Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry

Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete

C-1
What is Forensic Chemistry?
Forensic chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry that deal with the application of chemical
theories and principles in the solution of legal problems in relation to the administration of justice. This field
c study applied science and technology to investigate and establish fact in criminal or civil courts of law. In
simple terms, forensic chemistry in the application of chemistry to law (Khan, Kennedy, & Christian2012)
Scope of forensic Chemistry
Forensic chemistry embraces a large and diversified field. It includes not only the chemical side of
Criminal investigation but also the analysis of any materials, the quality of which may give rise to legal
proceedings.
a) Identification of evidence, its physical and chemical properties.
b) Collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen, and other body fluids;
c) Examination of dangerous drugs;
d) Examination of body fluid to determine the presence of dangerous drugs;
e) Alcohol (liquor) test; examination of fake products for unfair trade competition;
f) Arson investigation;
g) Macro etching examination;
h) Bullet trajectory;
i) Ultraviolet examination
j) Tools and other marks;
k) Gunshot residues (gunpowder nitrates, paraffin test; distance determination; and firearms
examination);
l) Principles and examination of explosives, hair and textiles fibers
m) Chemical aspects of document and examination;
n) Problems on glass fragments and glass fracture,
o) Moulage, metallurgy and petrography as applied to crime investigation.
p) Forensic Chemistry also includes the study and examination of Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for
brevity.
Role of the Chemist in Scientific Criminal investigation
A Forensic Chemist is responsible for applying the physical sciences to the investigation of crimes by performing
laboratory examinations of physical evidence submitted to the crime laboratory. This is done thorough extensive
training under direct supervision in learning how to examine, identify and evaluate physical evidence.

a.) Performs analytical examination of different controlled substances such as dangerous drugs and
explosive or explosive ingredients.
b.) Conducts gunshot residue examinations.
c.) Identifies different peculiarities from trace evidences.
d.) Examines body fluids for any degree of intoxication of alchol drugs and poisions
e.) Analyzes fake products for unfair trade competitions.
f.) Prepares technical reports, prepares finding for court Duties also include meeting with offices, city
prosecutors, attorneys and court office to discuss laboratory test results.

History & Development of Forensic Science

When in Rome…
 “Forensic” comes from the Latin word “forensis” meaning forum.
 During the time of the Romans, a criminal charge meant presenting the case before the public.
Both the person accused of the crime & the accuser would give speeches based on their side of
the story. The individual with the best argumentation would determine the outcome of the case.
The history of forensic chemistry can be traced back to the use of poisons by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans.

Demorates, an ancient philosopher widely considered as the father of modern science, was probably the first
to study poisons. Poisoning was used by the ancient world as a method of murder and execution, such as
when Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock, to highly poisonous plant. The use of arsenic, a
very poisonous metallic element, was so widespread during this time that by 82 B.C.E.,

the ancient Roman civilization created laws against poisoning. In 1836, the Marsh test was developed, which
was the first reliable analysis that scientifically demonstrated the presence of arsenic in the body of a victim.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
Locard's Exchange Principle
Another key figure in the history of forensic science is Edmond Locard (1877-1966) who also made
several significant contributions to the new science of fingerprinting. Locard succeeded in setting up the first
police laboratory in Lyon, France in 1910. He is best known for the Locard's exchange principle, which has
been adopted as one of the tenets of forensic science. The principle holds that "every contact leaves a trace,"
or that every contact between two objects results in an exchange of traces between them. In other words, it is
impossible for a criminal to perform an act of violent crime without having some trace of his or her presence.
As an example, Locard highlighted the power of the microscope to characterize the debris deposited on the
clothing of a person moving through different environments. This principle is further explained below:
"Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as a
silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his
clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he
deposits or collects. All of these and more, bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does
not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human
witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong, it cannot perjure itself, it
cannot be wholly absent. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its
value." (Kirk, 1953).
Leone Lattes (1887-1954)
 He developed a procedure for determining the blood type (A, B, AB, or O) of a dried blood stain.
Calvin Goddard(1891-1955)
 Developed the technique to examine bullets, using a comparison microscope, to determine
whether or not a particular gun fired the bullets.
Albert Osborn (1858-1946)
 Developed the fundamental principles of document examination
 His work led to the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts.
Walter McCrone (1916-2002)
 He developed & applied his microscope techniques to examine evidence in countless court cases.
 Utilized microscopy and other analytical methodologies to examine evidence.
Hans Gross (1847-1915)
 Wrote the book on applying all the different science disciplines to the field of criminal
investigation.
Edmond Locard(1877-1966)
 In 1910, he started the 1st crime lab in an attic of a police station.
 With few tools, he quickly became known world-wide to forensic scientists & criminal
investigators & eventually founded the Institute of Criminalistics in France.
 incorporared Gross’ principles within a workable crime laboratory.
 His most important contribution was the “Locard’s Exchange Principle”
J. Edgar Hoover
 “Father of the FBI” - Director of Federal Bureau of Investigation during the 1930’s
 Hoover's leadership spanned 48 yrs & 8 presidential administrations. His reign covered
Prohibition, the Great Depression, WWII, the Korean War, the Cold War, & the Vietnam War.
 He organized a national laboratory to offer forensic services to all law enforcement agencies in
the U.S.

Important Cases in History:

 One of the first celebrated cases in forensic science involved the 'father of toxicology', Mathieu
Orfila (1787-1853), who worked in Paris and testified in an arsenic poisoning criminal trial in
1840. Orfila and others had developed a chemical test to detect arsenic.
 Alphonse Bertillon's (1853-1914) personal identification system using a series of body and facial
measurements for individualization, developed in 1882.
 Dr. Francis Galton's (1822-1911) Fingerprints, published in 1892, was another pioneering
contribution to the emerging field of forensic science.
 Alexandre Lacassagne (1844-1921) has been called the founder of modern forensic science.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC CRIME LAB IN THE PHILS.

 In the Philippines, the 1st public recognition of the value of science in administration of justice
when the position of “Medicos Titulare” was created in the Philippines by virtue of the Royal
Decree No. 188 Spain dated March 31, 1876
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
 Septemcer 13, 1887 – “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” was established under the inspection of
the Direcion general de Administracion Civil and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”
 The first appointed director of the “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” was Anacleto del Rosario
on June17, 1888
 In 1894, the “Laboratorio Medico-Legal” was created functioning under the direction of a
physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist. Ulpiano Rodriguez was appointed as one of the
first chemist.
 In 1895, Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory were some original works in chemistry
was done, unfortunately the operation was halted because of the revolution in 1896
 June 28, 1945, to cope with the increasing number of crimes in the provinces, the medico-legal
section of the DI was reactivated and by September of the same year the NBI was organized by
RA 157
 Four Stages in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

 Stage 1: Collection and reception of the specimen - Collection refers to the proper collection,
handling, and packaging of specimen before an analysis can be started. Reception refers to the
process of receiving the specimen by entering the specimen condition on the log book

 Stage 2: Actual examination – The conduct of various examination procedures for different
specimens submitted as requested by the requesting party

 Stage 3: Report writing of the result - This step involves the drafting of the positive or negative result
(e.g. presence of a drug)

 Stage 4: Court appearance This is the final stage, wherein the chemist must explain to the court the
findings of the examination conducted on the specimen submitted

The Forensic Chemist as an Expert Witness in Court

A forensic chemist can be called in as an expert witness in a court of law by virtue of the following
qualifications:
 1. Education - one must be a licensed/registered chemist, preferably with a Master's or Phd. degree
 2. Training - one must have undergone trainings and seminars in the field of forensics, and must be
updated in the training of forensic chemistry procedures in and outside the country
 3. Experience - one must have hands-on experience involving laboratory procedures and must know
how to answer court inquiries about chemistry principles during court presentation

Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

As with other disciplines, there are several important rules that must be followed, which include the ones
listed below:
1. Go slowly
Good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to make the case complete
no matter how urgent it may appear.
2. Be thorough.
Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a quantitative
analysis if a quantitative one is possible. It always pays to do too much rather than too little and it is
difficult to foresee what will or will not be required in court.
3. Take notes.
Keep a full neat and clean record of everything seen and done.
4. Consult others.
Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar and when this
happens he should consult those who know better.
5. Use imagination.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the most dangerous
creature. Though his being imaginative is sometimes useful, an expert witness does not have
to be solely imaginative but he has to be skilled in the field of Forensic Science. He must bear
witness within the limits of science.
6. Avoid complicated theories.
The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one. Interpretation of results is often the most difficult
part of the expert's task that is why a wide knowledge and scientific experience are the essential elements
to obtain the right forensic examination results.

Equipment used in the Forensic Examination

 HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography) - This scientific equipment is used for the
qualitative and quantitative determination of a volatile or non-volatile compound based on the
chromatographic separation of its components.
 Ultra-Violet spectrophotometer - It is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of
organic compounds.

 EMIT (Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique) - It is used for screening of abused urine
samples.

C - II

What is Physical Evidence?

Physical evidence refers to any material object introduced in a trial for the purpose of proving fact in
issue based on its demonstrable physical characteristics. This includes all or part of any conceivable object.
Physical evidence can be classified according to the following:
 Physical nature - microscopic, solid, liquid, gaseous, etc.
 Type of examination to be conducted - drug test, drug analysis, paraffin test, etc.
There are several types of physical evidence that are likely to be found at the scene of a crime, and can be
analyzed scientifically, including those listed below.

 DNA - any tissue from the victim or suspect, such as hair, fingernails, bones, teeth
 Body fluids - saliva, blood, sweat, semen, and urine of the victim or suspect
 Impressions tool marks, shoe prints, fingerprints, bite marks, tire tracks, etc.
 Weapons characteristics of firearms, ammunitions, and residue; chemical composition of
explosives, etc.
 Questioned documents - printing method or paper and ink used in forged documents, handwriting
style, counterfeit bills, ransom notes, etc.
 Miscellaneous trace evidence, such as dust and dirt, fibers soil, glass, paint, skeletal remains
Value of Physical Evidence
It has already been mentioned that physical evidence is much more reliable than testimonial evidence,
and the value of the former over the latter is enumerated below.

 Human factor - Compared with testimonial evidence, which may change, physical evidence "can't lie,
quit, die, forget, or get fired;" in addition, the source of testimonial evidence may also be lost, thus
losing the connection between the original and the court version
 Physical properties - Physical evidence cannot change, whereas testimonial evidence is based solely
on interpretation that can change or be erroneous
TYPES OF EVIDENCE
1. DIRECT EVIDENCE - IS SIMPLY THE EVIDENCE WHICH THE SENSES PERCEIVED. ANY FACT TO
WHICH A WITNESS TESTIFIES BASED ON WHAT HE SAW, HEARD, SMELLED, TOUCH OR
TASTED.
2. CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE OR INDIRECT
- IS AKIND OF EVIDENCE WHICH SEEKS TO ESTABLISH A CONCLUSION BY INFERENCES FROM
PROVED FACTS
- IS SUFFICIENT TO PRODUCE CONVICTION IF THERE IS MORE THAN ONE CIRCUMSTANCES,
THE FACTS FROM WHICH THE INFERENCES DERIVED ARE PROVEN AND THE COMBINATION
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
OF ALL THE CIRCUMSTANCES IS SUCH AS TO PRODUCE CONVICTION BEYOND REASONABLE
DOUBT
3. HEARSAY EVIDENCE IS A STATEMENT MADE BY A WITNESS ON THE AUTHORITY OF
ANOTHER AND NOT FROM HIS OWN PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE OR OBSERVATION.
 HEARSAY EVIDENCE IS INADMISSIBLE IN COURT EXCEPT FOR SOME WELL-DEFINED
EXCEPTION:

Circumstantial Variability
If any type of physical evidence is found and subsequently associated with a suspect where he or she
had no right to be, then upon proper identification, the evidence may:
 Establish proof beyond reasonable doubt;
 Establish probable cause; and
 Establish a suspect's presence at the crime scene.
If the physical evidence is found for a period during which a suspect may have had legitimate right to be
(ie., innocent access), then the evidence may:
 Have no significance; and
 Provide leads to follow in order to establish the case via other sources.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
 SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE IS A MEANS SANCTIONED BY LAW OF ASCERTAINING IN A JUDICIAL
PROCEEDING THE TRUTH RESPECTING A MATTER WHEREIN SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IS
NECESSARY

 SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE MUST BE RELEVANT AND CORRESPOND TO THE SUBSTANCE OF THE

ISSUE AND MUST NOT BE EXCLUDED BY THE RULES OF COURT

FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

1) REAL OR AUTOPTIC EVIDENCE – IS THAT EVIDENCEWHICH IS ADDRESSED TO THE SENSES
OF THE COURT. NOT LIMITED TO THAT WHICH CAN BE KNOWN BY THE SENSE OF VISION BUT
EXTEND TO THOSE WHICH ARE PERCEIVED BY THE SENSES OF HEARING, TASTE, SMELL OR
TOUCH
2) TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE - SOLEMN DECLARATION MADE UNDER OATH ORALLY BY A
WITNESS IN RESPONSE TO INTERROGATION BY A LAWYER
3) EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE – AN EXPERT WITNESS MAY BE REQUIRED TO PERFORM CERTAIN
EXPERIMENTS TO PROVE A CERTAIN MATTER.
4) DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE – ANY WRITTEN EVIDENCE PRESENTED BY AN EXPERT TO COURT
WHICH IS RELEVANT THE MATTER IN DISPUTE AND NOT EXCLUDED IN THE RULES OF COURT.
WITNESS
 ONE WHO TESTIFIES IN COURT AND HAS PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE OR EXPERIENCE OF
SOMETHING
 A PERSON OTHER THAN THE SUSPECT WHO IS REQUESTED TO GIVE INFORMATION
CONCERNING AN INCIDENT OR A PERSON
 HE MAY BE THE VICTIM, THE COMPLAINANT, THE ACCUSER, A SOURCE OF
INFORMATION AND AN OBSERVER OF AN OCCURRENCE
 A WITNESS CAN BE AN ORDINARY WITNESS OR AN EXPERT WITNESS

TYPES OF WITNESS:
1) ORDINARY WITNESS
 IS ONE WHO STATE FACTS AND MAY NOT EXPRESS HIS OPINIONS OR CONCLUSION
 HE MAY TESTIFY ABOUT COMMON EXPERIENCE SUCH AS SPEED OF VEHICLE,
WHETHER THE VOICE WAS THAT OF A MAN, WOMAN ORCHILD.

RULES OF COURT REQUIRES THAT THE PERSON MUST HAVE THE FOLLOWING QUALIFICATION TO
BE AN ORDINARY WITNESS:
1. HE MUST HAVE THE ORGAN AND POWER TO PERCEIVE
2. THE PERCEPTION GATHERED BY HIS ORGAN CAN BE IMPARTED TO OTHERS
3. HE DOES NOT FALL IN ANY EXCEPTION PROVIDED FOR BY THE LAW UNDER SEC.26, RULES
123 OF THE RULES OF COURT

2) EXPERT WITNESS
 ONE WHO POSSESSES A SPECIAL SKILL BE IT ON ART, TRADES OR SCIENCE
 ONE WHO HAS SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE IN MATTERS NOT GENERALLY KNOWN TO MAN OF
ORDINARY EDUCATION
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
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EXPERT WITNESS VS ORDINARY WITNESS

PROBATIVE VALUE OF EXPERT WITNESS WHETHER THE COURT ARE BOUND OR NOT BY THE
TESTIMONY OF AN EXPERT, DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE SUBJECT OF INQUIRY

a) IF THE SUBJECT COMES WITHIN THE GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE JUDGE, HE WILL NOT
FEEL BOUNDED BY THE CONCLUSION OF THE EXPERT.

b) HOWEVER, WHEN THE SUBJECT OF INQUIRY IS OF SUCH A NATURE THAT A LAYMAN CAN
HAVE NO KNOWLEDGE, THE COURT MUST BE DEPENDENT ON EXPERT EVIDENCE
Forms of Scientific Evidence
(a) Real or Autoptic evidence is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by
the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.

(b) Testimonial Evidence - An expert may be called on the witness stand to answer all questions
propounded by both parties in the case.

(c) Documentary evidence - Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to
the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert
opinion, certificates and dispositions are included in this group.
The investigator is a fact finder. It is basic that he must know the laws concerning the nature of his
investigation. He should procure evidence in such a way that the findings can be admitted in court
and remain impregnable against any attack by the opposing counsel. He should be in constant contact
with various investigative and enforcement agencies.

Collection of Physical Evidence

 The scene of the crime operation (SOCO) team must have several main goals in mind during the
process of collecting evidence from a crime scene: reconstruct the crime, identify the person who
committed the crime, preserve the evidence for analysis, and collect such evidence in a way that will
make them stand up in court.
Guiding Principles in the Collection of Physical Evidence
 There are several guidelines in the collection of physical evidence. These help ensure that the
appropriate protocols are followed, resulting in the generation of useful evidence.
 1. Sufficiency of sample - sufficient weight, volume, or pieces of sample for analysis should be
submitted so that a series of lab tests can be performed
 2. Standard for comparison a standard should be submitted so that comparative analysis can be
performed and facilitate the evaluation of unfair trade completion
 3. Maintenance of individuality - different specimens should be packed individually to prevent
contamination
 4. Labeling and sealing individually packed specimens should be labeled and sealed properly to avoid
confusion in the preparation of requests and documentations
IN THE INVESTIGATION OF CRIMES, WHETHER AGAINST A PERSON OR PROPERTY, OR EVEN
CRIMES AGAINST STATE, PHYSICAL EVIDENCE IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT
SHOULD BE GIVEN SPECIAL ATTENTION.
 THE PROSECUTION MAY WIN OR LOSE THE CASE BASED ON THE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
PRESENTED
 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE IS PROBABLY THE MOST DAMAGING EVIDENCE WHICH CAN BREAK
DOWN THE HARDENED CRIMINAL
 UNLIKE TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE, PHYSICAL EVIDENCE WILL NOT TELL A LIE.

SOME PRIMARY REASONS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE LOST OF PROSECUTIVE VALUE OF
EVIDENCES
1 IMPROPER PACKING OF THE SPECIMEN
2 FAILURE TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIMEN
3 IMPROPER PRECAUTIONS USED IN TRANSMITING THE SPECIMEN
4 IMPROPER PRESERVATION
5 LACK OF PRECAUTION TO PREVENT TAMPERING OF THE SPECIMEN
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
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C – III

BLOOD
 Has been called the circulating tissue of the body
 Made up of formed elements suspended in a liquid called plasma
 Highly complex mixtures of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances
 About 6 quarts of blood in an average size man.
 It is opaque
 Slightly alkaline (normal pH is 7.35-7.45)

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. 35% formed elements
a) Red blood cells or erythrocytes- contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen to various tissue in the body.
b) White blood cells or luekocytes- defends the body from invading microorganism and help fight
infection
c) Blood platelets or thrombocytes- produced by the bone marrow and responsible for proper clotting of
blood.

2. 65% plasma – fluid portion of the blood where cells are suspended.
 90% water
 10% solid – largely protein in nature and consists of the following:
 albumin – the most abundant fluids of the blood
 globulins – important role in the immune mechanism of the body.
 fibrinogen – soluble precursors of fibrin which forms blood clot.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

a) Where blood has to be searched?
b) Collection, preservation and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.
c) Does the stain contain blood or another substance similar to blood?

Chronological test for blood

I. Preliminary test – determine whether the stain contains blood or another substance.
II. Confirmatory test – determines whether bloodstain really contains blood.
III. Precipitin test – determines whether the stain is human or animal in origin, if not human, the specific
animal family from which it is originated.
IV. Blood grouping test – determined the blood group if stain is human blood

I. Preliminary test for blood

1. Benzidine test
 Very sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain
 very delicate test and detect blood when present in a dilution of 1:300,000 parts.
 Its use was discontinued because it was known to be carcinogenic
 Can be use to very old stain or decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination.

2. Guaiacum test
 Fairly delicate test showing presence of blood in a solution of 1;50,000 dilution.
 May not react to very old stain
 Limitation of the test: reacts with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron, salt, cheese, potatoes, perspiration
and other oxidizing substances.

3. Phenolphthalein test(Kustle-Meyer test)

 Alternative test to benzidine test.
 Can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts.
 Positive result is highly indicative of blood
 The test also gives positive results for copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

4. Leucomalachite Green test

 Recommended by Adler in 1904
 Not as sensitive as the Benzidine test.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
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5. Luminol test – important presumptive identification for blood
 Reaction of luminal with blood results in the production of light rather than color.
 Extremely sensitive test(diluted up to 10,000 times

II. Confirmatory test for blood

The actual proof that a stain is blood is establishing the presence of the characteristic pigment,
hemoglobin or one of its derivatives
Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the RBC of the blood

The 3 confirmatory test for blood:

1. Microscopic test
 Useful in the demonstration and mensuration of blood cells
 Use to differentiate between mammalian, avian, pescine and reptilian blood.
2. Microchemical test and Microcrystalline test
 Identification of blood can be made more specific if this test is applied or performed.
 Teicmann Haemin test
 Acetone-Haemin test
 Haemochromogen crystal test or Takayama test
3. Spectroscope test
 Most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old and recent
stains
 Perform using an optical instrument called spectrocope

III. Precipitin test for blood

 Standard test used to determine whether the stain blood is human or animal in origin
 Very sensitive and requires only a small amount
 Stain dried as long as 10-15 years still give positive result
 Limitations: precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins in saliva,
semen,, mucus and other body fluids.

IV. Blood Grouping of Fresh Blood

If the stain is human blood, did it come from the victim, the accused or from other person. The origin
of the blood or blood stain can be determined by the identification of the blood groups to which it belongs?
This identification is carried out on both fresh blood and blood stains. Human blood of all races can be divided
into definite groups.

A-B-O SYSTEM
In blood grouping of fresh blood A-B-O system is used.
It was Landsteiner in 1900, who discovered the four blood groups namely group A, B, O and AB
He named the 4 groups based on the basis of the agglutinogen or antigen contents of the RBC

Agglutinogens or Antigens are characteristic chemical structures or principles that are founds on the surface
of the RBC which stimulates the production of agglutinins.
There are 2 agglutinogens classified as Agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B.

On the other hand serum contains proteins or principles known as antibodies or agglutinins, which cause
agglutination or clumping of RBC
They are anti-toxin substances within the body, which reascts when confronted with a specific antigens to
protect the system.
There are 2 agglutinins classified as anti-A and anti-B
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
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Ten Different Matings possible between the 4 blood groups Factors
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
PARENTS NOT POSSIBLE
CHILDREN

• OxO O A,B,AB

• AxO A,O B, AB

• AxA A,O B, AB

• BxO B,O A, AB

• BxB B,O A, AB

• AxB O,A,B,AB NONE

• AB x O A,B O, AB

• AB x A A,B,AB O

• AB x B A,B,AB O

• AB x AB A,B,AB O

Blood Transfusions

A blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is given to a patient through an

intravenous (IV) line in one of the blood vessels. Blood transfusions are done to replace blood
lost during surgery or a serious injury. A transfusion also may be done if a person’s body can't
make blood properly because of an illness.

Who can give you blood?

People with TYPE O blood are called Universal Donors, because they can give blood to any blood type.
People with TYPE AB blood are called Universal Recipients, because they can receive any blood type.
Rh + Can receive + or -
Rh - Can only receive –

Rh Factor
Scientists sometimes study Rhesus monkeys to learn more about the human anatomy because there
are certain similarities between the two species. While studying Rhesus monkeys, a certain blood protein was
discovered. This protein is also present in the blood of some people. Other people, however, do not have the
protein. The presence of the protein, or lack of it, is referred to as the Rh (for Rhesus) factor. If your blood
does contain the protein, your blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+). If your blood does not contain the protein,
your blood is said to be Rh negative (Rh-).

MN SYSTEM OF BLOOD GROUPS

Two new agglutinogens in red blood cells discovered by Landsteiner and Levine in 1927
These substances are found in all four human blood groups and the distribution of the three types is the same
in each of the A-B-O system
Do not play any role in blood transfusion.
Agglutinins of M and N are not found in human sera
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
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C – IV

The examination of semen and seminal stain is an important part in the routine investigation of sexual
offenses like:
1 Rape
2 Adultery
3 Sodomy
4 Bestiality
5 Sexual homicide

WHERE SEMEN CAN BE FOUND:

AS FRESH in the vaginal contents and rectal contents of the victim.
AS WET OR DRIED in hair and skin around the genitals
AS DRIED STAINS in underclothing and bed sheets.

SEMEN - a whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa suspended in secretion
of accessory glands.

PARTS OF THE SEMEN

1. Seminal fluid – has characteristic alkaline odor, viscous, gelatinous and sticky
 It is milky and turbid in appearance and contains filaments and grains
 Slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.2 – 8.0)
 Coagulation begin immediately after ejaculation
 It liquefy when exposed to air. Complete liquefaction takes about fifteen minutes
probably due to enzymatic reaction.
2. Formed cellular elements:
 Spermatozoa or sperm cell – small objects with pear shaped head with a short neck and a
tail about ten times as long as the head.
 Epithelial cells
 Crystal of choline and lecithin
 Choline – water soluble essential nutrient grouped with in the vit. B complex
 Lecithin – yellow-brown fatty substance found in plants, animals and egg yolk

Normal quantity of semen - 1.5 to 3.5 mL in a single ejaculation

Normal numbers of spermatozoa/sperm count in a healthy young man – 400 to 500 million

CASES WHERE IN EJACULATION HAS NO SPERMATOZOA

Males suffering from aspermia and oligospermia, this may be due to excessive sexual intercourse or
suffering from chronic epididymitis and other testicular diseases or from chronic venereal disease.
 Aspermia – complete lack of semen
 Azoospermia - condition wherein there is absence of spermatozoa in the seminal fluid.
 Oligospermia – condition where there is abnormal low sperm counts or with few spermatozoa in
the seminal fluid.

COLLECTION OF SEMEN-STAINED SPECIMENS

1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as soon as possible. Chemise, panties, pants and skirts
are the most common parts of wear apparel carrying seminal stain.
2. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
3. Fluid semen should be place in a test tube.

PRESERVATION OF SEMEN-STAINED SPECIMENS.

Fluid semen may be preserved by a few drops of toulol or 10% solution of formalin during hot
weather where there is danger of putrefaction.
.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
PACKAGING AND TRANSIT OF SEMEN-STAINED SPECIMENS
1. In packing wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain. Semen
in dried condition is very brittle and friction may cause breaking of the spermatozoa.
2. Specimen should not be rolled for transit. Gently lay between 2 sheets of cardboard or similar
material and tied together with a string to avoid friction.
3. In cases where the specimen is nearly dry, it is most preferred to allow it to dry thoroughly before
it is transported Specimen must be thoroughly dried before packing. Presence of moisture can
attract certain bacteria to act on protein constituents of semen, digest the dried protein and destroy
its stiffness.

Examinations of Semen and Seminal stain

1. If semen is fresh, the examination is relatively easier. When undried, seminal fluid has a
characteristic alkaline odor which is easily noticeable.
2. The most convenient method is to examine under the microscope, if spermatozoa is present it can
be seen under the microscope using the HPO.
3. When seminal fluid is dry or in form of stain, the examination may be carried out by the
following methods:
A. Physical examination –
 Semen when dry gives a stiff, starchy feeling to the cloth
 Exhibit a bluish fluorescence under the ultraviolet light
 Grayish white, sometimes yellowish stain
 Have appearance or outline of contour map
 May have a reddish tint in case of old man

B. Chemical examination
1. Florence test – name after Dr. Florence of Lysons who first introduced the test. Positive
result: crystals of choline periodide are dark brown, rhombic or needle shaped that occur
singly or in cross or even in clusters.
2. Barberio’s test – almost specific for human semen. Seminal stain as old as 6 years are said
to respond to this test. Positive result: crystals that are slender yellow tinted, rhomboid
needles with obtuse angle or appear as ovoid crystals.
3. Acid phosphatase test – the best way to locate and characterized a seminal stain. Has
replaced Florence test in reliability and very specific for human and higher apes. Positive
result: orange-red pigment

C. Microscopic examination – main purpose is to determine the presence of spermatozoa. The

identification of spermatozoa at present is the only specific test for semen.
Limitations of the microscopic test for seminal stain
 Absence of sperm does not prove that the stain is not semen.
 Nature of fabric, age of stain, condition to which the stain was exposed before reaching
the lab and handling of specimen may obstruct the detection of spermatozoa.
 Some medical jurist believes that there can be no semen without the presence of
spermatozoa but it is not true in case of azoospermia.

Biological examination – spermato-precipitins are of value in the identification of seminal fluid in certain case
like bestiality. This test was originally proposed by Farnum in 1901.

OTHER STAINS OF MEDICO-LEGAL INTEREST

1. Obstetrical and Gynelogical stain – this is examine in case of criminal abortion, infanticide and sex
offenses and determination of the origin of these stains is sometimes very important
2. Excrements – excrements may be found at the crime scene on paper as stains which are sometimes
mixed with obstetrical stains
a. adult – yellowish brown/ infants – greenish yellow
3. many times, characteristic parts of the excrement such as fruit cores, parasites, etc., have led to the
apprehensions of the criminal
4. Paint stain – the criminal that committed the crime may have brushed against a newly painted wall or
loose water cement paint may therefore carry some of this paint in his clothes, like wise the tools
used may carry small adherent particles of paint, this is also very common in motor accidents and hit
and run cases.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
5. Rust stain – rust stains on knives and steel weapons often resembles dried blood stain, but they
seldom have a dark and glazed appearance and do not fall off in scales when the other side of the
blade is heated. In cloth rust stain does not stiffen the cloth and reddish brown in color and insoluble
in water but are soluble in dilute acid.
6. Synthetic dyes – often resembles old blood stain but easily recognized by treating them with strong
acids and alkalis
7. Mineral stain – due mostly to red paints containing oxides of iron. Can be differentiated from blood
stains by dissolving in HCl and then testing for iron.
8. Stains of vegetable in origin – stain resembling blood may be produced by fruit juices of some fruits.
They can be differentiated from blood when their color changed to greenish yellow upon addition of
ammonia and can be bleached by chlorine water.

C–V

In the investigation of crime involving the use of firearms, three most important problems may arise.
1. Determining whether or not a person fired a gun within a certain period of time.
2. Determining the probable gunshot range.(distance the firearm held from the body of the victim at the time
discharged)
3. Determining the time of firing, this is a problem if it becomes an issue.

Kinds of gunpowder
1. Black powder – possible the oldest known explosive
- Consist of an intimate mixture of 15% charcoal, 10%sulfur and 75% potassium nitrate or
sodium nitrate.
Charcoal, which provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction
A nitrate, typically potassium nitrate (KNO3), which supplies oxygen for the reaction; the most
important ingredient
Sulfur (S), which also serves as a fuel, lowers the temperature required to ignite the mixture,
thereby increasing the rate of combustion.
- Because of its inherent defects, modern ammunition plants abandoned the use of this.
(Produce thick smoke as a byproduct, which may give a soldier's location away to an enemy
observer. The smoke may also impair aiming for additional shots.)
- Black powder is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in
certain special effects.
2. Smokeless powder – most widely used propellant. It can either be single base propellant or double base
propellant
- Consist of glyceryl nitrate combined with cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers.
- Stabilizers are added to reduce side reactions.
- Among the stabilizers used are nitrates, bichromates and oxalates. Organic stabilizers are
nitrobenzene, graphite and Vaseline.

POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN GUNPOWDER EXPLODES

Both of the gunpowder contains nitrates so we expect to find nitrates in the following:
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person who fired the gun

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUES

a. Type and caliber of ammunition
b. Length of the barrel of the gun
c. Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target
d. Humidity
e. Wind velocity and direction
f. Direction of firing

DETERMINATION OF WHETHER OR NOT A PERSON FIRED A GUN WITH HIS BARED HANDS
The burned residues are partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and implanted on
the exposed surface of the hand firing the gun and the presence of this particles serves as a basis for the
diphenylamine-paraffin test(DPA-Paraffin test)

Diphenylamine Paraffin test or Dermal Nitrate Test or Lunge test – test to determine whether a person fired a gun
or not with his bare hands
Positive result – deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with diphenylamine reagent.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
In cases involving shooting incidents where paraffin test is required, the person suspected to have fired a
gun should be subjected to DPA-paraffin test immediately within 72 hours after shooting. It is possible to detect
nitrates as late as 3 days even though the hands have been washed. In the Philippines, the period is reduced to two days
due to excessive perspiration.

Limitation of the DPA-Paraffin test

1. The test is not specific for nitrates found in gunpowder. It cannot determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents like fertilizers, explosives, tobacco,
firecrackers, urine, cosmetics and detergents.
3. Hands contaminated with nitrates from other sources other than gunpowder will test positive for DPA-paraffin
test.

Possibilities that a person may be found positive for nitrates even though he did not fire a gun
1. Gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of the gun being fired by
another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instance result in the implanting of powder
particles on the hand of a person close to one firing the gun

Possibilities that a person may be found negative for nitrates even though he actually fired a gun
1. Use of automatic pistol
2. Direction of the wind
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive perspiration
5. Use of gloves
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates

How to determine the probable gunshot range

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residue, singeing,, burning, smudging and
powder tattooing
Singeing – slight burning
Smudging – blackening of area around the bullet hole
Tattooing – individual specks of nitrates around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye. It is black coarsely
peppered pattern.

Three zones of distance from which a firearm was discharged

1. The muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body.
Characteristic patterns observed as follows:
a. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
b. Smudging
c. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance
d. Tattooing
e. Presence of partially burned powdered residues around the entrance hole that may be embedded in the
fabric.

2. The muzzle of the gun was held 2 to 8 inches(maximum).

Characteristic patterns observed as follows:
a. The smoke and soot from the burned powder will be deposited around the hole of entrance.
b. Smudging around the damage will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun is held at a
distance of 8 inches and the blackening around the hole completely disappear. Size of smudge depends
upon the caliber, type of powder used, length of the barrel, distance of the muzzle
c. Few individual specks of tattooing will be visible with the naked eye. The sizes of the area of tattooing
also depend on the caliber, powder charge and distance of firing.

3. The muzzle of the gun was held 2 to 36 inches away.

a. Tattooing is visible.
b. The partially burned and unburned powder particles will be driven into the surface around the gunshot
hole.

4. The muzzle of the gun was held beyond 36 inches.

a. Evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present.

Chemical Test for Gunpowder Residues

There are 2 methods of determining the presence of gunpowder residues around the gunshot hole:
1. Method pattern after the Diphenylamine-paraffin test.
2. Walker’s test – this test is used if powder particles are deeply embedded. Based on the conversion of nitrates
into a dye.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete

Gunshot range of weapons other than pistol and revolver.

1. Rifle – a weapon on high velocity projectile.
- Gunshot range is difficult to estimate due to high velocity of the projectile and the wide variation
produced on the wound entrance
- The tissue through which the bullet passed are usually bruised in varying degree
- As a general rule, the size of the wound closely approximates the size of the bullet.
2. Shotgun or sporting gun – the projectile is a collection of small shot consisting of lead pellets that vary in size
with type of cartridge.
- The pellets disperse soon after their exit from the barrel.
- If shot is fired closed to the body up to a few inches, the shot enters as a mass and the liberated gas and
flame lacerate the tissue around the hole.
- When fired from 3 feet from the body up to a yard, irregular circular wound about 1½ inches to 2
inches in diameter will be produces.
- At a range over a yard and up to 3 yards, evidence of burning disappears and probably only faint
tattooing will be found.
- Beyond a yard, the entering shot produces an irregular wound.

Determination of the probable time the gun has been fired.

In the determination of the approximate time of last discharge, the specimen firearm is needed in the
examination. In the crime laboratory, if the gun is examined immediately after the shooting, the chemist rely more on
the odor of the barrel. (Characteristic smell of hydrogen sulfide that decreases in intensity with lapse of time.) If
examine later, presence of nitrates, nitrites, rust, soot and metallic fragments are determined. The barrel is swabbed
with cotton and the presence of the above substances is determined microscopically and chemically.

Soot – black substance that is formed by combustion and adheres to the side of the barrel conveying the
smoke.
Rust – formation of rust inside the barrel is a good indication for the approximate time the gun was fired. if a
gun was not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun. If a gun was fired, iron
salts are formed and found inside the barrel. Iron salts soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.
Nitrite – presence is determined by the addition of DPA reagent. If the color becomes blue, nitrites are present
and the firearm is fired recently
Nitrates - – presence is determined by the addition of DPA reagent. If the color becomes yellow green, nitrates
are present and the firearm is fired recently

EXPLOSIVES

Explosive – any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
- A material either a pure single substance or mixture of substance which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy.
- Always accompanied with liberation of heat and with formation of gas when exploded.

Classification of explosives:
1. From the viewpoint of chemical composition
a. Inorganic compound – lead azides, ammonium nitrate
b. Organic compound – trinitrotoluene (TNT), Piciric acid, nitrocellulose, mercury fulminate
c. Mixture of oxidizable materials and oxidizing agents that is not explosives separately. – black powder
(used mainly as igniter for nitrocellulose gun propellants and also in pyrotechniques.

2. With respect to functioning characteristics

a. Propellant or low explosives are combustible materials containing all the oxygen needed for their
combustion which burn but do not explode and function by producing gas which produces explosion.
Ex. Black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechniques
b. Primary explosives or indicators – explode or detonated when they are heated or subject to shock. They do
not burn. Sometimes it does not contain any elements for combustion, the material themselves explode and
explosion results.
Ex. Mercury fulminate and lead azide
c. High explosives – explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of the primary explosive.
They do not function by burning. All can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally burn
tranquilly and can be extinguished readily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their own
combustion, they sometimes explode.
Ex. Ammonium nitrate – most readily available and the cheapest. White compound used as a solid
oxidizer in explosive mixture.
Dynamite – made by mixing nitroglycerine with powdered clay or sawdust
TNT – most widely used explosives. Used mostly for military explosive. A safe explosive. It will burn but
does not explode if set on fire
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
Nitroglycerine – widely used in industrial explosive, main component of dynamites, a mixture of nitric
acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine. Oily liquid that is very dangerous because it will explode with the
slightest shake.
Plastic explosive – a military explosive that looks like ordinary putty or molding clay.
Picric acid, also called trinitrophenol

Other explosives:
1. C-4 – often referred to a plastic explosive. White and dough like in consistency. It is commonly encountered of
the RDX based explosive
2. RDX – also called hexogen or cyclonite. A plastic explosive. Most important explosives used today.
3. Chloroacetophenone (CN) – the principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas solution.
4. Fire bombs
a. Molotov cocktail – is an incendiary device, not a bomb
b. Modern Molotov – consist of 2/3 gas and 1/3 sulfuric acid. A blotter which has been saturated in
potassium chlorate and sugar is wrapped and secured to the bottle. A snowball consist of potassium
chlorate and sugar mixture embedded in a wax mold using a length fuse for an igniter.
c. Acid mixed with gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle.
d. Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip taped to the bottle when thrown will burst
violently.
5. Demolition and fragmentation explosives
a. Composition A – mixture of RDX and beeswax semi plastic in nature.
b. Composition B – is a mixture of RDX, TNT and beeswax
c. Composition C – sometimes referred as plastic explosives, is RDX and inert plasticizer composition
d. C-2 – is RDX and explosive plasticizer. Contains no tetryl
e. C-3 – is RDX and an explosive plasticizer with tetryl substituted to part of RDX
f. C-4 – is RDX and plastic explosive composition

C – V1
Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. It is valuable because the hair of each kind of animal is
different and distinct for all others
The successful investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault, kidnapping, hit and run, etc, are frequently
materially assisted by the result of the examination of the hairs and fibers

Collection, Packing, Preservation and Transportation of Hair

1 All of the hair in the questioned specimens should be submitted but do no mix hairs at different places
2 In vicious assault and murder cases, obtain the clothing of the victim from the hospital or morgue to avoid the lost of
evidenced by careless handling and to prevent the clothing from being destroyed.
3 Representative samples of hair from the victim as well as the suspect should be obtained if possible. To be a representative
head hair samples it should be consist of at least a dozen hairs from different areas of the scalp and preferably full length
hair
4 Don’t mix known samples of hair from different parts of the body
5 The hairs should be placed in folded paper or white mailing envelop but the corners of the envelop must be sealed with
scotch tape
6 Do not secure the hair samples to piece of paper with scotch tape because this will damage the hair
7 All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen
8 Fragmentary hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable for examination
9 Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane paper tape over the area before wrapping the object
for transmittal to the laboratory

Hair
 Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin
 Found everywhere on the human body except on the palm of the hands and sole of the feet,
 It is an appendage of the skin
 Is not completely round but oval or flattened.
 Its width is not always the same along its length

Hair Morphology
The most basic components of hair are:
1 keratin, a very strong protein that is resistant to decomposition, and keratins form groups that interact and interconnect to
form very stable fibrils. It is this property of hair that makes it such a prime example of physical evidence.
2 melanin, the hair pigment.

Parts of the Hair:

Anatomically hair is consist of 3 parts: (1) Roots, (2) Shaft and (3) Tip
1) Root – portion embedded in the skin. The roots do not give much information as to the origin of the hair. The examination
of the root will only give a clue as to whether the hairs have been pulled away by force or have fallen out spontaneously
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
Root and other surrounding cells in the hair follicle - Tools necessary to produce hair and
 Follicular tag – can be seen if hair is pulled from the head. Translucent tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft near the root .
DNA analysis is done on follicular tag
Parts of the Hair:

Anatomically hair is consist of 3 parts: (1) Roots, (2) Shaft and (3) Tip
2) Root – portion embedded in the skin. The roots do not give much information as to the origin of the hair. The examination
of the root will only give a clue as to whether the hairs have been pulled away by force or have fallen out spontaneously

Root and other surrounding cells in the hair follicle - Tools necessary to produce hair and
 Follicular tag – can be seen if hair is pulled from the head. Translucent tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft near the root .
DNA analysis is done on follicular tag

Hair Growth:
Growth of mammal hair goes through three distinct phases:
a) Anagenic phase
b) Catagenic phase
c) Telogenic phase

3) Shaft – portion above the surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of the hair. The hair shaft is composed of three
layers: (a) Cuticle, (b) Cortex and (c) Medulla
a) Cuticle - the outermost covering of the hair. The cuticle of a hair is the thin, translucent layer surrounding the shaft. It
is consist of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal cells which overlaps like a scale of fish
Three patterns of cuticle
I. Coronal, or “crown
II. Spinous, or “petal.
III. Imbricate, or “flattened

b) Cortex - the main body of the hair. The intermediate and thickest layer of the shaft, composed of elongated spindle-
shaped cortical cells. Contains pigment granules, which contains the melanin (hair color) and cortical fusi.

c) Medulla or core - Cellular column running through the center of the hair. Central canal of the hair that may be empty
or may contain various sorts of cells. More or less pigmented and begins more or less near the root. Varies from
individual to individual and among hairs of a given individual. Different shapes, depending the species. Not all hairs
have medullae

Classification of Medulla
1) Continuous ( most animals, Mongoloid race, rare in human)
2) Fragmented (most animals, human)
3) Absent (human)

Medullary Index - Is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair. Usually expressed in
fraction
Medullary Index = diameter of medulla
diameter of the hair shaft
Medullary Index Values
 Humans less than 1/3 Medullary index value
 Most other animals ≥1/2 Medullary index value

4) Tip – sometimes called point. The distal end of an uncut hair shaft.

Hair Color is Determined by the following:

1) Type of melanin present in hair cortex
 Eumelanin (black pigment)
 Phenomelanin (red/yellow pigment)
2) Number of melanin granules
3) Spacing of granules which may be close together or far apart

Microscopic Examination of Human Hair

Before performing the examination take note of any foreign material on the hair and should be identified if present in
sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleaned with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether.the following are observed:
1. Color – a. naked eye b. under the microscope
2. Length by actual measurement
3. Character of the Hair whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width /Breath
5. Character of the Hair tip if present – tip of the hair may show whether a hair has been cut. Tips of body hairs become
rounded from rubbing against the cloth. Hair of human usually shows a fine tip. Men's hair tip is apt to be cut off square.
6. Manner by which the hair had been cut.
7. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair
8. Character of cuticle - the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scales are observed
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
9. Character of cortex - structural features are studied under the microscope, cortex is embedded with pigment granules that
impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and distribution of granules that provides the criminalist with important points
of comparison between the hairs of different individuals.
10. Presence of dye in Hair - dyed hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a dull
appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural is not and the individual pigment granules stand more sharply.
If there has been subsequent growth since dyeing, the undyed root portion will stand out markedly. bleached hairs have a
rough appearance, are more uniform in shade and contain less pigment depending on the amount of bleaching.
11. Determination whether naturally or artificially curled
12. Character of Medulla
1) Determination of Characteristic by Race
a) Negroid Hair
 Contain heavy pigment distributed unevenly
 A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape
 Hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the shaft
b) Mongoloid Hair
 Hair contains dense pigment distributed evenly than Negroid race hair
 Cross section of the hair will be round to oval in shape
 Hair is coarse and straight with very little variations in diameter along the shaft of the hair
 Usually contains a heavy black medulla or core
c) Caucasian Hair
 Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro or Mongolian
 Cross section will be oval to round in shape
 Usually straight or wavy and not kinky

2) Determination of Characteristic by Sex

 Sex cannot be definitely determined from a hair examination

3) Determination of region from which the human hair has been removed
a) Head Hairs
 They are more mature than any other kind of human hair
 Medulla absent to continuous and relatively narrow when compared to the structure of hairs from other body areas
 Often with cut or split tips
 Can show artificial treatment, solar bleaching, or mechanical damage
 Soft texture, pliable
b) Beard Hairs
 Coarse, curved, very stiff and often triangular in cross section.
 Medulla is very broad and continuous, may be doubled
c) Trunk Hairs
 Vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to head hair, they fine, long, tip ends.
d) Limb Hairs
 Similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and contains lees pigments
 Diameter fine with little variation
 Gross appearance of hair arc-like in shape
 Medulla is discontinuous to trace with a granular appearance
e) Axillary or Underarm Hairs
 Resemble pubic hairs in general appearance, but less wiry or curly with sharper ends
 Are fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment.
 Medullary appearance similar to limb hairs
 Diameter moderate and variable with less buckling than pubic hairs
 Tips long and fine, frequently with bleached appearance
f) Pubic Hairs
 Similar to axillary hair but are coarser and do not appear bleached
 are more wiry, have more constriction and twists.
 Have many broken ends because the clothing rubs off against it Tip usually tapered, rounded, or abraded
 Stiff texture, wiry
 Shaft diameter coarse with wide variations and buckling
g) Chest Hairs
 Shaft diameter moderate and variable
 Tip often darker in color, long and fine, arc-like
 Medulla may be granular
 Stiff texture
h) Other Body Hairs
 Eyebrow: Stubby, some diameter fluctuation, saber-like in appearance
 Eyelash: Short, stubby with little shaft diameter fluctuation, saber-like in appearance

4) Determination of the approximate age of individual

 The approximate age of an individual cannot be determined from hair examination with any degree of certainty except in
infant hair.
Reviewer for Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Acuña & Renz Dollete
Fiber Evidence
Textile Fibers - In general and broad sense the word “textile” is derived from the Latin word “Textilis” and the French “textere”,
to weave.

Classification of Textile Fibers

1) Natural Fibers - Derived in whole from animal or plant sources.
a. Vegetable
 Seed fibers  Leaf fibers
 Woody fibers  Fruit or nut fibers
 Bast fibers
b. Animal
 Wool and hair silk
 Reclaimed and extracted animal fibers
c. Mineral
 Asbestos
2. Synthetic/ Artificial Fibers – Man-made fibers. manufactured or regenerated fibers.
a. Organic
 Cellulosic ex. Rayon
 Non-cellulosic ex. Nylon, casein fibers, resin fibers
b. Inorganic
 Mineral ex. Glassfiber wool, glass slag wool
 Metallic ex. Finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel thread

Test for Textile Fibers

1) Burning or Ignition Test
 It is a preliminary macroscopic examination
 A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the following are noted:
a) Manner of burning
b) Odor of fumes
c) Appearance of burnt end
d) Color of ash
e) Action of fumes on moisten red and blue litmus paper
f) Effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate
Reviewer For Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Marc B. Acuña & Renz Kennedy L. Dollete
2) Fluorescent test
 Frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs
 It is not reliable for positive identification of fibers
 In general, the vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence in UV light, whereas animal fiber show
bluish fluorescence

3) Microscopic Examination
 In general, it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fiber
 The fiber is placed on a glass slide teased and covered

4) Chemical Analysis of fibers

 Suggested if sample submitted for analysis is fairly large
 Use to supplement the microscopic examination and confirm the results obtained from the microscopic
examination.

a) Staining test - the fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon’s reagent, Stannic chloride and iodine
solution

b) Dissolution test
 If the fiber is white or light colored, it is treated with the following chemicals:
 10% NaOH
 5% oxalic acid
 Half saturated Oxalic acid
 Concentrated H2SO4
 Conc. And dilute NH4OH
 Conc, HNO3
 if dyed, it is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% HCl, acetic acid or Con’c, HNO 3
Reviewer For Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Marc B. Acuña & Renz Kennedy L. Dollete

C – VII

Document - an original or official written or printed-paper furnishing information or used as a proof of

something else.

Packing, Preservation and transportation of Documents

Documents are precious things and therefore should be treated accordingly.
1 Documents should be handled, folded, marked as little as possible.
2 If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines. Place it in a
brown envelope or a transparent plastic envelope.
3 On receipt, the document should be placed between two sheets of plain white paper in folder.
4 Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possible marked them.

Examination and Comparison of Paper

The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil or
writings. The examination of paper may be necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the
presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.

Problems Encountered in the Analysis of Paper

1 Determination whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.
2 Determination of the probable age of paper.
3 Determination of the composition of the paper.
Composition of Paper
1 Fiber composition – practically all papers maybe classified from the standpoint of their basic fiber
composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
 Mechanical pulp
 soda sulfite mixture
 Rag sulfite
2 Sizing material – added to paper to improve its texture.
3 Loading material – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers of
the paper

Substances used for writing:

 Egyptian papyrus – one of the earliest substances used for writing.
 After papyrus, came parchment and velum paper then linen rag followed by mixture of linen and
cotton or cotton only.
 Paper made from a variety of fibrous materials that started about the middle of the 19th century.
 1800 - straw was 1st used
 Between 1845 and 1880 – soda wood pulp
 1869 – from mechanical wood pulp
 At present a thin sheet of matted or felted vegetable fiber (usually wood pulp) with filter as clay
and sizing material as rosin or starch.
The examination and comparison of paper may determine the following:
1 The age of the paper as compared with the age of known document.
2 Whether the paper is identical with or different from another paper whose history is known.
3 Whether two sheets of paper of the same manufacturer were made at the same time. In this case we
have to know when the form was printed or when the paper was first made that bears a particular
mark.
Reviewer For Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Marc B. Acuña & Renz Kennedy L. Dollete

Watermark – if present is one of the most important features in the comparison of paper. It is a
distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture, by a roll
usually covered with wire cloth known as dandy roll which serves as a means whereby the
paper can be identified as the product of a particular manufacturer.

Wire mark – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the dandy roll that
carries the watermark.

The Four Tests for Paper

1. Preliminary examination – deals with the appearance of the document and the following are
observed:
a) Folds and creases
b) Odor
c) Impression caused by transmitted light – gives indication of color, translucency where
tampering is made, change in tint which indicates substitution of sheets of paper, watermarks
and wire marks.
d) Presence of discoloration in daylight and under the Ultraviolet light.

2. Physical test causing no perceptible change – a test applied on paper without perceptible changes or
altering the original appearance of the document.
a) Measurement of length and width
b) Measurement of thickness
c) Measurement of weight/unit area.
d) Color of paper – it is closely related to its brightness.
e) Texture
f) Gloss –
g) Opacity
h) Microscopic examination

3. Physical Examination causing a Perceptible Change – this is done only if sufficient samples are
available and if prior authorization from the court is required.
This can be done by the following:
a) Bursting strength – the apparent pressure necessary to burst a hole in a sheet when properly
inserted in a suitable instrument.
b) Folding Endurance test – it is obtained on an instrument that registers the number of alternate
folds the paper will stand before breaking.
c) Accelerated Aging Test – aging a document artificially:
d) Absorption test – maybe made to determine either the rate of absorption or the total absorption
of the paper.
4. Chemical Test – this test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing material
used in paper.
 Fiber Composition – the examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used
and nature of processing. This may be determined by boiling a small piece of the document in 5%
sodium hydroxide. The liquid poured off the fragment of paper washed and teased out on a glass
slide and stained with the following and the color observed under the microscope.
 Sizing Material – the sizing materials maybe tested by:
Reviewer For Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Marc B. Acuña & Renz Kennedy L. Dollete

Procedure Positive Result

Extracted by boiling the paper in water
a) Gelatine The solution is tested with dilute tannic acid Yellow precipitate
solution
extracted by heating the paper on a water bath with
95% alcohol
the solution obtained is evaporated to dryness and Reddish-violet color that quickly changes to
the residue dissolved in acetic anhydride, cooled, red brown
b) Rosin
transferred to a porcelain dish and strong sulfuric If rosin is present, a brown ring will form
acid is added when ether evaporates
simple test for rosin: place a few drops of ether on
the paper
c) Starch Add dilute iodine solution on the paper Blue color is produced. if starch is present
It can be detected by addition of Millon’s reagent
d) Casein Pink color appears if casein is present
on the paper

The Analysis of Ink

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or different in kind from ink on other parts of the same document or on
other documents.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink or inks of different qualities or in different
conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show natural
variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time under
the same condition.

Types of Ink
1. Gallotonic ink or Iron-nutgall ink (blue) – the most frequently used ink today
 Used for making entries in record books and for business purposes.

2. Logwood ink (Black) – the color is dependent on the inorganic salt added, but on drying and standing
they turn black.

3. Nigrosine ink or aniline ink (blue, black or purple black) – made of coal tar product called nigrosine
dissolved in water.

4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India ink – the oldest ink material known. Today, finely divided carbon
is held in colloidal suspension and used to produce deep black drawing and writing ink.

5. Colored writing ink – today most all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dye stuffs
dissolved in water.
6. Ballpoint pen ink – made of light fast dyes solution in glycol type solvents like carbitol, glycol or
eleic acid.

Test for Ink

The different classes of ink may be determined by many different methods such as the use of reagents
on the ink line, the spectrographic method and the photographic method.
1. Physical method – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures,
destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, hand lens and microscope.
Reviewer For Forensic Chemistry
Prepared by: Aprian Marc B. Acuña & Renz Kennedy L. Dollete

2. Chemical test or spot test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on
the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristics color reactions or other changes in
the ink are observed.

Determination of Approximate Age of Document

a) Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given except when the color is black because
within a few hours the color of ink writings becomes darker.
a. The dye is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of
the paper.
b) Age of Paper
 through watermarks
 in certain cases from the composition of paper

Other Aspect of Document Examination

The detection and deciphering of Illegible writing is one of the major problems in document
examination.

Illegible writing – unnecessary writing which is not capable of being read usually made on checks, birth
certificates, passports and transcript of records.
Example of Illegible writings:
1. Erasures
2. Obliteration
3. Sympathetic ink
4. Indented writing.
5. Writing on Carbon Paper
6. Contact writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with some
writings.

Handwriting Analysis
 No two people write exactly the same
 There can be similarities but not exactly the same
 Individual variations are caused by mechanical, physical, and mental functions of the individual.
 Extremely unlikely these factors can be exactly reproduced by two individuals.

Handwriting Comparison
Comparisons occur in the following categories:
1. Angularity, slope , speed, pressure, letter and word spacing, dimensions of letters, connections, and
diacritics.
2. Compare several known writing samples to the questioned sample
3. Need a sufficient number of similarities between the known and questioned sample.

Difficulties Can Occur When

1. Not enough known samples to use for a comparison
2. Questioned writing contains only a few words
3. Writing is deliberately disguised
4. Drugs or alcohol alter writing habits

Collection of Handwriting Samples

1. Known samples should be as similar as possible to the questioned document.
2. Several known samples should be collected to show the whole range of natural variations.