Module 3 – Material Processes

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module the student should be able to:

1. explain and discuss wood manufacturing processes

2.differentiate hardwood sizing

3.state and summarize metal fabrication processes

4.differentiate sections of metals and flat metals

5.classify the three main types of pottery

Pretest (Omitted)

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Wood Manufacturing Transformation Process

1. Head Rig: The primary saw cuts the tree into sawn pieces.
2. Edging: Removing irregular edges and defects from sawn pieces.
3. Trimming: The trimmer squares off the ends of lumber into uniform pieces based on market
dimensions.
4. Rough Lumber Sorting: Pieces are segregated based on dimension and final product production:
unseasoned (known as green), or dry.
5. Stickering: Lumber destined for dry production is stacked with spacers (known as stickers) that
allow air to circulate within the stack. (Green product skips this stage).
6. Drying: Lumber is kiln-dried to facilitate natural MC evaporation.
7. Planing: Smoothing the surface of each lumber piece and making its width and thickness
uniform.
8. Grading: The process of assessing the characteristics of each lumber piece in order to assign its
“grade” (quality).

Kiln drying

Kiln drying is a standard practice in wood production mills and serves to efficiently bring green
lumber moisture levels down to “workable” range–moisture content levels that will not end in the myriad
of problems that can be caused by excess moisture levels in wood. Kiln-dried wood is wood that has been
dried in an oven (kiln). With a kiln, you can control the environment such as temperature, humidity, and
steam levels for a set period of time. Allowing you to dry wood to the desired moisture content faster
than air-drying.

These problems include warping and twisting in dimensional lumber, binding or kicking during
machining, buckling or crowning in an installed wood floor, and adhesive failures in finished products.

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The actual vs. nominal sizes for common sizes of dimension lumber:

Nominal Size Actual Size

1x2 3/4 x 1 1/2 inches (19 x 38 mm)

1x3 3/4 x 2 1/2 inches (19 x 64 mm)

1x4 3/4 x 3 1/2 inches (19 x 89 mm)

1x5 3/4 x 4 1/2 inches (19 x 114 mm)

1x6 3/4 x 5 1/2 inches (19 x 140 mm)

1x8 3/4 x 7 1/4 inches (19 x 184 mm)

1 x 10 3/4 x 9 1/4 inches (19 x 235 mm)

1 x 12 3/4 x 11 1/4 inches (19 x 286 mm)

2x2 1 1/2 x 1 1/2 inches (38 x 38 mm)

2x3 1 1/2 x 2 1/2 inches (38 x 64 mm)

2x4 1 1/2 x 3 1/2 inches (38 x 89 mm)

2x6 1 1/2 x 5 1/2 inches (38 x 140 mm)

2x8 1 1/2 x 7 1/4 inches (38 x 184 mm)

2 x 10 1 1/2 x 9 1/4 inches (38 x 235 mm)

2 x 12 1 1/2 x 11 1/4 inches (38 x 286 mm)

4x4 3 1/2 x 3 1/2 inches (89 x 89 mm)

4x6 3 1/2 x 5 1/2 inches (89 x 140 mm)

6x6 5 1/2 x 5 12 inches (140 x 140 mm)

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Hardwood Sizing

The sizing standards used for hardwood lumber (such as oak, maple, birch, and mahogany) of the
type used in fine cabinetry and furniture is a bit more confusing. Not only are different measurement
standards used, but the sizing also depends on whether the stock is surfaced on one side (S1S) or on two
sides (S2S).

Nominal Thickness S1S S2S

1/2 inch 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) 5/16 inch (7.9 mm)

5/8 inch 1/2 inch (13 mm) 7/16 inch (11 mm)

3/4 inch 5/8 inch (16 mm) 9/16 inch (14 mm)

1 (4/4) inch 7/8 inch (22 mm) 13/16 inch (21 mm)

1 1/4 (5/4) inches 1 1/8 inches (29 mm) 1 1/6 inches (27 mm)

1 1/2 (6/4) inches 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) 1 5/16 inches (33 mm)

2 (8/4) inches 1 13/16 inches (46 mm) 1 3/4 inches (44 mm)

3 (12/4) inches 2 13/16 inches (71 mm) 2 3/4 inches (70 mm)

4 (16/4) inches 3 13/16 inches (97 mm) 3 3/4 inches (95mm)

Plywood

Plywood is usually sold in 4 x 8-foot sheets. The most common nominal thicknesses of plywood are
1/2 inch and 3/4 inch, but once again the actual sizes are slightly different. A sheet of 1/2-inch plywood is
really 15/32-inch-thick, while a 3/4-inch sheet is 23/32 inch thick.

Plywood is graded so that each face receives a grade of A, B, C, or D, with A representing the
smoothest sanded finish. For example, AA plywood has a furniture-grade finish on both sides, while BC
plywood will be graded B on one side and C on the other.

Metal Fabrication Process

1. Cutting. Perhaps the most commonly used metal fabrication processes involve cutting, where sheets
of metal are split into halves, thirds or smaller sections. In a lot of applications, the metal being cut is
freshly made, and has yet to be shaped into anything in particular. In other applications, pre-shaped
metals like bars and measured panels are submitted for cutting. Cuts are performed on a range of
machinery, from lasers and plasma torches to more elaborate, high-tech pieces of machinery.

2. Folding. One of the more complicated processes of metal fabrication involves folding, where a metal
surface is manipulated to shape at a certain angle. With certain folding applications, the intent is to make
the metal surface fold at a 90-degree angle, or something else that’s either more or less blunt. However,

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folding may only be performed in facilities that are equipped with specific, high-tech equipment due to
the complexity of the whole process. In many cases where a fold is needed, the joining of two metal panels
at select angles would be the more practical alternative.

3. Welding. Along with cutting, welding is one of the most popular metal fabrication processes among
crafts enthusiasts. The process of welding involves the joining of two separate metal parts. The parts used
in a welding application could be sheets, panels, bars or shapes — as long as the parts are made of metal,
it really doesn’t matter. Welding is achievable through numerous methods and tool types. Often, a weld
is achieved through the application of heat along the points where the two pieces are meant to be joined.
A lot of metalworkers first pursue the area of metal fabrication with welding projects in mind.

4. Machining. When a machine is used to remove portions from a piece of metal, the process is known as
machining. Typically, the process is performed on a lathe, which will rotate the metal against tools that
trim corners and edges to cut the piece down to a desired shape or measurement. In other machining
applications, a hole or set of holes will be formed directly through the metal surface. As such, the metal
drill could be classified as a machining tool.

5. Punching. When holes are formed in a piece of metal, the process involved consists of punching, where
metal is placed under a die and submitted to a punch-through by a drill. For the punch to be the correct
size, the circumference of the drill must slot correctly through the die. Punching falls into one of two sub
categories based on the intention of a given application. In most cases, the intent is to punch holes into a
panel of metal for the purpose of fastening latches or other foreign parts. In other applications —
alternately known as blanking — the area with the hole is specifically extracted from the larger panel to
form a smaller bit part.

6. Shearing. For sheets of metal that require long cuts, the process is known as shearing. In some cases,
the sheet is fed horizontally through a metal-cutting machine. In other applications, a cutting tool is
applied vertically against the length of a flat metal sheet. A third method involves placing the metal over
the edge of an open cutter and lowering the blade, much like the paper cutters found at copy facilities.
Shearing is often applied to trim down the edge of a metal sheet, but the process may be done anywhere
along the metal.

7. Stamping. Punching is not the only metal fabrication process to utilize a die. In some applications,
however, the intention is not to form a hole, but to raise a certain portion of a metal sheet, without
penetrating. For applications like these, the process of stamping is used to form certain shapes, letters or
images within a metal sheet or panel. In effect, metal stamping is similar to relief carving in wood or
marble. A primary example of metal stamping is seen on coins, where words, currency amounts and the
faces of presidents are stamped from each surface side on pennies, nickels, dimes and quarters.

8. Casting. One of the oldest types of metal fabrication involves casting, where molten metal is poured
into a mold and is left to solidify into a specific form. As one of the most flexible methods of metal
fabrication, casting is ideal for a wide range of complex shape-making. In some cases, casting provides a
solution to fabrication problems that would otherwise take several other methods to solve, such as with
assembly parts that would need folding, shearing, and stamping. The most common metals employed in
this application include steel, iron, gold, copper, silver, and magnesium.

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9.Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool to remove material in a consistent and
accurate way. There are two types of broaching services, linear and rotary, which are used to produce
different kinds of machining finishes, but in either case, production broaching is typically only used for
precision applications and high-quantity production. Broaching relies on a toothed tool called a broach.

One of the most essential traits of a broach is the rise per tooth, which indicates the amount of material
each tooth removes every pass.

10. The honing process provides the final sizing and creates the desired finish pattern on the interior of
tubing or cylinder bores. Finishing is accomplished by expanding abrasive stones of suitable grit and grade
against the work surface. The stones are rotated and reciprocated in the part with hone abrasive under
controlled pressure. Combining rotation and reciprocation produces a cross-hatch pattern in the surface
of the part being honed.

11. Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.

12. Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety
of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling
machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured
to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool
with sharp teeth that is also secured in the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the
workpiece into the rotating cutter, material is cut away from this workpiece in the form of small chips to
create the desired shape.

13 Forming metal pieces for assembly use is just part of the process when it comes to making metal
products. The next stage involves taking different pre-made parts and turning them into machines,
appliances, cookware, and other products. Depending on the operations at hand, a given set of assembly
parts might go to a factory or independent craftsperson. In most cases, a project will start with one or
more of the following materials:

1.Expanded metal. For machines and fixtures needing metal panels that are grated instead of
solid, metal is expanded to take on the desired consistency. Basically, sheets of metal are sheared in a
pattern that forms diamond-shaped holes along the surface, which is held together by the remaining
mesh-like metal. As the final formation of each sheet takes place, the metal is effectively expanded to its
ultimate dimensions.
Expanded metal is commonly used as a protective wall on machines that need ventilation, such
as along back-portion panels of computers and heaters. Panels of expanded metal are also
commonplace on the fences and screen doors of condominium complexes and gated communities. The

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grating size on different sheets of expanded metal may vary, though wider holes are generally favored
as a fencing material, and smaller holes are often better for panels on electronics equipment. Expanded
metal is also available in a variety of thicknesses.

2. Sectional metals. In the construction and engineering sectors, metals are regularly ordered in
sectional varieties for numerous applications. Sectional metal is any type of prefabricated piece that’s
designed for standardized assembly. A construction company, for example, could need structural framing
panels of particular lengths and widths, the measurements of which would be standardized throughout
the industry and pre-fabricated for order from a construction-parts supplier. Common types of sectional
materials include:

a) I-beam. An I-shaped, cross-sectional beam.

3. Flat metal. For any given number of application, flat metal pieces are used in construction
and industrial assemblies. Flat metal is a raw material that is fabricated in a range of thicknesses. While
the pieces are generally thin, the gauge will range from under a millimeter to two or more centimeters.
Flat metal typically falls into three groupings:

a) Leaf metal. The thinnest kind, also known as foil metal.

4. Welding wire. Used as a welding aid, the wire consists of metal strands, which are typically
bound together into thicker cords and sold on spools. True to its name, the wire is used to hold two
pieces of metal together during a welding application. Usually, the wire is melted into the welded piece
by the heat of the application as the process takes places. Welding wire is made of various types of
metal, and it is generally found in a range of thicknesses.

Ceramic Processing

Ceramic processing is used to produce commercial products that are very diverse in size, shape,
detail, complexity, and material composition, structure, and cost. The purpose of ceramics processing to
an applied science is the natural result of an increasing ability to refine, develop, and characterize ceramic
materials.

Ceramics are typically produced by the application of heat upon processed clays and other natural
raw materials to form a rigid product. Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and minerals
as a starting material must undergo special processing in order to control purity, particle size, particle size
distribution, and heterogeneity. These attributes play a big role in the final properties of the finished
ceramic. Chemically prepared powders also are used as starting materials for some ceramic products.
These synthetic materials can be controlled to produce powders with precise chemical compositions and
particle size.

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 The next step is to form the ceramic particles into a desired shape. This is accomplished by the
addition of water and/or additives such as binders, followed by a shape forming process. Some of the
most common forming methods for ceramics include extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape casting and
injection molding. After the particles are formed, these "green" ceramics undergo a heat-treatment
(called firing or sintering) to produce a rigid, finished product. Some ceramic products such as electrical
insulators, dinnerware and tile may then undergo a glazing process. Some ceramics for advanced
applications may undergo a machining and/or polishing step in order meet specific engineering design
criteria.

There are three main types of pottery/ceramic

Earthenware

Earthenware is clay fired at relatively low temperatures of between 1,000 to 1,150 degrees. This
results in a hardened but brittle material which is slightly porous (small holes through which liquid or air
can go through), therefore cannot be used to contain water.

To remedy this, a glaze is used to cover the object before it is fired in the kiln for a second time and
rendered waterproof.

Stoneware

Stoneware is made from a particular clay which is fired at a higher temperature of 1,200°C. This
results in a more durable material, with a denser, stone-like quality. The finished product will be
waterproof and unlike earthenware, does not need to be glazed.

Porcelain

Porcelain comes from a refined clay which is fired at very high temperatures of approximately
1,200–1,450°C. The result is an extremely hard, shiny material often white and translucent in appearance.

The earliest forms of porcelain originated in China around 1600BC and this association
popularized the term 'fine china’, or bone china when the porcelain has had ground animal bone added
to the clay, in order to create an even more durable material.

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Exercises (Omitted)

Answer Key Pretest (Omitted)

Answer Key Exercise (Omitted)

References

1. https://www.wagnermeters.com - Ron Smith

2. https://www.wagnermeters.com - Tony Morgan

3. https://www.thesprucecrafts.com - Chris Baylor

4. https://www.tuckey.com

5. https://www.vocabulary.com