EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations that

involves heating and cooling of metals or alloys in its solid state with the
object of changing the characteristics of the material(s).

Objectives
Heat treatment is generally employed for the following purposes:
1) To improve machinability
2) To change or refine grain size.
3) To relieve stresses on the metal induced by cold working
4) To improve mechanical properties of the metals e.g ductility, tensile
strength, hardenability, shock resistance etc.
5) To improve magnetic and electrical properties
6) To improve resistance to wear, heat and corrosion.
7) To produce a hard surface on a ductile interior

CONSTITUENTS OF IRON AND STEEL

The different microscopic constituents of iron and steel which commonly
occur are:

1) Ferrite
 Iron which contains little or no carbon is called ferrite.
 It is soft and ductile and is known as alpha iron by the metallurgists.
 Ferrite is present to some extent in a great range of steels particularly
those of low in carbon content and also present in soft cast iron.
 Ferrite does not harden when cooled rapidly

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 It forms smaller crystals when cooled from a bright red heat at rapid
rate.
2) Cementite
 This is definite carbide of iron (Fe3C) which is extremely hard, being
harder than ordinary hardened steel or glass.
 Cementite increases gradually with the increase in the proportion of
carbon present. The hardness of cast iron and its brittleness is believed
to be due to this substance.
 Contains 6.6% carbon
 It’s magnetic below 25°С.
 Its presences in iron or steel decreases the tensile strength but
increases the hardness and cutting qualities
3) Pearlite
 Pearlite is the name given to a mixture of about 87.5% ferrite and
12.5% Cementite.
 Comprises of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite in steel
 When seen under a microscope it appears like the mother of pearl,
hence the name pearlite.
 Thickness of the alternate plates and the distance between them is
governed by the rate of cooling; slow cooling produces a coarser
structure than rapid cooling.
 It is the characteristic of soft steels that they contain ferrite and
pearlite. Hardness increases with the proportion of pearlite and
cementite
 Hard steels are a mixture of pearlite and cementite.

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4) Martensite
 It is hard brittle mass of fibrous or needlelike structure and is the chief
component/ constituent of hardened steel.
 It is produced by the rapid quenching of high carbon steel and from a
slightly higher temperature

5) Austenite
 It is a solid solution of iron-carbon which is stable only with a particular
range of composition and temperature and is non-magnetic.
 On cooling below 700°С it is completely transformed into ferrite
(which is magnetic) and cementite to form a eutectoid pearlite;
together with free ferrite and free cementite depending on whether
the carbon content is less than or more than 0.87% respectively.
 It is formed when carbon steel with more than 1.1% carbon is quenched
rapidly from about 1000°С.
 The amount of Austenite increases with the amount of carbon present.
 Austenite steel cannot harden by the usual heat treatment methods and
are non-magnetic.

6) Troosite

It is a structure in steel produced either by:

(i) Tempering a martensite steel at between 250-450°С (process of heat

treating)

(ii) By quenching steel at a speed insufficient to suppress the thermal change

point fully

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

7) Sorbite

 It is a structure which consists of evenly distributed carbide of iron

particles in a mass of ferrite, formed when fully hardened steel is
tempered at between 550 and 650°С.
 A sorbitic structure is characterized by strength of a high degree of
toughness.

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

1) Annealing
2) Normalising
3) Hardening
4) Tempering
5) Surface hardening
1) Annealing
Objectives:
(i) To soften the metals
(ii) To improve machinability
(iii) To refine grain size due to phase recrystallization
(iv) To increase ductility of metal
(v) To prepare steel for subsequent treatment
(vi) To modify electrical and magnetic properties
(vii) To relieve internal stresses
(viii) To remove gases
(ix) To produce a definite microstructure

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

Fig 1. Temperature range for heat treatment processes

There are different methods of annealing:

1.1 Full annealing

 Used to refine the grain structure
 A full annealing cycle involves:
(1) Heating the steel to a temperature above the transformation range,
holding for 1-2 hours and then cooling at a pre-determined rate to obtain
the desired micro structure
(2) Grain refinement is accomplished in this instance by the recrystallization
of the steel in passing thro’ the critical range both in heating and cooling.
 Such treatment is performed usually on steel of 0.30 to 0.60 percent
carbon content which is to be machined.
 Rate of cooling determines the final micro structure

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

*** critical point/ temperature is the point or highest temperature at which

the metal into 2 different phases (the transition temperature of a solid from
one allotropic form to another/ curie point of a metal)***

Fig 2. Full annealing

1.2. Isothermal annealing

It is a type of annealing.
(1) Steel is first cooled to the temperature at which transformation is desired
to occur, at a sufficient rapid rate to prevent any structure change above
that temperature
(2) The steel then is held at the selected temperature for the time necessary
to complete such transformation
 Using this process it is possible to obtain a more uniform
microstructure that could be expected by continuous cooling.
 Isothermal annealing not only improves machinability but results in a
better finishing.
 Of great use for alloy steel as they have to be cooled slowly.

Fig 3. Isothermal annealing

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1.3. Process or sub critical annealing

 Consists of heating the steel to a temperature first under critical point
and holding for at this temperature for 2-4 hours followed by air
cooling.
 This type of annealing results in softening the steel due to particle
coagulation of the carbide to form the spheroids or small globules of
carbide.
 It is not suitable when a close control of hardness or structure is
desired, because the prior structure of steel determines to a marked
degree the extent of spherodisation which will occur

Fig 4. (a) Process/ Sub-critical annealing (b) Spheroidise annealing

1.4. Spheroidisation
 It is a type of annealing which causes practically all carbides in the
steel to agglomerate in the form of small gobules or spheroids.
 There may be wide range of hardness with such a structure for any
grade of steel since the size of the globules has a direct relation to
hardness.
 Spherodisation may be accomplished by heating to a temperature just
above the critical and cooling very slowly (about 6°С per hour)
through the critical range.

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

 This treatment is used for practically all steels containing over 0.6%
carbon that are to be machined or cold formed
1.5 Diffusion annealing (Homogenizing annealing)
 It is used to remove structural non-uniformity such as dendrites.
Columns in grains and chemical inhomogeneity.
 These defects promote brittleness and reduce ductility and toughness
in steel.
Diffusion annealing involves:
1. Steel is heated sufficiently above upper critical temperature (say 1000
1200°С) and is held at this temperature for prolonged periods (usually
10-20 hours)
2. This is followed by slow cooling. Segregated zones are eliminated and
a chemically homogeneous steel is obtained by this treatment as a
result of diffusion.

1.6. Recrystallization annealing

 Practically all steels, which have been heavily cold worked, are
subjected to this treatment.
 The process consists of heating steel above the recrystallization
temperature, holding at this temperature and cooling thereafter.
 It results in decrease in hardness or strength and increase in ductility.
 The process is used both as an intermediate operation and as a final
treatment
 The treatment is very important and is frequently employed in
industries manufacturing steel wires, sheets and strips.

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2) Normalising
Objectives:
(i) To eliminate coarse grain structure obtained during forging, rolling
and stamping.
(ii) To increase strength of medium carbon steel
(iii) To improve machinability of low carbon steel
(iv) To improve the structure of welds
(v) To reduce internal stresses
(vi) To achieve desired results in mechanical and electrical properties
Ref to Fig 1.
Normalising is the term applied to the process of heating the steel
approximately 4°С above the critical temperature followed be cooling
below this range in still air.
 This is one of the simplest treatments
 Steel produced by this treatment is harder and stronger but less
ductile than annealed steel having the same composition.
 This treatment is frequently applied to castings, forgings etc., to refine
grain structure and to relieve stresses set up in previous operations
 It is commonly applied after cold working, overheating or any other
operation resulting in non-uniform heating or cooling.

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

Normalising versus Annealing:

1. Normalised steels are harder than annealed ones
2. Cooling rates are not critical for normalising as in the case of
annealing. They can be increased considerably in order to cut short the
total time for treatment.
3. Normalised steel has lower impact transition temperature than
annealed steel. This is essential due to the fine grain size of normalized
steel.
4. Annealing improves the machinability of medium carbon steels,
whereas normalizing improves machinability of low carbon steels.
3) Hardening
Hardening is a process in which steel is heated to a temperature above the
critical point, held at this temperature and quenched (rapidly cooled) in
water, oil or molten salt baths.
If a piece of steel is heated above its upper critical temperature range and
plunged into water to cool it, an extremely hard, needlelike structure called
martensite is formed.
 Sudden hardening of steel greatly increases its hardness.
After hardening, steels must be tempered to:
(i)Reduce the brittleness
(ii) Relieve the internal stresses
(iii) Obtain pre-determined mechanical properties

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

The hardening process depends on the following factors:

(i) Adequate carbon content to produce hardening
(ii) Heating rate and time: Depend on the composition of the steel, its
structure, residual stresses, the form and size of the part to be
hardened
(iii) Quenching medium
(iv) Quenching rate
(v) Size of the part
(vi) Surface conditions

Quenching media
a) Water: It probably the most widely used as it is simple and effective;
it cools at the rate of 982°С per second. It tends, however to
form bubbles on the surface of the metal being quenched and
causes soft spots, so a brine solution is often used to prevent this
trouble.
b) Brine. It is a very rapid cooling agent and may tend to cause
distortion of the parts, as will water.
c) Oil: It is used when there is any risk of distortion although it is more
suitable for alloy steels than plain carbon steels.
d) Air blast: When the risk of distortion is great, quenching must be
carried out in an air blast. Since the rate of cooling is then lower,
more hardening elements must be added to the steel, forming an
air- hardening alloy. The air blast must be dry, since any moisture
in the air will crack the steel.

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e) Molten salts: High speed steels are often quenched in molten salt to
harden them.

4) Tempering
 The process of tempering consists of heating, quenched hardened
steel in martensitic condition to some predetermined temperature
between room temperature and the critical temperature of the steel
for a certain length of time followed by air cooling.
 Martensitic structures formed by direct quenching of high- carbon
steel are hard and strong but unfortunately are also brittle.
 Some of the hardness may be sacrificed to obtain suitable ductility
and ductility and toughness
 This is done by tempering the martensitic steel.
Thus tempering process is carried out to:
(i) Increase toughness
(ii) Decrease hardness
(iii) Stabilize structure
(iv) Relieve stresses
(v) Change volume

5) Surface Hardening
There are five methods of surface hardening:
a) Case hardening
b) Nitriding
c) Cyaniding

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

d) Flame hardening
e) Induction hardening

a) Case hardening
Objectives:
(i) To obtain a hard and wear resistance surface on machine parts with
enrichment of the surface layer with carbon to concentration of 0.75 to
1.2%
(ii) To obtain a tough core
(iii) To obtain close tolerances in machining parts
(iv)To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the
core
 Case hardening consists in heating a steel in the presence of solid, liquid or
gas rich in carbon in order to enable the surface to be hardened, while
retaining a tough ductile core.
 There are three methods of adding carbon to the surface of the metal:
1. Pack hardening
2. Liquid Carburizing
3. Gas Carburizing

1. Pack hardening
 This method is the oldest. The articles to be carburized are packed in
metal boxes or pots surrounded by a suitable solid compound that is
rich in carbon.

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 The boxes are sealed with clay to exclude air and are placed in an oven,
or furnace, where they are heated to a temperature of between 900
and 920°C, depending on the composition of steel.
 The carbon from the carburizing compound soaks into the surface of
the hot steel to the depth that depends on the time the box is left in
the furnace.
 The internal section of the steel and any parts which have been
protected by tinning, however remain unaffaected, the result being a
piece of steel with a dual structure. The steel is allowed to cool slowly
in the box.

 The steel is removed from the box and reheated to a temperature just
above its critical point or approximately 915-925°C for fine grin steel,
followed by quenching in water, brine or oil.
 This hardens the skin and at the same time refines the core. Smaller
articles and thin sections are heated to a lower temperature in order
to avoid distortion.
 Steel is usually given a second heat treatment at about 760-780°C, in
order to improve the ductility and impart resistance of the core and
case.

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

2. Liquid carburizing:
 Where a fairly thin case is required a more economical process is to
carburize the parts in a liquid bath. This consists of a container with
a molten salt, such as sodium cyanide, which is heated by electrical
immersion elements of by a gas burner.
 Salt bath carburizing reduces distortion of the part to the minimum,
while equal heating is assured. The parts leave the bath with clean,
bright finish, the scaling experienced during pack hardening being
avoided.
 Using liquid bath carburizing is much the same as pack hardening
although cheaper classes of work the parts may be quenched
immediately after removal from the salt bath.
 Considerable time saving occurs from the fact that the quenching
can follow carburizing, instead of waiting for a red-hot box to cool
before the parts can be removed for heat treatment.
3. Gas carburizing:
 This is done by heating the metal in a furnace into which a gas
which is rich in carbon such as methane, propane, butane, is
introduced.
 It is necessary to maintain a continuous flow of carburizing gas into
the furnace and to extract the spent gas.
 The first cost of gas carburizing equipment is high and the process is
economical only to large output.
 The horizontal, rotary type of gas carburizing furnace has a retort
of muffle which revolves slowly so that the parts are rotated in the

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

stream of gas; this is suitable for smaller parts such as ball and roller
bearings, chain links, pins, axles and so on.
 Large parts are usually in a vertical rotary furnace, in which gas is
given a swirling rotary motion so that it circulates around the parts.
b) Nitriding

The nature of the nitriding process used to obtain a case hardened

product is very different from that of the carburizing process. Nitrogen,
instead of carbon, is added to the surface of the steel. Carbon does not play
any part in the nitriding operation but influence the machinability of steel.

The temperature used in nitriding are much lower than those in

carburizing and below the critical temperature of the steel.

Simple carbon steels, which are often used for carburizing are not used
for nitriding. Steels used in the process are special alloy steels.

Nitriding operation: In nitriding process, nitrogen in introduced to the

steel by passing ammonia gas through a muffle furnace containing the steel
to be nitride. The ammonia is purchased in tanks as a liquid and introduced
into the furnace as a gas at slightly greater than atmospheric pressure. With
the nitriding furnace operating at a temperature of 480° to 540°С, the
ammonia gas partially dissociates into nitrogen and hydrogen gas mixture.
The dissociation of ammonia is shown by the following equation:

2 NH 3  2 N  3H 2

The operation of the nitriding cycle is usually controlled so that the

dissociation of the ammonia gas is held to approximately 30% but

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

may be varied from 15% to 95%, depending upon operating

conditons.

Merits of Nitriding :

1. Greater resistance to wear and corrosion

2. Less warping or distortion of parts treated

3. Greater surface hardness

4. Greater fatigue strength under corrosive conditions

5. Higher endurance limit under bending stresses

6. Better retention of hardness at elevated temperatures

Demerits of Nitriding:

1. Medium used is expensive

2. High furnace costs due to the long time of treatment

3. Necessity of using special alloy steels

4. Necessity of using high alloy containers to resist the nitriding.

c) Cyaniding

Cyaniding is a process of superficial case hardening in which the steel is

heated in a molten cyanide salt at about 850°С followed by quenching.
Both carbon and nitrogen are absorbed in this process.

d) Flame hardening

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

It is a process of surface hardening by which steel or cast iron is raised to

high temperature by a flame and then almost immediately quenched.
This process of hardening is used for local hardening of such components
as wheel teeth. The advantage of this process is that there is much less
distortion than in ordinary methods. It is quick, and the hardening is
restricted to parts which are affected by wear.

c) Induction hardening.
This process of surface heating is based upon inductive heating in
which a high-frequency current is first transformed from high to low
voltage, and heavy low voltage is passed through the inductor blocks
which surround the bearing journal to be hardened without actually
touching it.

The inductor block current induces current in the surface of the metal
which block surrounds and it is induced current which heats the surface to
be hardened. After some time the electrical circuit is opened and
simultaneously the heated surface is quenched by a spray from a water
jacket built into the inductor block.

Fig 5. Induction hardening

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

The induction hardening is at present extensively used for producing

hard surface on crankshaft, axels and gears.

Advantages
1. The time required for this heat-treatment operation is less thereby
increasing the labour productivity.
2. Deformation due to heat treatment is considerably reduced.
3. The articles which are induction heated have no scale effect.
4. The hardening of the surface can easily controlled by varying
frequency of supply voltage.

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES

A heat treatment furnace may be defined as a refractory lined

chamber in which the metal part is heated to the required temperature.
Usually it consists of a box-like structure with a steel access door, a
refractory lining and temperature controls and indicators.

Classification of furnaces

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 EPL 100: MATERIAL SCIENCE

1. Oil and Gas Fired Furnaces

Oil-fired or gas-fired furnaces may be classified as direct , semi-muffle or

muffle furnaces

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