2015.12.18.

Metallurgy II: Annealing, Normalizing, and Tempering - Maille is Riveting

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Metallurgy II: Annealing, Normalizing, and Tempering
Gallery (/gallery.html) This article will discuss various metallurgical processes and the effect that these have on iron and steel. In particular, as
the title suggests, this article will focus on some common processes such as annealing, normalizing, and tempering. For
a more thorough discussion of what exactly the differences between Iron and steel are, see Metallurgy I: What’s the
difference Between Iron and Steel? (/metallurgy-i-whatrsquos-the-difference-between-iron-and-steel.html)

It is well known that the action of heat-treating metals will alter the physical properties of a metal in some desired way.
However, the multiplicity of terms and methods of heat-treating as well as the exact methods of treating are often unclear.
The goal of this article is not to provide expert advice on heat treatment. Rather, the goal is to provide basic explanations
of terminology and to provide examples of how – and whether – to carry out these methods when making maille.

The first and most important thing to mention is that steel is a unique metal. Other metals like copper, bronze, and iron
can be heat treated to return them to a normal state or to soften them. [i] Steel, on the other hand, is different and is able
to undergo structural changes upon heat treatment thanks to the iron-carbon alloy. It is the alloying of the two elements
that allows steel to be so amenable to heat treatment. This is, in part, why steel has been the premier industrial metal
since its discovery. Steel, uniquely, can be hardened and tempered.

One thing that applies to all methods of heat-treating steel is that the metal must be heated to just above its critical range
– usually until the metal glows red. [ii] The second common element of heat-treating is the cooling process. Typically, the
speed in which the metal is cooled will determine the strength and flexibility of the steel. [iii]

Steel in its different states has different names. This is so because the microstructure of steel will change after different
methods of heat treatment and the metal will actually have a different structure due to these treatments. In order of
hardest and least ductile to softest and most ductile, the various states are:

(1)Martensite
(2)Troosite
(3)Sorbite
(4)Pearlite

Below is a chart delineating the scale of softness and ductility which decrease as the metal becomes harder and
stronger.

Sauveur, Metallography and Heat Treatment, 199.

While steel is at its critical heated stage, its microstructure is called austenite. As discussed in Metallurgy I, pearlite is
the baseline for steel at its “normal” hardness and ductility. While undergoing the heat-treatment and cooling process, the
carbon in the steel crystallizes into different forms depending on the method used to treat the steel. The key is regulating
the speed of cooling from its austenitic state into one of the martensite, troostie, sorbite, or pearlite state. The steel may
also be cooled into a combination of these states, which can give a broader range of physical properties. [i]

In general, a treatment that softens the metal is a pearlite treatment, a hardening is a martensite, and any treatment that
strengthens can be a troostiitizing or sorbtizing. [ii]

Cold working:

Although not a heat treatment in the strict sense, cold working steel will increase its hardness because the working of the
steel deforms the lattice microstructure of the steel and creates an irregular arrangement on a microstructural level. This
in turn causes the metal to become harder and more difficult to work. [iii] Cold worked steel can be heated to below the
critical range – to between 1000 and 1200 Fahrenheit – and then allowed to cool. This will cause the re-crystallization of
the metal, which will return it to a workable state. To achieve maximum softness, the metal must be truly annealed.

Annealing:

Even if steel is already in a pearlite condition, the process of annealing can be beneficial because the process of heating
and slow cooling will produce a finer and more uniform grain and also removes “internal strains as well as the deformation
resulting from cold working.” If a metal is not already in a pearlite condition, annealing will be even more beneficial.
Annealing has three stages: (1) heating the steel (2) keeping it at a constant annealing temperature, and (3) slow cooling

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2015.12.18. Metallurgy II: Annealing, Normalizing, and Tempering - Maille is Riveting
to room temperature. The required method of heating is defined as heating the steel to 100 Fahrenheit above its critical
range for 1 hour per inch of “section of the heaviest objects being treated.” [iv]

This can be simplified by saying to heat the metal to a red heat and allow it to stay at a constant heat so that the metal
heats all the way through. Think of it like cooking a turkey, you can cook the outside very quickly but it takes time for the
inside to fully heat up to temperature.

After heating, the object is to remain in the furnace or in some sort

The following picture demonstrates the difference annealing will

Sauveur, Metallography and Heat Treatment, 206.

Normalizing:

Normalizing is the exact same process as annealing except that the cooling process is done by allowing the metal to air
cool. [i] Normalizing, depending on the carbon content of the metal, will form some pearlite but will typically result in a
combination of pearlite and sorbitite. [ii]Moreover, in smaller pieces – like maille rings – quicker cooling will inevitably lead
to less pearlite formation and therefore cause the metal to be harder and less ductile. [iii] This is because smaller objects
will inevitably cool more quickly, thus increasing their hardness and the formation of sorbite.

The properties of sorbite from air-cooled steel are a harder, stronger, and less ductile steel than that achieved through
annealing.

Hardening and Quenching:

To harden, or martenitize, steel, the steel must first be highly carburized – that is to say, heated to a high temperature
and left above critical range. Second, the steel must be slowly cooled through the critical range by letting it cool off in the
furnace or in the air until below the critical range, and third, once below the critical range, the metal can be water cooled,
oil cooled, or air cooled to create a range of hardness with water creating the hardest and air being the softest states of
steel. [iv] Note that the hardening process often involves quenching to quickly cool the metal, but does not always require
that the steel be quenched.

A hardening treatment will have the following effect on steel, it will (1) give the smallest possible grain, (2) provide for
maximum hardness, (3) give maximum tensile strength, (4) produce minimum ductility, and (5) will create internal strains
on the metal making it more liable to crack or fracture. [v] Because of this, hardened steel is not typically in a workable
state and further action must be taken to provide a useable, useful metal.

Tempering:

Once hardened, steel will often be too hard and brittle to be effectively worked. Therefore, the strains must be relieved in
order to provide a proper balance between hardness and ductility. This process is called tempering. It is called tempering
because the process “tempers” the effects of a hardening treatment. [vi]

To temper steel, the steel must first be hardened, then reheated and quickly cooled. There are many ranges in which
steel may be tempered to provide different combinations of hardness and ductility. In general, to retain maximum
hardness but render the steel less brittle is called drawing. Although drawing is often called tempering, it would be better
referred to as drawing the steel to differentiate from true tempering. Drawing is also known as troostitizing. On the other
hand, sorbitizing is when the steel is truly tempered – that is, tempering to reduce hardness but to provide strength and
ductility. [vii]

Tempering of steel produces an interesting effect of the color the metal turns upon heating. Hardened steel will develop
thin layers of oxide on the metal and, once reheated, will glow in different colors depending on the temperature so heated.
[viii] Each tempering temperature corresponds to a certain color. To draw, or troostitize, steel requires that the metal be
heated at a temperature above 600 Fahrenheit to a bright blue color. On the other hand, to temper, or sorbitize, the steel
requires a gentler heating below 600 Fahrenheit to a deep blue or dark purple color. Bear in mind that there are many
levels at which steel may be drawn or tempered but that the general cut-off range between the to is at 600 Fahrenheit This
distinction is made because at this temperature there is a more drastic loss of hardness. [ix] Also, note that if the steel is
heated too high, it will start to re-obtain a pearlite structure, thus defeating the purpose of the hardening process. [x]

The below chart indicates more fully the temperature at which color changes will occur:

Sauveur, Metallography and Heat Treatment, 260.

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Although tempering is primarily determined by the temperature to which the steel is heated, the time at that temperature
also produces additional results. Moreover, even if the steel is maintained at a set temperature, the color will “advance” up
the tempering scale despite never actually achieving the required temperature corresponding with the tempering color. [i]
In essence, then, steel can be tempered at a specific temperature and once the steel obtains the desired tempering color
can be removed, or it can be tempered to the same state by allowing it to temper for a longer time at a lower temperature.
What truly indicates the amount of temper provided is the color of the steel during heating. Again, the rate of cooling
should be quick as to prevent any further residual tempering. [ii]

Heat treating for Maille-making:

As discussed in Metallurgy I: What’s the difference Between Iron and Steel? (/metallurgy-i-whatrsquos-the-difference-
between-iron-and-steel.html), wrought iron is a softer, more pure iron. This produces certain benefits such as increased
ductility and slower rusting. However, steel has the advantage of being hardened and tempered, which increases its
effectiveness of many applications such as hard tools, knives, swords, and structural applications like building girders and
bridges.

However, when it comes to maille, it is my opinion that wrought iron is the better metal. Of course, wrought iron is not
commercially available today so we make do with what we have. Therefore, to best approximate wrought iron, it is best to
use a low carbon annealed steel wire. Even though it won’t be perfect, it will be better than any other choice available.
From a maille-makers perspective, it is beneficial to work with annealed wire and to anneal wire prior to flattening and prior
to punching. This is because the metal will be at its softest and most ductile state. What this equates to is working with a
metal that comes closer to the wrought iron that would have been used.

(1) Flattening:

Even if already annealed, it is best to re-treat the wire prior to flattening in order to achieve maximum softness. The softer
the metal is the easier it will be to flatten the rings. A softer steel will reduce skipped rings and will produce more
consistent results.

A good way anneal wire for maille-making is to heat it in charcoal and then let is cool in the ash. This will prolong the
cooling process, which will in turn produce a softer metal.

Too often, guides on riveted maille-making recommend using a propane torch to heat the rings to a red heat and then as
soon as red, remove the heat and allow to air cool. This is not ideal since we are dealing with steel rather than wrought
iron. Steel is harder than wrought iron and therefore harder to work with. Insufficient heating and too quickly cooling of the
steel will not truly anneal the steel and will make flattening the rings difficult and will result in more “skipped” overlaps or
otherwise faulty flattened rings. Annealing low carbon wire is called dead soft annealing.

(2) Punching

Prior to punching, I would again anneal the rings. If you feel the rings immediately after flattening them, you will likely feel
heat coming off of them. That is caused by the intense friction of the atoms forcefully rearranging upon flattening – also
known as work hardening. If you try to bend a flattened ring with pliers, you will notice that it is much more difficult.
Therefore, it is advisable to again anneal the ring to help prevent wearing out your punches. Unlike flattening, punching will
not severely work-harden your rings and you will not likely need to anneal them again.

[1] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref1) Albert Sauveur, The Metallography and Heat Treatment of Iron
and Steel, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1935): 198.
[2] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref2) Ibid.
[3] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref3) Ibid.
[4] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref4) Ibid. at 202.
[5] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref5) Ibid.
[6] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref6) Ibid. at 202-203.
[7] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref7) Ibid. at 206.
[8] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref8) Ibid. at 206.
[9] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref9) Ibid. at 211.
[10] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref10) Ibid. At 212.
[11] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref11) Ibid.
[12] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref12) Ibid. at 232.
[13] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref13) Ibid. at 255.
[14] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref14) Ibid.
[15] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref15) Ibid. at 255
[16] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref16) Ibid. at 260.
[17] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref17) Ibid. at 263.
[18] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref18) Ibid. at 258 and 260.
[19] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref19) Ibid.
[20] (http://www.weebly.com/weebly/main.php#_ednref20) Ibid. at 262.

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