radius of the arc described by
the center of the track made by the outside front wheel of the vehicle when making its shortest
turn".
In order to derive the mathematical expression for the turning radius, some
definitions need to be done first. Wheelbase, measured from the center of the front, to the center
of the rear axle, shown by Figure III-16 below, is an important variable in the vehicle’s ride
and handling properties. Some reference values for the ratio of the wheelbase to the vehicle
overall length are given as [2]
a / length = 0,57 – 0,67 on station wagons
= 0,56 – 0,61 on sedans
The other important dimension for a vehicle is the track, or the tread width, shown by tf (front
one) and tr (rear one) in the figure below. Tread width on passenger cars is normally 1210 to
1602 mm, abd the ratio of the tread width to the vehicle width is usually between 0,84 and 0,87.
Figure III-16. Turning radius.
III - 17
This radius depends on the wheelbase a, the distance b between the steering pivot
axes, the maximum angle  through which the inside front wheel can be turned from the straight
ahead position, and the scrub radius, e, which was illustrated in Figure III-5.
In Fig. III.16,  and  are the inside and outside wheel locks, respectively. The front
and rear tracks are denoted by tfand tr. Note that b is actually the distance between the points
of intersection between the kingpin axis and the ground.
t f = b + 2e (III-11)
one can write
d =  b2 + c2 - 2bccos 180 -  
1/2
cos 180 -  = -cos
1/2
d =  b2 + c2 + 2bccos
Substituting the value of c (c = a / sin ) one obtains:

1/2
 2  a 2 2ab 
d = b +   + 
  sin  tan 
By definition the turning radius is equal to:
RT = d + e
1/2
 2  a 2 2ab 
d = b +   +  e (III-12)
  sin  tan 
The above equation shows that, a smaller turning radius can be obtained if
i) a is smaller, or
ii)  is larger.
In practice, however,  is limited by constructional requirements. At full lock and

bump, the inside wheel must have sufficient foot room. In front wheel drive vehicles there must
be additional space for snow chains. Further aerodynamic drag increases if the steering angle
is too high. Therefore, the inner wheel lock is limited.
III - 18
The outer wheel lock which is smaller is usually not subject to such severe
limitations. Therefore it is possible to increase , thereby decreasing the turning radius at the
expense of increasing steering error. In this case the cornering force capacity of the outer tire
will be higher. One can express track turning radius in terms of the outer wheel lock
corresponding to geometrically correct steering, i.e., corr.
a
RT = +e (III-13)
sin  corr
All the relations derived so far assume geometrically correct steering. In real
applications it is not possible to achieve pure rolling and hence a correction must be included.
Emprically, 1o increase in steering error , reduces track turning radius by 0.05 [m]. The
Therefore, modifying eq. (III-13):
a
RT  + e - 0.05 () (III-14)
sin  corr
It should be noted that correct units should be used for the parameters in eqn. (III-14).
Regarding the scrub radius and its contribution to the turning radius, it should be
noted that in the presence of camber and caster angles (subject of Chapter 5 Suspension) the
scrub radius is increased, the path of the tire contct patch describes a spiral. In this case scrub
radius can not be taken directly as contributing to the radius of a circular path. Therefore the
equations derived above are derived with respect to an ideal condition.
From drivers' point of view turning diameter between kerbs is more important and
can be expressed as, Fig. III-17:
DK = 2RT + SW (III-15)
where SW is the tyre section width.
R
K
Pavement Pavement
Road Surface
R SW/2
T
D
K
Figure III-17. Turning diameter between kerbs

III - 19
Turning diameter, Dw, wall to wall is even more important. It is defined as the
diameter of the circle that the outermost point of the vehicle describes in turning, Fig. III-18.
RW
Figure III-18 Turning diameter between walls
Table III-1 lists the turning circle diameter and the inner and outer wheel lock values
for some vehicle models.
Table III-1 Turning circle diameters for some automobiles
Turning circle diameter [m]
Vehicle Model Left lock/Right lock
Alfa Romeo 159 2.4 20V 2006 11.8/11.8
Audi S6 i A4 2.0 TFSI 2004 11.1/11.3
Audi S6 2006 12.0/12.1
BMW 320D 2005 11.2/11.1
BMW 730D 2005 12.52/12.56
BMW X3 2006 11.9/11.8
BMW ZM Coupe 2006 10.5/10.4
Chrysler 300S AWD 2005 11.9/12.3
Citroen C3 Pluriel 1.4 2003 11.5/11.5
Daihatsu Terios 2006 9.8/9.8
Dacia Logan 2006 11.0/11.2
Fiat Croma 2.2 16V 2005 10.9/11.0
Fiat Panda 1.2 8V 2003 9.9/9.8
Ford Focus CC 2.0 TDCi 2006 11.1/11.5
Ford Mondeo 1.8 Sci 2003 11.4/11.3
Hyundai Santa Fe GLS 2.4 16V 4WD 2001 12.20/11.98
Jaguar XKR 2006 11.1/11.2
Kia Sportage 2.0 CRDi 2006 11.8/11.4
Lamborghini Gallardo Spyder 2006 13.5/13.4
III - 20
Mazda 3 Sport 1.6 2003 11.0/10.9

Mazda 5 1.8 MZR 2005 11.3/11.3
Mercedes-Benz B150 2006 12.1/12.0
Mercedes-Benz ML350 2005 12.0/11.8
Nissan Micra C+C 1.6 2006 10.8/10.8
Opel Corsa 2006 10.6/10.5
Opel Astra Twintop 1.8 Ecotec 2006 11.2/11.3
Peugeot 407 Coupe Sport V6 210 2005 12.4/12.2
Porsche 911 Carrera Cabriolet 2005 11.0/11.00
Renault Clio 1.5 DCI 2005 11.4/11.4
Rolls-Royce Phantom 2006 13.8/13.5
Suzuki Swift 1.3 2005 10.5/10.3
Toyota Avensis 2.2 D-Cat 2005 11.2/11.9
Volkswagen New Beetle Cabriolet 2.0 2003 11.03/11.43
Volkswagen Touareg R5 TDI 2003 12.10/12.0
Table III-2 Turning circle diameter data for some light and heavy commercial vehicles
Turning circle diameter [m]

Vehicle Left Lock Right Lock
Renault Trafic 1.9dCi 80 RK 11.4
Iveco Daily 35S12 11.2
IvecoTurbocity 100 double deck 15.6 15.8
Mercedes 811RD Coach 15.49 12.47
Mitsubishi Canter RK 14.2
Mitsubishi L200 4x4 pickup RK 13.25 13.85
RW 13.45 14.05
Citroen C25D 4x4 Van RK 11.94 12.59
RW 11.73 12.38
Fiat Ducato 1.4 ton Van RK 12.04 12.70
RW 11.62 12.28
III - 21
Table III-3 Turning circle diameters and inner and outer wheel locks for some older models
Turning circle Inner wheel Outer wheel

Vehicle diameter [m] lock [o] lock [o]
RW RK
BMW 2002 10.4 9.6 42 34
VW 1300 11.0 10.5 34 28
VW 1600 11.1 10.3 30 27
Porsche 917 11.8 29 25
Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow 11.6 41 33.5
Ford Cortina 1300 9.14 41.9 37.9
Renault 4L 11.6 39 31.8
Ford Capri 9.75 41.6 39.1
Range Rover 33 29
Audi 100LS 10.5 39 34.16
Mercedes 250 10.85 10.0 43 35
III - 22
III - 23
III - 24
III-8. Steering System Arrangement
There are two main steering mechanisms. First one is called the Pitman arm steering
(or drag link steering). This mechanism converts steering wheel rotary motion by means of a
steering box (where the steering gear is located), Pitman arm, drag link, center link (for
independent front suspensions, subject of Chapter 5), slave (or idler) arm (for independent front
suspensions again, Figure III-24 & 25), steering arm and tie rod connected to the steering arms.
These components can be identified in Figure III-23 24 25 or in the video posted in the foot
note for a rigid axle type suspension.2
III-8.1 Pitman Arm Type Steering
i) The steering wheel rests on top of the steering column. Steering input is fed into the system
through the steering wheel. Very few applications achieve a simple, straight connection
(steering shaft) between the steering wheel and the steering box. Customary practice is
articulated steering columns with one or two joints. A commonly used application for the
steering column is shown in Figure III-19. For different alternatives of steering column
arrangements, the reader is referred to [2].
Figure III-19 Steering column of the VW Golf and Vento [2] the steering tube is carried from
the bottom by the needle bearing 9 and through the top by the ball bearing 10. The spigot of
the steering lock grips into part 5. The almost vertical pinion gear of the rack and pinion steering
(will be explained later in this section)is linked to the inclined steering tube via the intermediate
shaft 6 via the universal joints 7 and 8. The dashpanel is sealed by a gaiter between this
arranegement and the steering wheel.
2
Link to a video showing the functions of the comğonents listed above during steering.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bX3JQgb7GZk
III - 25
ii) The main objective of the steering gear is to multiply the steering effort impressed on the
steering wheel by the driver. Also the turning motion of the steering wheel should be converted
into a linear movement at one end of the Pitman arm.
The gear should also be irreversible to a certain extent such that the inputs through
the road wheels will not be transmitted to the driver completely. A small amount of reversibility
is desired in order to provide a sensory indication - road feel - of the behaviour of the vehicle.
This is necessary so that the right amount of correction can be applied to the steering wheel
before the external disturbances deflect the vehicle from its course. This requirement can be
met by mechanisms that are more efficient in one direction of motion transmission than in the
other.For decades, passenger cars and light trucks have used the concept of recirculating ball
steering gear (with hydraulic assist). The gear mechanism is shown in Figure III-20.
Figure III-20 The rotational motion at the steering wheel is applied to the steering box input
shaft via the steering column. This shaft has a round tread in which ball bearings run, that carry
the steering nut 5 with them when the steering wheel is rotated. The balls which come out of
the thread or the bottom (depending on the direction of rotation) are returned through the tube
6. The nut has teeth on one side which mesh with the toothed segment 7 and therefore with the
steering output shaft 8. [2]
III - 26
Only a few standard design larger saloon cars can be found on the road with manual
recirculating ball steering shown above. For reasons of comfort, current passenger cars of this
type have hydraulic power-assisted steering. The same applies to commercial vehicles; only a
few light vans are still fitted with manual configurations as standard and even these are
available with power-assisted steering now. In Figure III-21, a worm-sector combination is
shown for the steering gear mechanism of a commercial vehicle.
Figure III-21 Steering gear for commercial vehicles
In the hydraulically assisted version of this mechanism, shown in Figure III-22, the
basis is still the manual configuration. However it differs in that the working piston and the
control valve are in a larger but common housing 1. The internal diameter functions as a
working cylinder.The working piston 2 also has toothing similar to the steering nut of the
manual, which meshes into the counter profile of the toothed segment on the steering output
shaft 4.
One side of the piston, depending on the direction is subjected to oil pressure,
thereby hydraulically supporting mechanically introduced axial motion of the piston. Piston
movement rotates a geared sector shaft, mounted perpendicullar to the piston.
iii) The pitman arm is attached to the sector shaft (or the pitman arm shaft) and in turn moves
the steering linkage (or drag link) by means of a ball joint. The steering linkage consists of a
center link with ball joints at either end, connecting to tie rods. To guide the steering linkage,
an idler arm is mounted symmetrically to the Pitman arm on the right side of the vehicle, for
vehicles equipped with independent front suspensions. Tie rods serve as coupling links between
the rigidly mounted steering gear box and steering arms attached to the wheel carriers.
III - 27
Figure III-22 Illustration of the principles of the recirculating ball steering in the neutral psition.
1 Gear housing 2 piston with steering nut 3 steering tube connection 4 steering shaft with
toothed segment 5 steering screw with valve body 6 balls 7 recirculation tube 8 fluid flow
limitation valve 9 /10 valve piston 11/12 inlet groove 13/14 radial groove 15/16 return groove
17 fluid reservoir 18 torsion bar 19 hydraulic pump 20 pressure limiting valve.
Fig. III-23 illustrates the arrangement of conventional steering system for a beam
axle front suspension.
Steering
gear
Drag link Spindle

(stub axle)
Pitman arm
Beam axle
Steering
arm
Tie rod
Figure III-23. Basic steering system for a rigid axle, tie rod behind and in front of the axle on
the left and right, respectively.
III - 28
For vehicles with independent front suspension the layout shown above is not
acceptable. Due to the independent motion of the wheels, their relative position and hence their
distance varies during suspension motion. The fixed length of the tie rod would lead to
excessive "bump steer - unwanted steering input created when one wheel travels up or down"
and therefore it is replaced by a multi-piece tie rod linkage.A transversely mounted center link
connects opposite sides of the vehicle. This transmits steering commands to the idler arm, a
lever mounted symmetricaly to the Pitman arm, as shown in Figure III-24. Two examples of
this arrangement are shown in Figure III-25 and Figure III-26.It should be noted that there are
versions of Pitman arm steering where the inner tie rod ends are actuated directly by means of
the Pitman arm.
It can be seen from both Figure III-25 and Figure III-26 that the joints should
provide degrees of freedom in any direction (fortunately within limited angles), considering
combination of steering and vertical tire motion. Therefore ball joints, constant velocity (CV)
or flexible disc joints are used. As an example, pre-lubricated ball joints on both sides of a tie
rod are shown in Figure III-27.
Slave
(idler) arm Steering
Pitman arm arm
Tie rod
Wishbone
Figure III-24. Multi-piece tie rod linkage.3
3
A video illustrating a multi-piece tie rod linkage. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuEduURvtFo
III - 29
Figure III-25. Front axle of a VW light commercial vehicle. Steering gear, and idler arm are
fastened to the longitudinal members of the frame. [2]
Figure III-26. Top view of the strut damper front axle on a Mercedes vehicle. The intermediate
rod and the tie rods are fixed side by side on the pitman and idler arms and one grips from the
top and the other from the bottom. [2]
III - 30
Figure III-27 Configuration of an adjustable tie rod with pre-lubricated joints and buckle proof
central tube [2]
Depending on the tie rod and the steering arm orientation, there are four different
types of Pitman arm steering version: Pitman arm pointed forward or rearward, each of which
having two sub versions depending on the orientation of the pitman arm and the slave (idler)
arm. These combinations are shown in Figure III-28 below:
Figure III-28 Pitman arm steering, tie

rods connected to Pitman and idler
arm, with or without a center link.
Experience has shown that the best results (best in the sense of being closesest to the
ideal Ackerman steering condition) are obtained with front-mounted tie rod, combined with an
opposite rotating Pitman arm (second alternative in Figure III-28). However this alternative is
nearly impossible in a passenger car, as a forward mounted steering box and Pitman arm would
cause considerable space problems.
III - 31
In general, Pitman arm type steering system is more complicated on the whole
in passenger cars equipped with independent front suspensions compared to rack and pinion
steering systems; however, it sometimes has greater steering elasticity, which reduces the
responsiveness and steering feel in the on-center range (which will be explained later in this
section). Comparing with the rack and pinion steering (with no power assist) this system
-Can be used on rigid axles
-Able to transfer high forces
-Large handwheel input angle possible; the steering gear shaft has a rotation range up to ±45o
which can be further increased by the steering ratio.
-This makes it possible to use long steering arms which result in
-Lower loading to pitman arm and intermediate links in the event of tie rod diagonal forces
occuring
-It is also possible to design tie rods of any desired length, and to have steering kinematics
which allow an increase in the overall steering ratio with increasing steering angles. The
operating forces necessary to park the vehicle are reduced in such cases.
The requirements on the steering ratio is explained in Section III-8.3.
III-8.2Rack and Pinion Steering
Rack and pinion is the most common system found in modern passenger cars and
light commercial vehicles. With this design, a toothed rack is moved by a small pinion at the
lower end of the steering shaft. When the steering wheel is turned, the rack moves from side to
side and through the tie rod linear motion of the steering rack is translated into rotational motion
of the wheel around the kingpin axis.A spring loaded yoke opposite the point of rack
engagement ensures minimal backlash between pinion and rack throughout the rack travel
range. Rack and pinion steering mechanism is illustrated in Fig. III-29. There are four different
configurations of this type of steering gear. They are shown in Figure III-30.
III - 32
Figure III-29. Rack and pinion steering mechanism4
Figure III-30 Three out of four most common types of rack and pinion steering. Type 1: Pinion
gear located outside the vehicle center and tie rod joints screwed into the sides of the steering
rack (side take-off) Type 2: Pinion gear in vehicle center and tie rods taken off at the sides.
Type 3: Pinion gear to the side and tie rods are fixed in the vehicle center to the steering rack.
4
Link to a video explaining how this mechanism functions in a vehicle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTqU35K_8AU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=em1O8mz7sF0 (2:55 – 4:05)
III - 33
Type 1 is the simplest solution requiring least space; the tie rod joints are fixed to
the sides of the steering rack, and neither when the wheels are turned nor when they bottom out
does a moment occur that seeks to turn the steering rack around its center line.
Type 4 is used in the case of McPherson struts (a type of independent suspension,

subject of Chapter 5). It is called “short steering” with off-center pinion gear and both tie rods
fixed to one side of the steering rack. Two applications of this mechanism are illustrated in
Figure III-31.
(a) Damper strut front axle of a VW Polo with short gear steering, long tie rods and a sliding
clutch on the steering tube.[2]
III - 34
(b) Driven McPherson front axle on different Audi models. To avoid high toe-in changes (is
the subject of Chapter 5) when the wheels are bottoming out, center take-off tie rods are used
on highly located rack and pinion steering. The steering damper is fastened to these rods and to
the end of the steering rack. [2]
Figure III-31 Two examples of tie rod fixed to one side of the rack in the vehicle center.
Tie rods can be connected to the rack in either of the two orientations, forward, or
aft pointing, shown in Figure III-32. To initiate correct turning motion, in the case of forward
mounted tie rods, the pinion of a rack and pinion steering box must be located behind the rack,
and for rear mounted tie rods ahead of or directly on the rack.
Figure III-32 Two alternatives of

rack and pinion arrangement
III - 35
For mechanical layout of a rack and pinion steering box, two important parameters
in addition to strength and space considerations are rack diameter and rack length. Rack
diameter is largely determined by strength requirements. Rack length for hydraulically assisted
steering with end mounted tie rod is at least six times rack travel. If this required length can not
be fit into the car, compromises in turning circle or vehicle handling must be accepted.
Advantages of rack and pinion steering over manual recirculating ball steering
systems are:
- Simple construction and manufacture

- Easy to operate due to high efficiency
- Contact between steering rack and pinion is free of play and internal damping is maintained
(for an explanation of how this is achieved, the reader is referred to Figure 4.8 in [2], and
the first video link on page III-33)
- Minimal steering elasticity (the reader is referred to Section 3.7.4 of [2])
- Idler arm and the intermediate rod are no longer needed
- Easy to limit steering rack travel and therefore the steering angle
The main disadvantages are:
-Greater sensitivity to impacts..
-Greater stress in the case of tie rod angular forces
-Any disturbance of the steering wheel is easier to feel
-Tie rod length too short when it is connected to the ends of the rack, i.e. side take-off design.
This affects toe-in curve to bend. (subject of Chapter 5)
-Size of the steering angle dependent on steering rack travel; this sometimes requires short
steering arms resulting in higher forces in the entire steering system
-Decrease in steering ratio over the steering angle while heavy steering during parking, if the
vehicle does not have power assisted steering.
-Can not be used on rigid axles.
III-8.3 Steering Ratio Requirements
The kinematic steering ratio is the ratio of the alteration of the handwheel angle to
the mean front wheel steering angle, measured straight-ahead position.Requirements of the
steering gear ratio are conflicting. In general, considering aforementioned manual (mechanical)
III - 36
steering systems (discarding power assisted steering systems) for high speed driving a low
reduction ratio is preferred for quick response from the road wheels. For city driving and
parking, when steering feels much stiffer, a high ratio is desirable. A good steering gear ratio
represents a balanced combination of compromises depending on the particular application.
For passenger cars, the steering gear ratio varied between a low value of 14 for sporty or high
performance vehicles and a high value of 20 for smaller vehicles. The corresponding range of
gear ratios for commercial vehicles is 20-36. Figures III-33 and 34 show the steering ratio for
both power assisted recirculating ball steering and manual (non power-assisted) rack and pinion
steering.
Figure III-33 Overall steering ratio measured on three conventional passenger cars with power
assisted recirculating ball steering. While the BMW has a ratio which remains almost constant
throughout the turning range it reduces on both sides from around 20o on the Opel and the
Mercedes [2]
Figure III-34 Total steering ratio measured on four front wheel drive passengeer cars with
manual (non power-assisted) rack and pinion steering, entered over the mean steering angle of
the wheels. It is important to note the severe drop in ratio as the wheels are turned more, due
to steering kinematics. [2]
III - 37
On power assisted steering systems the reduction in ratio has a favorable effect on
the handling properties. In the straight running position, a more generous ratio is desirable on
passenger cars at high speeds in order not to make the steering too sensitive, whilst a reducing
ratio could be better for cornering and making parking and maneuvring possible with less turns
of the handwheel.
III-8.4 Steering Assist
Even in small cars of today, manual steering has been replaced by assisted steering, in which
steering forces that must be applied by the driver are reduced by means of hydraulic or electric
driven steering aids. In most power steering equipped passenger cars currently on the market,
assist is provided by hydraulic power steering. The two fundamental manual steering systems
explained above serve as a basis for power assisted steering. The mechanical linkages between
the handwheel and the front wheels are retained. Only the steering box is replaced by a
configuration fitted with a steering valve and a working cylinder. A hydraulic power assisted
rack and pinion steering with a rotary valve is illustrated in Figure III-35.
Figure III-35. Hydraulic power assisted rack and pinion steering
The mechanism is detailed in Figure III-36.
III - 38
Figure III-36 Hydraulic power assisted steering system of the Vauxhall Cavalier. The
individual components are 1 vane pump 2high pressure line from the pump to the steering valve
3 noise insulating line mounting 4 fluid reservoir with fine filter insert 5 return flow line, from
the steering valve to the reservoir 6 suction line between tank and pump 7 belt 8 belt pulley of
the vehicle engine 9 steering gear 10 rotary steering valve 11/12 left and right cylinder line 13
pressure cylinder 14/15 bracket for fixing steering gear 16 dashpanel seal.The system is
illustrated in the video links at the foot note as well.5
A rotary (vane) pump 1, usually driven by the engine by means of a V-belt 7 provide
the necessary pressurized oil by means of a high pressure flexible hose 2 to a rotary steering
valve 10 mounted in the pinion gear housing of the steering gear. In the straight ahead position,
a constant flow of oil passes through the rotary valve and back through a return line 6 to the oil
reservoir. Pressure in both chambers of the power cylinder is equal; there is no steering assist.
Depending on the direction in which the steering wheel is turned and the corresponding
countervailing force at the wheels, it is distributed to the right or left cylinder line 11/12. Both
lead to the working cylinder 13 which, in the configuration shown, is housed in the right hand
part of the rack housing. The force which arises here, supports –via a piston located on the
5
Hydraulic power assisted steering video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6J9kvdSg7E (0:35 - 1:10 min)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fkgp64e-nNQ (0 : 0:32 min)
III - 39
steering rack- the shifting movement and therefore the steering movement of the wheels
introduced by the tie rods.
The required degree of hydraulic assist depends on the worst case maximum
required tie rod force, obtained at maximum wheel lock, with maximum vehicle front end load
and maximum friction with worst possible tire choice plus service brake actuation. Other
parameters are the steering ratio and the maximum permissible driver applied steering wheel
torque. On the basis of the necessary assist force and the maximum pressure supplied by the
pump, one can calculate the required piston surface area and –given steering rack diameter-
required working piston diameter and steering box diameter.
Another important parameter in this mechanism is the volumetric oil flow rate to
be supplied by the pump. This establishes the maximum steering angular velocity that is how
quickly the driver can turn the steering wheel without hydraulic stiffening of the steering
system.
There exists an electronically controlled version of this system in modern vehicles

today, making use of the vehicle speed signal. A control unit evaluates the speed signal and
establishes the degree of hydraulic assist and therefore steering wheel effort, by controlling the
rotary valve accordingly, using an electrohydraulic converter. The hydraulic assist
characteristics of such a system is shown in Figure III-37. This characteristic yields very low
steering effort in parking and the steering effort becomes increasingly similar to that of a purely
mechanical steering system as speed increases. This permits precise and accurate steering at
high speeds. In that sense the system resolves the conflict between low parking effort and high
steering precision.
Figure III-37 “Servotronic” valve characteristic curves [1]
III - 40
A special version of hydarulic steering assist is represented by electrohydraulic

assist. In this, the oil pump is not engine driven, but is driven rather by an electric motor. The
individual components, -electric motor, oil pump, oil reservoir, and electric control module
may be incorporated in a single compact unit. The power steering box remains unaltered (with
the exception of a modified valve characteristic curve).
Advantages of such a power pack are the resulting compactness of the power
steering unit. The system also enables power assist even with the engine shut off (ex coasting,
at stop lights, etc.), in the event the engine dies, steering assist is still available. The
disadvantage is the attainable power limit; application of electro hydraulic steering is not yet
possible in vehicles with high front end loads.
III-8.5 Electric Steering Assist
In these systems, the necessary steering assist is provided directly by an electric

motor which may be located at one of the three locations listed below:
1) The Servo unit, consisting of an electric motor, worm drive, electronics, and sensors is
integrated within the steering column. Advantage of this system is limited space requirements;
steering column and power assist unit assembled as a ready to install unit. Disadvantage is
possible problem with crash behavior, noise, suitable for smaller vehicles with low steering
forces.
2) The servo unit acts on the steering pinion. Advantage is steering box and servo unit are a
single assembly, power assist acts directly on the pinion, yielding a higher steering torque.
Disadvantage is greater space demand within the engine compartment, possible thermal
problems.
3) The power assist unit acts directly on the steering rack. The electric motor is concentric with
the rack and transmits torque by means of a recirculating ball drive. The mechanism is shown
in Figure III-38.6
6
Video showign the mechanism: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fkgp64e-nNQ (0:34 – 1:20 min)
III - 41
Figure III-38 The power assist unit

equipped with the electric motor
acting directly on the steering rack
Advantage is the assist force is generated precisely at the spot where it is needed.
This permits realization of greater rack forces. Disadvantage is higher cost, possible tolerance
problems due to recirculating ball drives, possible thermal problems.
12 Volt electrical system limit the electric assist being applied to luxury vehicles. Also
complex safety measures and higher overall costs compared to conventional hydraulic assist
pose obstacles against rapid adoption. On the other hand, electric steering offers an advantage
over hydraulic solutions in terms of greater fuel savings through on-demand control and a high
level of service friendliness.; oil leek and sealing checks customarily applied to hydraulic
systems are eliminated. Furthermore, electric assist offers being reprogrammed easily to exert
control in response to speed, load or steering angle.
III-8.6 Active Power Steering
These systems superpose a controlled torque over the driver induced steering wheel
torque. Such superposed torque is a function of handling parameters. Modulated by a controller
in response to the situation, it may support driver action to a greater or lesser degree, act
opposite to driver actions, or control steering independently of the driver.
The additional steering angle is defined by the controller and serves to increase vehicle
agility and stability. There is a possibility of adjusting the front wheel steering angle gradient
as a function of road speed and steering wheel angle input. For instance in the active steering
system utilizing an epicyclical (planetary) gear in the posted video7, there is an electric motor
supplementing the driver’s steering wheel input at low speeds, which eases steering effort
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fkgp64e-nNQ (1:20 – 2:30 min)
III - 42
during parking by lowering the effective steering ratio. On the other hand, at high speeds, the
electric motor torque slightly counteracts the driver’s steering wheel input for steering precision
and stability, by increasing the effective steering ratio.
Electric or hydraulic actuators are employed. A direct mechanical connection between

steering wheel and steered road wheels is retained so that in the event of actuator failure,
conventional steering function is still effective. Superposed steering system configurations may
be classified depending on the location of the steering angle/torque superposing mechanism
within the steering system:
1) Superposition of translational motion in the tie road area, steering rack or steering box.
Translation by means of an actuator, for example movement of the steering box housing – is
added to steering rack relative motion. Disadvantages are the increased space requirement for
translation of the steering box and the associated change in the steering geometry.
2) Superposition of rotational motion between steering wheel and steering box.8 This
configuration offers the advantage of permitting an unlimited superposed steering angle,
without altering steering geometry. Such a system is shown in Figure III-39.
Figure III-39 Superposition steering based on angular superposition by means of a planetary

transmission, second planetary transmission to compensate for steering ratio alteration [1]
8
A video (4:45 – 7:06 min) illustrating such a sytem is shown in this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=em1O8mz7sF0
III - 43
Exercises
III-1) The front wheels of an average passenger car has a total rotation (lock to lock) of about
70o. For unassisted steering the number of turns of the steering wheel from lock to lock varies
from 3 to 4 turns. What is the range of steering gear ratios for the average passenger car?
III-2) Illustrate by a sketch and clearly indicate
a) Front and rear tracks, and
b) Wheelbase
for
i) Passenger cars,
ii) Trucks with one front and two rear axles,
- single wheels on all axles, and
- tandem wheels on rear axles.
III-3) Show by illustration that the true rolling condition (geometrically correct steering) can
be obtained for a four wheel steered passenger car in the two special configurations
(exaggerated) illustrated below.
III-4)Illustrate and explain, for the three axle vehicle in the figure, whether the true rolling
condition (geometrically correct steering) can be obtained for the cases :
a) Front wheel steering only, for the case of single front axle and double rear axles.
b) Steering with the wheels on the first two front axles, for the case of two axles in front
and a single rear axle.
c) Steering with the wheels on the first and last axles,
d) All wheel steering.
III - 44
III-5) Consider the cases of
a) Truck (2 axles) and trailer(2 axles), and (first figure below)

b) Tractor (2 axles) and semitrailer (single axle) (second figure below)
and illustrate geometrically
a) the steering error for front wheel steering of the truck and tractor, and
b) how one can obtain pure rolling (show all possible steering configurations to obtain
pure rolling).
III-6) Use your engineering sense and make your choice of steered axles for the 8 wheel vehicle
in the figure. Explain your reasoning and illustrate the resulting steering error (if there is any).
III-7) Indicate the best possible steering configurations for the vehicle with four axles as
illustrated in the figure. Order the possible configurations in the order of closeness to
geometrically correct steering, and in each possible configuration mark the axles as ST: Steered,
NS: Non-Steered. Also indicate (check) if the configuration satisfies geometrically correct
steering (GCS) exactly.
Configuration
Axle 1 Axle 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 … … … … … …
2 … … … … … …
Axle 2 3 … … … … … …
Axle 3 4 … … … … … …
Axle 4 GCS?      
III-8)Illustrate graphically, the practical (approximate) solution with respect to geometrically
correct steering for a vehicle having three axles. Then calculate the outer wheel angle
III - 45
corresponding to an inner wheel angle of 20o for this case. You can neglect the scrub radius for
a first approximation. All dimensions are in [mm].
Ans.: 17.6o 4500 1320
2036
1800
III-9) In a self steering axle the wheels are steered by the action of the lateral tire forces. The
wheels are restrained by springs and dampers which may be preloaded. Self steering axle is
usually used on the rear axles of heavy trucks. A typical example is shown in the figure.
In order to achieve 32 ton load carrying capacity without exceeding the load limit per axle on
roads, you are going to modify a truck by adding a third rear axle to the existing two as
illustrated. Comment on (with illustrations) the steering strategy for the third (additional) axle.
Clearly indicate your choice, stating the advantages and disadvantages involved in each choice.
i) Steer it ? Draw the sketch showing the possible design strategy !

ii) Let it freely determine the wheel steering angles (self steering).
iii) Fix it rigidly so that it is not steered at all!
III - 46
III-10) For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
ln b
 = 25o  0.0797  0.5
b a
a) Plot the actual and theoretically correct steering angle curves.
b) Plot steering error versus input steering angle variation.
c) Plot force transmission angle versus input steering angle variation.
Is this design acceptable ? Explain.
III-11) For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
 = 21o a = 2500 mm b = 1600 mm ln = 200 mm
vary the input steering angle, , in the range 0 to 35o degrees by 1o increments.
a) Plot
i) the actual and theoretically correct steering angle curves,
ii) Plot steering error, and
iii) Plot force transmission angle
versus input steering angle variation. Is this design acceptable ? Explain.
b) If the vehicle is modified by increasing the wheelbase by 10 %, what would be

the effect on steering ? Show by calculation.
III-12)Determine the sensitivities of the track turning diameter to changes in the parameters a,
b, e, ,  , and .
III-13) For the vehicle specified below,
a) What should be the outside wheel lock to obtain geometrically correct steering ?
b) Calculate the track turning diameter for geometrically correct steering.
c) Calculate the outside wheel lock to reduce the turning diameter by 120 [mm].
Wheelbase [mm] 2480 Inside wheel lock [o] 36o

Overall length/width [mm] 4042/1625 Scrub radius [mm] 50
Track (f/r) [mm] 1330/1300
III - 47
III-14) For the vehicle specified below calculate the
i) outer wheel lock, and

ii) track turning circle radius
for geometrically correct steering (i.e. pure rolling).
Wheel base : 3600 mm

Front track : 1600 mm
Scrub radius : 70 mm
Inner wheel lock : 39o
Ans. : 6980 [mm]
III-15) For the vehicle specified below, the turning circle radius is found to be 4.46 m. Estimate
the steering error.
Ans. : 3.3o
III-16) Does the vehicle specified below satisfy the condition for geometrically correct steering
(i.e. pure rolling) ?
Track (f/r) : 1273/1278 mm
Inner wheel lock : 39o18’
Outer wheel lock : 33o
Ans. : No !
III-17) Calculate the turning circle radius for the vehicle specified below.
Outer wheel lock : 32o
Ans. : 4964 [mm]
III - 48
III-18) Calculate the turning circle diameter for two passenger cars with specifications given
below.
Car A Car B
Wheelbase [mm] 2420 2490
Track (front) [mm] 1330 1372
Track (rear) [mm] 1300 1315
Overall length [mm] 4042 4264
Overall width [mm] 1625 1642
Inside wheel lock [o] 35o 50' ± 1o 30' 35o ± 1o 30'
Outside wheel lock [o] 28o 30' 31o
Scrub radius [mm] 55 56
Tires 195/60 R 15 205/65 R 15
III - 49
References
[1] Braess, H-H & Seiffert, U. Handbook of Automotive Engineering.
[2] Reimpell J. and Stoll H. The Automotive Chassis: Engineering Principles. Arnold, London,
1996.
III - 50

Steering System: Automotive Engineering Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY, Kerem Bayar

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Automotive Engineering Y.

Samim ÜNLÜSOY, Kerem Bayar

Directional control includes a change of direction as well as the maintenance of a

III-2. Basic Types of Steering Systems

1) Differential (Skid) steering system

Introduction of a velocity differential across the two sides of a vehicle results in a

Figure III-1 Differential (skid) steering

2) Articulated body steering

Figure III-2 Articulated body steering

3) Fifth wheel steering

Figure III-3 Fifth wheel steering

4) Fixed pivot steering system

Figure III-4 Fixed pivot steering geometry.

III-3. Geometrically Correct Steering

Figure III-6. Geometrically correct steering

The required angular relationship can be obtained as follows:

  cor  act (III-4)

It is possible to achieve better low speed maneuvrability by four wheel steering

Figure III-7. Four wheel steering

III-4. Ackerman Linkage

Figure III-8. Ackerman linkage

Figure III-9. Ackerman linkage

Furthermore, in practice, the correct geometric relationship does not have to be

III-5. Determination of Steering Error

There is no general analytical solution for the determination of the optimum

III-5.1 Graphical Method

ii) Draw line GE from the midpoint of the front axle.

Figure III-10. Graphical Analysis.

The proof is as follows:

Figure III-11. Error curve.

Depending on the particular application, the maximum error can be adjusted by

III-5.2 Analytical Method

Two different cases have to be considered:

Z  l2n  b 2  2ln b cos  (III-5)

Knowing Z, and calculating the value of M from the relation

the angles  and  can also be determined.

Note that the force transmission angle

| act - corr |  0.5o (III-10)

For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:

Z  l2n  b2  2ln b cos   180 2  1080 2  2 180 1080  cos  60 

      8.95  70.37  79.32o

Steering error = act - cor = 9.32 - 9.28 = 0.04o

III-6. Multi-axle Steering

Figure III-13. All wheel steering for a three-axle vehicle

Simpler solutions satisfying the condition of geometrically correct steering can be

In commercial vehicles such as conventional trucks, the design of the steering

Approximate configuration for three-axle vehicles

III-7 Turning Radius

The formal definition of track turning radius as follows:

a / length = 0,57 – 0,67 on station wagons

= 0,56 – 0,61 on sedans

Figure III-16. Turning radius.

one can write

cos 180 -  = -cos

Substituting the value of c (c = a / sin ) one obtains:

By definition the turning radius is equal to:

In practice, however,  is limited by constructional requirements. At full lock and

where SW is the tyre section width.

Figure III-17. Turning diameter between kerbs