ISSN: 2226-7522(Print) and 2305-3327

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Science,
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esearch Journal
Jan-Mar 2013,, 2(1): 74-85
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Copyright©2013 STAR Journal. All Rights Reserved

Original Research

English in Ethiopia
Gopal Sharma

College of Social Science and Education

Education, Post Box No: 395, Wollega University, Nekemte,
Nekemte Ethiopia

Abstract Article Information

Article History:
This paper outlines the dimensions of English in Ethiopia. Ethiopia has a Received : 15-03-2013
special history, varied cultural traditions and independent development Revised : 30-03-2013
free from colonial setbacks. The observational survey mainly focuses on Accepted : 30-03-2013
the historical background, linguistic and sociolinguistic profile of the users Keywords:
of English
sh in the country. It also discusses with appropriate illustrations Ethiopian English
and examples certain marked features of English in Ethiopia. The purpose Expanding Circle
of this paper is to present before the casual reader and the specialized World Englishes
researchers the claim of Ethiopian English for getting recognition among *Corresponding Author:
Author
the Expanding Circle countries. Very shortly, English in Ethiopia is going Gopal Sharma
to be “Ethiopian English” and a part of the World Englishes paradigm, a
shift from the monolingual paradigms to paradigms relevant and E-mail:
appropriate to multilingual, multi-ethnic
ethnic and multicultural Ethiopian society. prof.gopalsharma
[email protected]
Then the findings of this paper will be seminal in its own way.

INTRODUCTION
In the long tradition of African not in a position to provide a comprehensive
multilingualism, English has a promising analysis of English in Ethiopia, I shall try to
future in the area, and the knowledge and provide a partial portrait of the fascinating
appreciation, of national and regional language use in parts of Ethiopia for your perusal
features will develop and make the diversity and further detailed study.
of East African Englishes interesting for
casual and specialized researchers
esearchers alike. Josef Schmied has been surveying East
(Schmied, 2006) African Englishess for more than two decades.
The survey conducted and published in “The
The aim of the present paper is to underline Handbook of World Englishes” (2006) focused
the importance of an expanding circle country only on Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania because
namely the Federal Democratic Republic of according to him “ the neighbouring countries in
Ethiopia. The users of English in Ethiopia have the North - Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia – have
been nurtured and nourished by the users of the also experienced some English influences, but
English language belonging to other two circles. they have had their own special histories as well
The Expanding Circle users have a daunting task as linguistic and cultural traditions, especially a
of balancing between the so-called
called standards of much more independent development and in
the norm –providing/norm-developing
developing countries large parts –a a more dominant Arabic influence,
and regional, cultural, and sociolinguistic so that they are usuallysually not considered ESL
compulsions of their own. There is little academ
academic nations in Kachru’s sense (ch. ch. Schmied
Schmied, 2006)”. I
research available on the nature of local would like to take the hint provided by Schmied’s
variations in English syntax and its use. There is seminal work in this regard and highlight the fact
hardly any serious study conducted in and about that this part of Africa is shaping very fast and the
Ethiopia and the term ‘Ethiopian English’ is not day is not far off when the he claim of this part of
even considered worth mentioning. Though I am East Africa will be accepted and acknowledged. I
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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
shall treat the following statement of Schmied 2007; Bogale in Ege et.al., 2009; Amlaku, 2010
(2006) as the take-off point. As the systematic and Raga, 2012). A briefing paper (2012) brought
study of Ethiopian English has not been started in out by Ambo University in collaboration with the
right earnest and only a brief mention such as Ministry of Education of the Government of the
above is discussed and debated among ‘casual Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, and the
and specialized researchers’, I would depend on Institute of International Education and a number
my observations (based on authentic data from of seminars/ symposiums/ panel discussion/
the region, exemplary quotations from individual journals (for example, STAR journal form Wollega
recorded utterances, and qualified search using University)/ POD books/ seminar proceedings
Internet search engine namely Google) to provide and reports underscore the concern for quality
examples and illustrations. and ways and means to enhance the overall
teaching learning scenario with regard to English
A realistic description can only be based on language teaching. The output by way of
authentic data from the regions, exemplary research work conducted by Addis Ababa and
quotations from individual recorded other universities is also noteworthy and can be
utterances, a quantified and stratified pattern used as a dependable corpus to systematically
retrieved from the relevant sections of the study the English language in Ethiopia and
International Corpus of English or a qualified Ethiopian English.
search using internet search engine
(Schmied, 2005, cited in Schmied, 2006). The Historical Background
Ethiopia had never been a colony of the British
The Review of the Literature
or any other English speaking country so English
There is a paucity of research work about and came late in the country. The English language
in this area. I could not find any noteworthy study entered the educational institutions as a medium
conducted on and about Ethiopian English or of instruction. Long before the introduction of
English in Ethiopia. Scholars have been busy in modern education at the beginning of the
looking at East Africa in general but when they do twentieth century, education was religion- based
so, they concentrate on Kenya, Uganda and and there was no place for English in Ethiopia.
Tanzania “the core of East Africa” and touch the Education in Ethiopia had been dominated by the
southern “Anglophone” neighbours Zambia, Orthodox Church for many centuries until secular
Malawi and Zimbabwe considered as “Central education was adopted in the early 1900s.There
Africa” or even part of “Southern Africa”(ch. were hardly any native speakers of English
Schmied,1996). As far as the northern part of present, so there was no need for learning
East Africa is concerned where the three English. Later when the modern education was
important countries - Ethiopia, Somalia, and introduced and the brief hiatus of the Italian
Sudan are situated there is no scholarly occupation surrounded the lives of the people
discussion. “They have also experienced some showed its colour, there was some possibility of
English influences” (cf. Schmied, 2006) and learning French, Italian and English.
“have had their own special histories as well as
linguistic and cultural traditions” (188).Of course, In a way the 1947/8 English curriculum can be
East Africa as a composite entity is not called the first notable document to guide and
completely left behind and isolated. There are persuade the then ELT professionals. Thus the
some scholarly discussions and surveys of progress and development of English in Ethiopia
English in Africa. For example, in the late 1960s is marked by the pedagogical concerns of the
and early 1970s the Ford Foundation funded a learners. According to an IIE Briefing Paper
survey of language in East Africa but the survey (2012) curriculum records prior to the 1940s in
concentrated on the indigenous languages more Ethiopia are either “non-existent or they are
and the discussion about the role and position of difficult to access”. But it is told that the study of
English is cursory and sketchy. One can see the English language was introduced in the
other remarkable surveys of English (Hancock 1940s by Emperor Haile Selassie who came back
and Angogo in Bailey and Gorlach, 1982; after nearly 5 years of exile to the UK during the
Abdulaziz in Cheshire, 1991; Schmied in five years of Italian occupation. It was envisaged
Kortmann et.al., 2004; & contributions in Kachru to modernize the country through transfer of
1992, 2006) in Africa to get certain common science, technology and medicine. The British
grounds. The work of some scholars in the came with loads of methodology and skills to
broad areas of language policy, linguistic impart. They had plenty of books and tons of
landscape, multilingualism etc. also touch the materials. Everyone was full of enthusiasm and
position, and role of English in Ethiopia (ch. the English language was seen as a mark of
Jarvis,1969; Getachew and Derib, 2006; Hywel, social prestige among the few elites who could

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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
afford English Education. The opening statement disturbances, English continued to flourish in its
of The 1947/8 English Curriculum contains the own ways. The students continued using it as a
following rationale for teaching English in Medium of Instruction from grade 7 to the
Ethiopia: university level. While surveying the influence of
1. Foreign teachers all speak English. History on English Language Education in
2. Textbooks are available in all subjects in Ethiopia Dr. Tamene Kitila (2012) very adroitly
English. presents the “picture of the quality of the English
3. The first step toward professions is to pass an language skills that students could achieve at the
examination. (The examination referred to was time” and also gives us “useful insight into the
probably that of the University of London following aspects of English language education
(General Certificate of Education). in the past”:
4. Further reading can be done in English (IIE • Grammar-based teaching and the audio-
Briefing Paper) lingual approach dominated the curriculum.
• The language teaching syllabus mainly
During those days there were many expatriate consisted of word lists and grammar items
teachers from different countries who used to graded across grade levels.
instruct the students in English and the students
used to opt for this medium keeping in view the • Grammar was the starting point in planning
language courses.
bright future ahead. These teachers were not
trained or experienced and though English had • The curriculum specified the grammar and
the highest number of periods in the school vocabulary learners needed to master.
curriculum, the time was not utilized in a fruitful • Elementary school English teachers had
manner. The 1958/9 curriculum marks the limited English language competence.
second development in English language • There was no specialized training to teach
education. The third English curriculum appeared English at different levels of education.
in 1963-4. The 1967-8 curriculum is the last
• Almost all secondary school English teachers
English curriculum before the imperial regime
were expatriates from different countries.
came into existence in Ethiopia. In other words
we can say that English used to serve as a • Many of the expatriate teachers did not have
medium of instruction in the early years of the appropriate training to teach English.
development of school curriculum in the country. • There were no teaching materials that
After the influx of the Dergue regime to power in reflected the local culture.
1974, the then military government decided to • Simplified Readers were recommended for
close all educational institutions of higher learning use at different levels including the elementary
to start a campaign “Development through level.
Cooperation”, education became a nonstarter for • English had the highest periods in the school
nearly two years. The study of English began to curriculum.
decline gradually due to the Dergue regime’s
emphasis on the mother tongue because English • English used to serve as a medium of
was considered the “language of capitalists.” instruction in the early years of the
When the educational institutions reopened after development of school curriculum in the
two years in 1976 and government issued new country.
guidelines, a series of English text books “English When the Dergue was defeated in 1991 and
for New Ethiopia” replaced the earlier school the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)
textbooks. The books were written with a view to was established, the situation changed for the
inculcating the Marxist Leninist ideology among better. The new federal constitution and
the learners. Needless to say that the prescribed particularly the new Education and Training
syllabus and books were not student-centered. It Policy (ETP) outlined the plan for future growth
seems as if the aim of the compilers was not to and development in the education sector.
teach English but the ideology. There was an
attempt to replace English by Amharic at all In 1994, The Education and Training Policy of
levels through massive translation projects. But the Government of Ethiopia outlined the
the project failed. The allegiance with the socialist prescribed medium of instruction for primary,
block and cold war resulted into a shortage of secondary, and tertiary education in Ethiopia. At
supply of books and materials. The Native the primary level (grade 1-8), the medium of
Speaker block gave little support. There was an instruction is the mother tongue with English
acute shortage of trained and qualified teachers being taught as a subject. At the secondary level,
and novice students were recruited as “Digoma” the medium of instruction shifts to English, which
teachers. In spite of all this commotion and continues as the primary medium of instruction at
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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
the tertiary levels. The Education and Training The Sociolinguistic Profile
Policy, in accordance with the constitutional rights According to Ethnologue, there are about
of the citizens, also envisaged the role of regional ninety individual languages spoken in Ethiopia.
and local languages because of pedagogical (The number of individual languages listed for
advantages and to allow all nationalities to feel Ethiopia is 89. Of these, 87 are living and 2 are
free in using and expressing their will in their own extinct. Of the living languages, 30 are
language: institutional, 12 are developing, 28 are vigorous,
12 are in trouble, and 5 are dying. Immigrant
• Languages and Education
Languages are Kunama (7,430), Maay,
• Cognizant of the pedagogical advantage of the Sudanese Spoken Arabic (ch. Bender, 1971,
child in learning in mother tongue and the rights 1976, 1983, 1989; Dimmendaal and Voeltz,
of nationalities to promote the use of their 2007). Most belong to the Afro-Asiatic language
languages, primary education will be given in family, mainly of the Cushitic and Semitic
nationality languages. branches. Languages from the Nilo-Saharan
• Making the necessary preparation, nations and phylum are also spoken by the nation's Nilotic
nationalities can either learn in their own ethnic minorities. Most people in Ethiopia speak
language or can choose from among those Afro-Asiatic languages, mainly of the Semitic or
selected on the basis of national and Cushitic branches. The former include Amharic,
countrywide distribution. spoken by the Amhara people; and Tigrinya,
• The language of teacher training for spoken by the Tigray and Gurgiyana spoken by
kindergarten and primary education will be the the Gurage people. The latter include Oromo,
nationality language used in the area. spoken by the Oromo people; and Somali,
• Amharic shall be taught as a language of spoken by the Somali people. These five peoples
countrywide communication. make up about three-quarters of the population in
Ethiopia. Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic
• English will be the medium of instruction for minorities also inhabit the southern regions of the
secondary and higher education. country, particularly in areas bordering South
• Students can choose and learn at least one Sudan. Among these are the Mursi and
nationality language and one foreign language Anuak.According to the Ethiopian national census
for cultural and international relations. of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group
• English will be taught as a subject starting from in Ethiopia, at 34.49% of the nation's population.
grade one. The Amhara represent 26.89% of the country's
• The necessary steps will be taken to inhabitants, while the Somali and Tigray
strengthen language teaching at all levels. represent 6.20% and 6.07% of the population,
respectively. Other prominent ethnic groups are
FDRE (1994).
as follows: Sidama 4.01%, Gurage 2.53%,
Wolayta 2.31%, Afar 1.73%, Hadiya 1.74%,
One can see the statements in bold (emphasis Gamo 1.50%, Kefficho 1.18% and others 11%.
mine) that the policy document aims at directing
the stakeholders in the educational field with English is the most widely spoken foreign
regard to teaching learning of English as a language and is one of the mediums of
medium of instruction and the purpose of instruction in secondary schools. Though
studying English as a foreign language. There is Amharic was the only language of primary school
no mention of the role and position of the English instruction once, yet it had been replaced in many
language in the present constitution. The Federal areas by regional languages such as Somali,
Constitution has been written in English and Oromifa and Tigrinya. English in Ethiopia is a
Amharic and it is stated that, “The Amharic reality and it is surprising that without any colonial
versionLshall have final legal authority” (Negarit tag English flourished and was accepted by all,
Gazeta, 1995).It may be presumed that the policy though no one claims that it is used by them as a
makers wish to see the study of the English native language. Even highly educated people
language for the sake of international use English only when required and the type of
communication and higher education and the English spoken by them depends on their
development and use of the regional and local education, social position and surroundings. This
languages is their first priority. That is why is also noteworthy that in multilingual Ethiopia,
English language teaching in Ethiopia is only a even educated elite hold contradictory views
part of the bigger linguistic concerns and should about English. They hate English to love it. They
be viewed as such only. criticize the presence of English as a medium of
instruction, and they aspire to master it. A
Ugandan journalist Kalyegira (2001) commented

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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
at the then spread of English in Ethiopia with the the language situation in Ethiopia entails some of
following tongue in cheek remark “Most the learners to learn Amharic also as a second
Ethiopians speak English in the same way you language and the role of English which is hitherto
would use a torch during an electric power restricted too, it was another way of experiencing
blackout - a necessity that comes in handy during something different in a different language for a
emergencies. Otherwise, they are glad to return lot many local readers. He is of the view that:
to the only language on earth that makes sense
to them, Amharic.” But the scholars watching the This may seem ironic for Western readers
scene from inside has observed “an but as Ethiopia was never colonized by
unprecedented aspiration towards English in both Britain (although there were definitely some
the representative regions in Ethiopia”: British imperialist excursions, the most
dramatic one actually precipitated the
English is highly prized as a language which suicide of Emperor Teodoros II) English has
may offer access to higher education and less negative associations with it than
international opportunity; however, it is Amharic might to someone from an
foreign to most, and is known and used only Ethiopian ethnic minority like the Gurage. As
by a small minority of educated economic many Ethiopian ethnic minorities have to
and/or political elite. The practical diffusion learn Amharic as a second language
of English in Ethiopia is limited to fewer because it is the language of the dominant
functional domains than in many other ethnic group, the government, and the
African countries where the language enjoys Church, Amharic speakers have to learn
similarly high status, aspirational value and English as a second language. Therefore,
use (Bogale 2009). as English is no one’s mother tongue, to
Getachew and Derib (2006) say that Ethiopia read in it is to read on a level playing field.
should have no official language. There is This is the way scholars and general public
another view (Patten, 2001, cited in Derib, 2006) both speak in favour of English and wish to learn
that Ethiopia should show neutrality with regard it to get a share in the expected economic growth
to languages as is shown about religion. Fiseha on account of the spread of English. Dr. Tamene
Haftetsion Gebresilassie in an unpublished paper Kitila, Department of Foreign Languages and
entitled “Choosing a Working Language in Literature, Addis Ababa University has this to say
Multiethnic Nations: Rethinking Ethiopia’s with regard to their desire for learning English:
Working Language Policy” (2012) (circulated
only for comments and suggestions) proposes There has always been a growing need for
that Ethiopia should also adopt English as the good communication skills in English.
sole official working language of the Federal Parents send their children to school to help
Government with a slight difference of them achieve a good command of English.
implementation in the area of education in the Employers want their employees to have
federal territories. Ghelawdewos Araia (2012) in a good English language skills. Today, the
rejoinder “What Language Should Ethiopians need for effective use of English for
Speak?” tries to take different stance that is communication is heard every day,
according to him good for the multilingual everywhere. In short, effective English
country: language skills are prerequisite for success
and advancement in today’s world of work
The Ethiopian policy spectrum that has (Briefing paper, 2012).
already endorsed Amharic as a working
language of Ethiopia and the use of English in Ethiopia is primarily related to a
nationality languages in the regional states number of languages being used in the
and in national broadcasting should continue educational setting. The linguistic landscape of
in deference to the Ethiopian constitution. the major cities shows that the use of English is
Ethiopian officials, at this juncture, should in proportion with their own languages. The type
not be tempted to accepting English in lieu of English spoken by Ethiopians depends on a
of Amharic, as lingua franca of Ethiopia, for number of factors: their educational background,
it would flagrantly contravene the Ethiopian their social position and upbringing, their sphere
interest and emasculate Ethiopian culture of communication and their compulsions. The
and identity. institutions of higher learning do underline the
need of quality education in English and try to
While surfing the net, I came across The take advantage of the presence of the British and
Woyingi Blog (2011) where the farsighted blogger the US funding agencies. But there is no
discusses the language situation in Ethiopia in apparent inclination or attempt to follow any
relation to the English language. According to him specific standard as far as the pronunciation is

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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
concerned. The phenomenon of code- switching with a pinch of salt even by experienced English
and code- mixing can be seen in the speeches of teachers. Accent, rhythm, intonation and all other
the younger generation. We can say that English segmental and suprasegmental features of
in Ethiopia is both “Institutionalized” and English speech are based on one factor known
“performance” variety at the same time. as “spelling pronunciation”. “Every letter of the
According to Kachru (1983) institutionalized word should be vocalized, every syllable should
English is one that is introduced formally in a be heard” is the mantra of their English speech.
territory via education, and is used in some civil, That is why when the plural marker in the words
administrative and governmental functions. Since “cats, boxes, books” does not show any
English in Ethiopia was introduced via education, distinction, one is not amazed. In most cases
it is an “institutionalized” variety. On the other English in learnt in schools from local teachers
hand, a “performance” variety is one which does who had either been taught by Indian expatriate
not have this background; and is picked up by a teachers, non-native speakers or local Ethiopian
few people via EFL education or via brief teachers. In their description of English in East
contacts with tourists, visitors, donors, traders, Africa Hancock and Agogo (1982) differentiate
etc. It is evident that English plays some role in between non-native English spoken fluently as a
administration and education and though never a second language and non-native English spoken
colony of the British or any other English imperfectly as a foreign language within the
speaking country, this is a clear case for same territory. The same is true here too. Though
considering the English of Ethiopia, in the words phonology plays an important role, yet it is not the
of Mesthrie (2006) as “intermediate between only feature that keeps Ethiopian English distinct
prototypical ESL and prototypical EFL.” from other varieties. There are two major
languages -Amharic and Oromo and the way one
At present, there is hardly any scholarly speaks English is different from the other in more
discussion with regard to accepting or rejecting ways than one.
certain grammatical and syntactical features
found in English used by the educated Some common characteristic features of
Ethiopians. There are instances when someone Amharic speakers of English are as follows:
indicates how a group of people fail to pronounce 1. The presence of ejectives in the Amharic
certain words without inserting /i/(hospital, language and the absence of this feature in
campus, sportL) in the final position.( This the English language is an observable
phenomenon is similar to the use of /i/ by some difference. Voiceless stops, affricates, or
Indians at the initial position of certain words sibilant fricatives can become ejectives. In
beginning with /s/)..But these instances are rare. Amharic, the consonant sounds /p/, /t/, /k/, and
As the English language was introduced, /s/ can be produced as ejectives.
transplanted, taught and nurtured by those who 2. In Amharic, there is an absence of
had no colonial interest to do so and more often combinations or consonant clusters. An
than not they were non-native speakers, you can example of a combination would be an s-
see the beautiful blend unrelated with the cluster. Amharic speakers will demonstrate
Standards of English followed by other East epenthesis vowel sounds before an s- cluster
African countries namely Kenya, Tanzania and or in the middle of pl- or kl- cluster because
Uganda. these clusters do not exist in Amharic.
Keeping this background in mind, the linguistic 3. Amharic speakers fail to keep the final
competence (the knowledge of rules and usage, consonants and the final consonants are often
i.e. the phonology, the grammar and syntax & the devoiced or deleted. That is the reason that
vocabulary) & the communicative competence fricatives may become stops, stops may
(the knowledge of rules of use) of the Ethiopian become fricatives, and vowels are often
users of English can be studied as follows. shortened, lowered, or raised.
4. There are sounds in the Amharic and English
Phonology phonetic inventories that overlap but there are
A proficient user of the English language from differences in the inventories also. Consonant
an Outer Circle country goes to buy “curd” in sounds that do not occur in Amharic will be
Ethiopia and returns empty handed because deleted or replaced when speaking English.
when he says “curd” or “curds” he is understood No doubt, Amharic is the most prominent
asking for “card” or “cards”. People either call it language of Ethiopia but another language
“Urugu” or it is “Yogurt” for a few (the American Oromo, (also known as Afaan Oromo,
English). Mispronunciation is not an urgent matter Oromiffa(a) and Oromic), Afan Oromo etc.is
of concern for academicians. The news of the noteworthy because it is the language with the
existence of a pronouncing dictionary is taken fourth most speakers within Africa , after Arabic,
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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
Swahili, and Hausa. The script currently being ending sometimes sounds like 's' e.g. works,
used to write Oromo is known as Qubee which laughs, writes, etc.; sometimes it sounds like a
had been adapted from the Latin language and 'z' e.g. plays, says, lives, etc.) and sometimes it
was formally adopted in 1991. That is why a child sounds like 'iz' e.g. watches, closes, catches,
familiar with Qubee can learn the English letters etc. in Standard English Pronunciation).
in a relatively short period of time. similarly verbs with “ed” form are but the
Ethiopian speakers tend to vocalize it as / id /
There is nearly one to one correspondence only. The final /r/ is generally retained as in
between Oromo sounds and its letters. In Afan father, mother, sister etc.
Oromo there are 33 letters that represent 33 3. Length differences in vowels are levelled and
different sounds of the language. Unlike English not contrasted phonemically. Differences at the
Afan Oromo does not involve complex spelling phonemic level have to be maintained to avoid
conventions.In the Qubee alphabet, a single “ misunderstanding at the lexical level. When the
letter” consists either of a single symbol or a word “ book” is pronounced as “ buuk” there is
digraph (“ch”, “dh” , “ny” ,”ph”, “sh” ). Afan Oromo hardly any problem but when the distinction
has a typical Eastern Cushitic set of five short between “ kill” and “keel”, “ hill” and “ heel” ,
and five long vowels. The long vowels are “shit” and “ sheet” is not maintained between
indicated in the orthography by doubling the five the elements of such pairs, a considerable
vowel letters. The difference in length of the degree of homophony is created.
vowel is contrastive. For example, “haroo”means
4. The speakers of English have no immediate
“lake” but “haaraa” means “new” and “laga”
native model to follow, so they largely depend
means river but “laagaa” means “soft palate”. It is
on what is written or generally follow the rules
also remarkable that the consonants length can
of Oromo.
distinguish words from one another, for example,
badaa “ bad” , baddaa ‘ highland” .Like most 5. Other prominent feature of English in Ethiopia
other Ethiopian languages , Oromo has a set of is of the inability in pronouncing consonant
ejective consonants , that is ,voiceless stops or clusters in English speech. The clusters are
affricates that are accompanied by glottlization either dissolved or one of the consonants is
and an explosive burst of air. Oromo has another dropped. But it does not cause any major
glottalized phone , an implosive retroflex stop, problem because the intelligibility level is not
“dh”in Oromo orthography, a sound like the hampered by such acts.
English “d” produced with the tongue curled back 6. As with almost all African pronunciation the
slightly with the air drawn in so that a glottal stop speech pattern is syllable timed rather than a
is heard before the following vowel begins. All stress-timed rhythm. So each syllable is given
these mother tongue features interfere and are more or less equal stress. Even those who
unknowingly used when a speaker pronounces know that there is a difference between such
the English vowels and consonants. pairs as Subject and subject tend to ignore it.

As far as the speakers of Oromo’s ability in Lexicon

pronouncing the English words is concerned , The Lexicon of Ethiopian English is a mixture
they tend to follow the orthographic symbols and of the British Standard English and the American
often forget that there are some precautions to English. There have been a steady arrival of
be taken. The following features can be marked Indians as teachers and others & their influence
in the English speech of an Oromo speaker: can also be marked in a few cases. The use of
Amharic, Oromo and even Arabic words (the
1. Final vowel/ i / is added to closed syllables. frequent use of the phrase “God willing” is a literal
Bajaj becomes Bajaji, sport becomes sporti, translation of “Inshaallah”) and the use of some of
board is boardi and campus is campusi and so the semantic markers from other languages can
on. also be seen. It is interesting to see the semantic
2. As the speakers of English learnt to speak expansion of Standard English lexemes too.
English after getting some practice in writing,
1. Lexical items that are used in rather restrictive
reading and listening skills, they tend to
meaning acquire a wider semantic range in
pronounce each syllable distinctly and clearly
Ethiopian English. The kinship terms like
as far as possible. They give all syllables equal
father, mother, brother and sister are used
stress as they have scarcely been told or
indiscriminately to give extended and
tutored about supra- segmental features of
expanded meanings. Every elderly person can
English speech. That is why the distinction of
be called “father” similarly “mother” is used.
three different sounds of plural marker “s”- is,
Likewise, the use of ‘brother’ and ‘sister’ for
z,and iz are not maintained by Ethiopian
‘boyfriend’ and ‘girlfriend’ respectively is also
speakers of English.( the 's' of present simple
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accepted and understood. The use of “father” expanded meanings as well. E.g. “to skip” is
in plural “fathers” for fatherly figures is not used like “to forgive”,” to opt out” like “ come
uncommon. (This tendency is very similar to out”,” to make signature” like “ to sign”, “face”
Indians using “cousin- brother” and “cousin- like “get”,” history” like “biography” & “story”L
sister” for these extended words and the use 11. English word forms are used in other
of uncle and aunt /aunty for elderly people.) contexts, mixed collocations, and
2. In general the preferred staple food dishes. connotations. E.g. “you will get the value of
“Injira” is hardly ever translated and the word what you did.” (The word “value’ is used to
for “tea” is “shai” (“Chai” from Indian word mean “ in return of”).
“Chay”).
3. English word forms are used for different According to Schmied (2006) “contexts & style
meanings. Standard English use of the word choices constituting idiomaticity form a complex
“room” when associated with ‘class’ is often interplay and this special flavour can only be
heard when the estate agent asks you, “Do studied in larger sections of authentic texts.”
you want a house with one class, two class or Therefore the following examples of typical verb
three class? ” (“Class” is a bed- room here.) usage, collocations & different connotations have
4. Loan translation i.e. translation of a local been collected from An IIE Briefing Paper (2012):
current usage using high sounding English 1. An English Language Improvement Program
word e.g. “Aterera” ( from Amharic) is a short (ELIP) was established.
note used for cheating in the examination and 2. We are gathered to share experiences on how
“Taski” is used for “ taxi” (the use can be to improve quality education in our country.
attributed to the role of phonological
convenience in pronouncing a phoneme). 3. I am looking forward to your active
“Beefy” has nothing to do with “beef” in participation in the conference.
particular. It is a simplified coinage for “buffet” 4. If you share my judgment, the Germans, in
dinner. fact, without denying others’ support, rebuilt
5. Unusual and different compounds. Ethiopian their nation.
English has compounds such as ‘take away’ 5. Our students themselves are showing huge
for a “call girl”, “No matter” is for “No problem”, demands toward improving their English
“Deep talking” for “serious talk”L language performance.
6. Many words go through change in meaning, 6. One can come with a long list of problems that
For instance ‘play’ is used as a noun as well are related practice.
as a verb and it may mean “talk”. In Amharic 7. Participants felt that the method had taught
and Oromo there are words “teccawet” and “ them to soul-search.
taphadhu” respectively. This usage can be
attributed to the result of direct translation of It is interesting to note that local address forms
these words. “Ato” is being used both by the Ambassador of
7. Many words change their membership in the United States of America to Ethiopia and
grammatical categories. Adjectives/ nouns Ambo University President. In the same way the
used as verbs with verbal inflections happy- use of “Digoma” teachers is an indication of code-
happied, sure- sureness, chance- chanceful, mixing to make the listeners understand without
coherent- coherented,will- willing ( as in the any difficulty.
sentence-They must have willing to learn.)
thief– thiefed, thiefing, handsome- handsome Grammar
liness, successful- successfulliness L English grammar tells us the right way to
8. Unusual word coinages bad-badache, bed- construct sentences in English. There are a
bedache (perhaps imitated from head – number of English grammar books around (e.g.
headache). “Home take course”(Take home Quirk et.al.1985).The dictionaries can also guide
course) can be found printed on all the study us (e.g. ALD).The two prominent varieties- British
booklets and hand-outs. and American English are well codified and the
9. Coined for various local purposes new idioms grammar books often tell the readers that the
and metaphors are created not only by the American usage and the British usage may
writers and educated elite but also by those sometimes differ. For example, in American
who use English in everyday speech in the English, there is a tendency to use the past tense
multilingual contexts. “Happy Night” is also instead of the present perfect (e.g. Did you eat?
heard in place of “Good Night”. Have you eaten?). Ethiopian English is neither
10. English word forms are used with their codified nor seems to follow a particular variety.
As soon as one gets down a vehicle, someone
dictionary meanings and extended and
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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
will invariably enquire – “Where are you go?” And – the use of “to” in the sentence – “I go to
the student in a class will invariably retort- “It is home.” can be seen in tune with “I go to
not my faulty.” school.” The reason may be lack of systematic
knowledge about the standard usage and over-
The following tendencies are observed in dependence on meaning.
Ethiopian English:
7. Ask for a person who is naïve about Amharic
1. Articles and determiners- The grammar of the would assume “astwawk’eachelehu” a single
nouns mainly deals with the dependency word; but it is actually a sentence which would
between articles and determiners. The mean “I’ve got them introduced to each other”.
distinction between singular count nouns and In Sidama, a high land East Cushitic language,
count/mass and singular/plural is also the same sentence has a different structure, i.e
noteworthy. The occurrence of “the” in Oromo “ensisu:mmonssa”. In English, we say call me
is not as frequent as in English. The distinction or phone me; in Amharic, it is “dewililign” (if it is
between count noun and noncount noun is also for 3rd p. sing. subject), which can literally
not strictly observed. It seems that the teachers mean call to me. This is why we at times hear
and the learners (in most cases) are unaware Amharic speakers use expressions like *he
or unmindful of the standard rules governing called to me, *please tell to him,*let her to
the use of articles and determiners in English. come, *make them to suffer etc. (After
That is why sentences such as- “I am student. Abebayehu Messele & Endashaw Wolde
You are teacher.” are considered OK. Michael, 2009).
2. There are two numbers – singular and plural.
(book- books).In Ethiopian English the use of “– A few examples of typical verb and other
s” plural marker is used even where it is not usage are being gratefully reproduced from
required. Uncountable items such as furniture, Wollega University’s module “Communicative
equipment, dirt and luggage are regularly used Grammar” just to underline the premise that the
with a plural marker to denote more than one. acceptance of such forms is widespread among
The complex system of English count nouns is the educated users of English in Ethiopia.
further simplified by Ethiopian users when the 1. The bird does migrate
national currency is called “Birr” in both singular 2. Everyone has done his or her work.
and plural forms. 3. Kenenisa Bekele is the fast runner of the
3. According to Quirk et al., (1972) the distinction world.
of stativity is central to the grammar of verbs in 3. Those students are belongs to Wollega
English. For example, the sentence ‘I am not University.
understanding’ will be labelled as “incorrect” by 4. Read the sentences in below.
grammarians. As a rule statives do not usually 5. Two-third of the students did not registered on
occur in the progressive. But this rule is not time.
strictly followed by the expanding circle users (Waktola et al., 2010)
including Ethiopians. Writing
4. Verbalizing strategies are employed by the In an Expanding Circle country like Ethiopia, it
users to avoid complexity of meaning. In is natural that the written mode (I do not mean
English many verbs are derived from nouns. creative writing) will be more useful than the
The expanding circle users of English in spoken one. When the medium of instruction is
Ethiopia takes further liberty and invent – thief- English, there will be a lot of writing. The domains
thiefing. in which writing is very important include
5. Complex tenses are usually avoided (perfect business and commerce, academics; cultural and
and perfect continuous). The continuous form diplomatic exchange. The purpose of all writing is
is used more often (I am having a car).The communication and interaction. Writing is also
interrogative sentences are usually formed used to convey factual information with a view to
without the auxiliary verb-How you go? Where persuading, convincing and informing the
you live?). readers. That is why it is useful to study how
6. According to Quirk et al., (1972) the meaning of Ethiopians use English in their writing.
place preposition can be described in terms of
those that signal location at a point, along a Most Ethiopians write for their own people and
line, on a surface or in three dimensional their main aim is to grow and go steadily. They
space. Prepositions signal location as well as are not in a hurry to master the foreign tongue.
motion. But the Ethiopian users of English tent There is an Ethiopian proverb that can underline
to use the prepositions according to the their approach, “Little by little the Egg begins to
supposed meaning of the words. For example walk.” There are no Calibany compulsions, in the

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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
postcolonial sense; there is no Rushdieique Discourse
writing back syndrome too. One can find It is a known fact that different language
examples of Ethiopian writing in almost all speaking communities have different ways of
educated persons’ professional letters and speaking. In fact, different ethnic groups living in
academic writing. According to Kachru (2001) the same speech community use a shared
speaking and writing are creative activities as all language differently (Tannen, 1984). For instance
linguistic acts are. They are based on individual Amharic speakers of English are different from
experience situated in a context. The context and Oromia speakers of English in Ethiopia (The
register is bound to reflect itself in written texts as situation is similar to Indian speakers of English
well as in oral discourse. Look at the following where a Hindi speaker usually speaks English
unedited original extract: differently from a person from Kerala state).
Dear distance learners, no doubt that you Discourse is language beyond the sentence.
know from preceding studying some Effective communication requires competence in
linguistics courses that one of the various language and capacity to utilize linguistic
characteristics of language is the specific competence in expressing one’s intended
study of human language. The purpose of meaning (Widdowson, 1984). As said earlier, in
this module is to bring you a bit closer to this the Ethiopian context English is only one code in
fact; i.e, the study of language & linguistics. the linguistic repertoire of the local speech
To the specific, it may give you some communities. Conversation is one of the activities
invaluable insights into some subtopics such in which the language use is not restricted by the
as the nature & characteristics of human standard as the immediate aim of the speakers is
language & its origin as well as the nature to enact their respective social roles. The proper
and history of linguistics and some of its management of the interaction is more important
essential basic concepts (Shewa, 2013). than grammaticality of the syntax. For example,
the following conversation between two friends
The writer of this paragraph is a representative not only underlines their verbal repertoire but also
educated Ethiopian English user. He has been indicate their preferences as far as syntax is
teaching English for a long time. But his English concerned.
does not represent the conventions of the Inner
Circle mode of academic writing. Look at the use A: Hi, Tolera! Have you met my friend, Hawine
of a single word “some”. Let us focus on this word Boru?
first. It is the “cohesive tie” in Halliday’s sense for B: No, I have never met her. Is she your
the writer. The sentence does not conform to the marriage partner?
conventions of Inner Circle Englishes; they will do A: No, she is my class-mate. We’ve been
so only if the item some is deleted or they will not studying together since grade twelve.
use it repeatedly. The use of “that is”, “as well as” B: Oh, you have been together for so long.Didn’t
“to the (sic) specific”, “no doubt”, “you know” you talk any love affairs to her?
“such as” “some of its” etc. also indicate that the A: Not at all. I approach her as I do to my
educated Ethiopians use innovative linking younger sister. We seem as if we are from
devices when they write in English. The use of the same family. Even her body colour
‘dear distance learner” and subsequent use of resembles my aunt’s daughter.
“you learners” repeatedly in the entire module is B: Where is she now?
also noteworthy. The use of these cohesive A: She’s consulting her advisor. She’ll come after
devices of English in this way is unknown to most a while. Oh, even she is heading towards us
speakers of Inner Circle varieties of English. The from there the office.
purpose of this comment is not to inspire the B: Is she the tall lady in a blue skirt walking down
Expanding Circle users to indiscriminately follow the stairs?
the norms provided by the Inner and Outer Circle A: Exactly!
users of English. Such usage cannot be termed B: Wow! She is pretty.
“fossilization” in Selinker’s sense. This is also not A: May I introduce you to her?
a case of lack of linguistic and communicative B: Please do. I’d love to.
competence (cf.Chomsky, Halliday and Hymes). A: Ok, let’s stroll towards her and we’ll take her
In the example quoted above, the use of the to Robera Café.
linking devices is patterned on the conventions of (Wollega University Ethiopia, Communicative English
Skills Final Exam for first year Students of 2012-13 A.
the first language. Perhaps such use and usage
Y., Page 4)
makes sense to the user and the readers of this
variety.
It would be appropriate to mention here that
the Ethiopian society is not only directed by their
social values, cultural and ethical codes of
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Gopal Sharma Sci. technol. arts Res. J., Jan-Mar 2013, 2(1): 74-85
conduct but also governed by their customs and among all is very fast and the knowledge of some
environment. The dialogue reproduced above is English is mandatory in the educational setting,
not only a reflection of the Ethiopian social norms the users with little knowledge and limited
and conduct (I approach her as I do to my vocabulary also try to evolve their own kind of
younger sisterL.) but also familiarizes us with a communication strategies. I will always remember
mosaic of collocations such as “marriage partner” a gentleman sitting in front of Classic Café
and “to talk love affair”. Look at the use of (Nekemte town) and helping newcomers to get a
personal pronoun “she” in the yes- no question- rented- accommodation. I named him “Mr. Fulfil”.
Is she the tall lady in a blue skirt walking down When he doesn’t get any appropriate word in
the stairs? Mark the use of “there’ in the reply of the racy speakers of English, he
statement - even she is heading towards us from invariably says, “and everything fulfilled.” There
there the office. One can very well understand are instances when someone couldn’t follow the
that the speaker’s intended emphasis makes him talk given by a native speaker of English but
use this kind of strategy which may be unusual was able to fill in the questionnaire given to her.
for the Inner Circle ear but is quite normal for the During a two- day ELT workshop (March, 2013)
Ethiopian speakers of English. for school teachers held at Wollega University,
one of the participants shared his experience of
Another area of interest is the use of using an audio cassette player in the class. The
greetings and phatic communion by Ethiopians teaching aid was a gift from an Inner Circle
who rely more on their oral traditions than the country. Whenever the students heard the two
“firanzi’ (foreign) ways of greeting with “Hi” and voices (one male & the other female) they were
“Hello”. An Ethiopian greeting is also an amazed and bewildered to find a different
elaborate affair to make a lasting impression. The “English” piercing their ears. They could hardly
normal hand-shake in the English way is pick up a few words. The level of their
considered incomplete without adding the push of intelligibility was really very low. But the same set
the shoulder with the shoulder. In addition to this, of learners was very comfortable with their
the exchange of phatic communion is not limited teacher’s English. They were also amazed to find
to a word or two. (As in English Good MorningL an Indian professor speaking English the same
Good Morning.) The hand-shake is an way as they speak. For them the English
ostentatious ritual and might perplex an outsider. emanating from the teaching aid was “NO
(akkam Bultan (literally means “ How did you English!” (“Is it also English?” They asked in
pass the night?”, ,nagaa nagaa, fayyaa fayyaa bafflement). The English they are familiar with
LGalata Wakayyo etc. ). After asking about the and comfortable in is their English. With due
family, their health and well being, there will be a respect to William Shakespeare and his ilk, it
chance to start the real “play” (conversation). In should be stressed that once the language
English, one can directly ask a pedestrian, variety is ear-marked, it should be named too.
“Would you mind telling me how to reach Wollega The case of Ethiopian English is thus presented
University?” It would be considered affected and before you for further research and consideration.
uncivilized in Ethiopia. An average Ethiopian
would not mind and rather find it appropriate if ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
one uses a few words of Amharic or Afan Oromo
in between English speech. A very frequent I gratefully acknowledge the use of the
sound “ish” is heard to indicate approval and copyright material of Wollega University Ethiopia
affirmation. In the same way the word “ abhit” is a & am thankful to all of them who have directly or
friendly address-form even to address a stranger. indirectly helped me in conducting this
There are many other words and phrases that observational survey. I am also thankful to the
might strike the foreign ear (tinnishL tinnish (little minds behind the Briefing Paper brought out by
L little) but this is the way the Ethiopian Ambo University in collaboration with the Ministry
discourse in English is carried. of Education of the Government of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, & the Institute of
CONCLUSION International Education. I am particularly thankful
to Dr. Eba Mijena, Academic and Research Vice
And now, in conclusion, let me say something President with whom I formally & informally discu-
from the core of my heart. English in Ethiopia is ssed many issues and got my doubts cleared.
slightly different. The Ethiopians use English but Dr. Tamiru Olana & Mr Fekadu Oljira improved
avoid the Georgian Calendar and prefer their own my Amharic and Oromo knowledge in a friendly
way of clock- time. They are at ease with the way and thanking colleagues and friends is just a
“thirteen months” of sunshine instead of usual formality. Dr. Harpreet Singh could witness my
twelve elsewhere. As the spread of education initial desire and determination only but Mr.

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Raghu (now Dr.) & Mr. A. Khan shared my daily Jarvis, R. (1969). ‘Developments in English Language
concern for English in Ethiopia. They were along Teaching in Ethiopia. Oxford ELT Journal,
with me from the beginning to the end. I thank XIII(2),151-156.
them all to make me feel homely. Kachru Braj, B. (1983). Models for non-native
Englishes. In The Other Tongue-English across
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