Machining (III)

Prof. Dr. Melik DÖLEN

Middle East Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 1

 Content
 Tool Wear and Life
 Machinability
 Cutting Fluids
 Economics of Metal Cutting
Operations
 Optimization Criteria
 Choice of Cutting Conditions
 Unit Production Time
 Unit Production Cost
Photos from internet sites.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 2

 Tool Life - Definitions
A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to
have reached the end of its useful life.

 Criterion to mark the end point for the tool’s life is not
necessarily to correspond to a state that the tool is unable
to cut the workpiece, but that it is merely unsatisfactory for
the purpose.
 Such tools which have consumed their lives maybe
 Resharpened (if applicable) and used again

 Used on less restrictive operations

 Disposed off

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 3

 Tool Wear

 Failure of the tool to perform a desired function

may be due to
 Catastrophic failure
 Fracture Rake
 Temperature Chip
 Gradual (progressive) failure Crater
 Forms of wear wear Tool
 Crater wear Flank
 Flank wear Workpiece
Flank
wear

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 4

 Tool Wear Mechanisms

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 5

 Tool Wear (2)
0.8
Width of flank wear land VB, mm

0.7 D
0.6 Initial Uniform C
0.5 breakdown wear rate Rapid
breakdown
0.4
0.3
0.2 VB
B
0.1

0 50 100 150 200 250

Cutting time, s
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 6
 Tool Wear (3)
A
KT
Rake
Crater

KB
re +
KM

Section A-A A
Zone Zone Zone Wear
B notch
C N

VC VN
re VB b/4
max
b VB

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 7

 Tool Life Criteria
A tool-life criterion is defined as a predetermined threshold value
of a tool-wear measure or the occurrence of a phenomenon.

 For HSS or Ceramic Tools

 Catastrophic failure, or
 VB = 0.3 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B) or ISO
 VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank)
VB = 0.75 mm (HSS – finish)
Schey’s recommendation
VBmax = 1.5 mm (HSS – rough)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 8

 Tool Life Criteria (2)

 For Sintered Carbide Tools:

 VB = 0.3 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B), or
 VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank), or ISO
 KT = 0.06 + 0.3f mm (f : feed)
VB = 0.4 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B), or Schey’s
VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank) recommendation

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 9

 Tool Life

Tool life is defined as the cutting time required

to reach a tool-life criterion.

Most important factor affecting tool life (for a

given work material-tool combination) is the
cutting speed.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 10

 Taylor’s Tool Life Model

Frederick W. Taylor
(1856-1915)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 11

 Taylor’s Equation
vTn = C
 v : cutting speed [m/s]
 T: tool life [min]
 C: Constant [m/s] (cutting speed for 1 min. tool life)

 Typical values of n are

 0.1 HSS
 0.25 Cemented Carbides
 0.3 Coated Carbides
 0.4 Ceramics
 For an approximate value of C: take recommended value and
multiply it by 1.75 (HSS) or 3.5 (Carbides).

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 12

 Extended Taylor’s Equation

K
T 1 1 1 n  n1  n2
v nf n1
d n2

 For HSS: 0.1 < 0.17 < 0.25

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 13

 Machinability
Machinability is defined as the relative ease and economy
with which a material (usually a metal) can be machined
using appropriate tooling and cutting conditions.

 There are various criteria to evaluate machinability:

 Tool life

 Forces and power

 Surface finish

 Ease of chip disposal

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 14

 Material Properties
Affecting Machinability

 Ductility  Abrassive particle

 Strain hardening ability content of workpiece
 Strength  Existence of second-
 Bonding tendency phase particles (lead,
between tool and sulphur, phosphorus,
workpiece
etc.) which are soft or
 Thermal conductivity
softened at high
 Melting temperature
temperatures (favors
machinability!)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 15

 Measure of Machinability
Machinability performance of a test material is measured
relative to that of a base (standard) material.

Most popular measures of performance in machinability testing are

 Tool life: Maximum cutting speed to obtain
a given tool life (i.e. vT)
 Tool wear: Time required to develop a given
amount of flank wear.
 Surface finish: Surface quality obtained at standard speed
and feed.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 16

 Cutting Fluids
 Advantages of using cutting fluids:
 Increase in tool life
 Improvement of surface finish
 Reduction in cutting forces and power
consumption
 Washing chips free from cutting region
 Reduction in thermal distortion of workpiece
 Protection of finished surface from corrosion
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 17
 Cutting Fluids (2)
 Cutting fluids affect
cutting process
through their two
basic actions:
 Lubrication
 Reduces tool friction
 Cooling

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 18

 1) Lubrication
 Forms boundary lubrication and a layer of soft
chemical compound with chip and workpiece at
very low cutting speeds:
 Built-up edge (BUE) formation is reduced.
 Reduction in coefficient of friction, hence increase in
shear angle and reduction in cutting forces.
 Improved surface finish.
 Increase in tool life.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 19

 2) Cooling
 Reduces temperature in cutting area by
removing heat:
 Tool wear is reduced and tool life is increased; tool
material retains its hardness at reduced temperature:
 Tool gains more resistance to abrasion.
 Diffusion wear rate is reduced due to reduced temperature
 However, shear flow stress may increase, resulting reduced
tool life.
 Reduced thermal expansion and distortion of
workpiece (especially in grinding)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 20

 Secondary Function

 An important subsidiary function of

a cutting fluid is to wash away
swarf.
 Third-body abrasion is avoided.
 Or at least reduced!
 Surface finish is improved.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 21

 Effects of Cutting Fluids

Coefficient Heat from friction Heat from

Condition of Friction (kJ/kg of metal deformation (kJ/kg
removed) of metal removed)

Dry 1.0 102.3 222.7

Cutting 0.9 93.9 210.4

fluid
% decrease 10 19.1 12.8

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 22

 Effects of Cutting Fluids (2)
Type of Cutting Fluid Tool Life (min) Power (kW)

Dry 12 1.36

Sulphurised oil 27 1.3

Sulphurised and chlorinated oil 33 1.35

Material cut: Alloy steel

Shear strength: 690 MPa
Effective rake: 15o

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 23

 Types of Cutting Fluids

 Cutting fluids are mainly required to carry

away heat and swarf are generally based on
water:
 Oils and emulsifying agents are added:
 to inhibit rusting,
 to lubricate, to a certain extent.
 Concentrations:
 Grinding (oil/water)  1/40 ... 1/50
 Turning and milling  1/20

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 24

 Types of Cutting Fluids (2)
 Straight cutting oils are blended from two types of oils:
 Fatty oils:
 Organic oils of animal or vegetable origin.
 Mineral oils:
 Paraffin and other petroleum oils.

Fatty Oils: Mineral Oils:

• Have good lubricating properties • Cheaper
• Promote good finishes • More stable
• Less stable than mineral oils
Sulphurized Oil:
• May decompose in prolonged use.
• Lubricates via chemically
combined sulphur:
• Prevents pressure welding of
chip to tool (BUE)
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 25
 Types of Cutting Fluids (3)
 Straight cutting oils have wide application for two major
reasons:
 Employed in automatic machines because water-base coolants
may find their way into headstock, contaminate lubricating oil and
cause serious deterioration of mechanism.
 Promote a superior surface finish in gear cutting, honing,
threading and broaching. Paraffin is sometimes used on aluminum
alloys instead of soluble oils because of its wetting property.
 Greases are more convenient than oils in tapping and reaming
operations

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 26

 Economics of Machining
 Production cost and production rate are vitally important for a
manufacturer.
 Increasing production rate means producing more from the
available resources.
 Decreasing production cost means less expenditure for the
same volume of production.
 If the conditions are so selected to maximize the production
rate and minimize the production cost, his profit can be
maximized.
 It is however not possible to find a common set of
manufacturing conditions to satisfy this.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 27

 Economics of Machining (2)
 A common practice is to treat each case separately
and find the corresponding conditions, then to make a
compromise in between.
 Production of a component involves several machining
operations using a variety of machine tools.
 Only one operation to be performed on one machine
will be considered and the conditions leading to min.
production cost and max. production rate (min. prod.
time) will be evaluated.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 28

 Assumptions
 One operation-one machine, hence prep times
between operations and transportation between
machines are ignored.
 Components are ready at the side of the machine
before operation and to be stacked at the side of the
machine after operation.
 Appropriate tool and cutting fluid have been chosen.
 Depth of cut has been selected at maximum value
(limited by the total stock to be removed, chatter
vibrations, cutting force, etc.)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 29

 Optimization Criteria
 Unit production time: average time taken to produce one
component.
 Unit production cost: total average cost of producing one
component:
 As cutting speed and feed rate are increased, both tend to decrease
due to an increase in metal removal rate.
 At the same time, they may tend to increase due to increased
frequency of tool changes (increasing tool wear rate).
 Optimum conditions do exist where the measure of the selected
criterion is minimum.
 Profit rate: it is very difficult to attribute revenue to individual
operations and profit rate cannot be expressed as an explicit
function of cutting conditions.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 30

 Choice of Cutting Conditions
 Effects of depth of cut, feed rate and cutting speed on metal
removal rate are the same.
 Cutting speed has the highest adverse effect on tool life
amongst the cutting conditions.
 Common practice is to select depth of cut at its maximum value,
then choose feed rate as high as possible considering the
limitations such as the available feeds on the machine, surface
finish requirement, force level which the cutting edge can
withstand, etc.
 Cutting speed will be selected as the one to optimize the
selected criterion.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 31

 Unit Production Time
Unit production time = {time for machining} + {time for tooling}

tpr = tf + ttp

tf = tl + t c ttp = nt tch
where
tl = loading and unloading time/piece
tc= actual machining time /piece
tch= tool changing time (time/edge)
nt = fraction of tool life to cut one piece (edge/piece)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 32

 Unit Production Time
tpr = tl + tc + nt tch

For turning operation:

 volume
V  volume of material to be removed  
 piece 
V
tc  w  chip removal rate
 volume
 time 
w
 time 
tc  machining time  piece 
 

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 33

 Actual Machining Time

V
4
d 2
0 
 d i2 .l

w  d . f .v
di d0
d0  di
d  depth of cut 
2
l
f  feed
v  cutting speed

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 34

 Actual Machining Time (2)
 
d 0  di d 0  di   l d 0  di   l
tc  4  2
d 0  di   f  v f v
2
 d 0  di B
if B  l  tc 
2 f v

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 35

 Actual Machining Time (3)

 N t  no. of pieces to be machined


 during life of one cutting edge
t  pieces    time 
Nt   edge   t  tool life  edge 
tc    
  time 
t c  machining time  piece 
  

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 36

 Unit Production Time
Taylor’s Equation:
1
C  n
vt n
 C  t     tr
 v 
1  n 
tc B B v n
nt  1
  v
 nt 
 v
Nt 1 1
t tr C n tr
C n

Unit production time as a function of the cutting speed :

1 n
 B  1 B
t pr   tl    t ch v n
  1
 v  tr
C n
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 37
 Unit Production Cost
Unit production cost = {cost of machining} + {cost of tooling}

Cpr = Cf + Ctp [cost/piece]

Cf = ( R0 + Rm ) ( tl + tc )

cost of machining time for

per unit time machining
(cost of time)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 38

 Unit Production Cost (2)
R0 = Operator’s wage rate + overheads [money paid/time]
Rm= Machine’s cost (depreciation) rate + overheads [cost/time]

Ctp = nt [ tch ( R0 + Rm ) + Ct ]

tool changing tool

cost cost

Ct = cost of each sharp cutting edge [cost/edge]

tch = tool changing time [time/edge]

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 39

 Cost Parameters
cost of tool
Ct   cost of grinding cutting edge
no. of cutting edges usable
R 0  operator' s wage rate  labor overhead rate as % of op.' s wage rate

cost of machine
Rm   machine overhead rate as % of mach. rate
amortization time

Cost of time: R0 + Rm , usually expressed in cost/hour

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 40

 Unit Production Cost

C pr  R 0  R m t l  t c   n t t ch R 0  R m   C t 

But from the earlier analysis:

1 n 
B B v n
tc  and nt 
v 1
tr
C n

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 41

 Unit Production Cost (2)

Substituting these in the main equation, unit production cost can be

expressed as a function of the cutting speed:

1 n
 B 1 B
C pr  R0  Rm  t l    t ch R0  Rm   C t v n
  1
 v tr
Cn

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 42

 Optimum Conditions
 In order to get the optimum conditions (i.e. the
optimum cutting speed), one needs to optimize the
objective function according to the selected criterion.
 It is necessary to find the point where the slope of
the objective function is zero, (i.e. the partial
derivative of the objective function w.r.t. the cutting
speed) is zero.
 Solving for the cutting speed to satisfy that condition
will give the optimum cutting speed for the selected
criterion.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 43

 Minimization of Unit Production Cost
C pr
0
v
Solving for the cutting speed gives the cutting speed for
minimum cost, vmc and the corresponding tool life tmc:
n 1/ n
 n ( Ro  Rm )t r   C 
vmc  C   tmc  tr  
1  n [t (
ch oR  Rm )  C ]
t   vmc 

1 n  Ct 
tmc  tch  
n  Ro  Rm 

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 44

 Maximization of Production Rate
t pr
0
v
Solving for the cutting speed gives the cutting speed for maximum
production rate, vmp and the corresponding tool life tmp:
n 1/ n
 n tr   C 
vmp  C    t mp  t r  
 vmp 
1  n tch   
1 n
t mp  tch
n

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 45

 Machining at High Efficiency

unit prod. cost

Unit production cost

Production rate
production rate

high
efficiency
range

vmc vmp Speed

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 46

 Problem 1

A coated carbide cutting tool has 60 min tool life when

cutting mild steel at 1.2 m/s. If Taylor’s tool-life
exponent is 0.25.
a) find Taylor’s tool-life constant
b) find the tool life if the cutting speed is doubled.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 47

 Problem 2
A mill roll that is 2 m long and 50 cm in diameter is to be rough turned
to a diameter of 49.2 cm. Work material is alloy steel with a hardness of
300 BHN. The labour and the machine costs including the overheads are
$20.00 per hour for each. The loading and unloading time is 10 min.
There are two alternatives for the tool material to be used:
i) an HSS tool which costs $2.00 and can be ground 10 times with a cost
of $1.20 per grind. Removing and resetting the tool requires 4 min.
ii) a triangular throwaway carbide tool having 3 cutting edges costs
$6.00. Indexing the tool takes 2 min.
a) Which type of tool should be used?
b) What would be the unit production cost if cost minimization criterion
is applied when WC tool is used? Assume that the recommended
cutting speeds correspond to a tool life of 90 min and Taylor’s tool
life exponent is 0.25 for WC tools.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 48

 Problem 3
A cylindrical component of 60mm x 120mm is to be rough
turned orthogonally from a carbon steel bar stock of 66mm
using a WC throw-away type insert tool. The following data
apply for the operation:
• Time taken to load and unload work parts = 60 s
• Time taken to index a cutting edge = 20 s
• Cutting speed = 2.5 m/s
• Specific cutting energy = 1.3 GN/m2 (const. for all chip
thickness values)
• Motor power = 5 kW
• Machine efficiency = 80%

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 49

 Problem 3 (Cont’d)
a) Find the feed rate in mm/rev for maximum power utilization.
b) If the cutting force is not allowed to exceed 1300 N, find the
allowable feed rate.
c) For the feed rate found in (b), it has been experimentally found
that the tool life becomes 2400 s when the cutting speed is 4 m/s
and the tool life exponent is 0.25. Using this information and the
feed rate found in (b), calculate the optimum cutting speed to
maximize the production rate.
d) Check if the available power is enough to perform the operation at
the conditions set in (c). If not, adjust the cutting speed to make
the operation feasible.
e) Find the total production time/part for the conditions found in (d).

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 05c 50