Chapter-1

Introduction to Computer
Introduction
Computer is derived from the Latin word ‘Computare’ which means ‘calculate’. A computer is an
electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory, that can
accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules (process), produce results (output),
and store the results (storage) for future use.

Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can
include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information conveys meaning and is useful to
people. During the output operation, the information that has been created is put into some form,
such as a printed report, or it can be stored on the computer for future use.

Fig: A
computer processes data into information. In this simplified example, the item ordered, item price,
quantity ordered, and amount received all represent data. The computer processes the data to
produce the cash register receipt (information).

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Analog, Digital and Hybrid Computers:
Analog and Digital Computer
Analog Computer:
Analog computer is that computer, which is use to process continuously varying data. Everything we
see and hear is change continuously. This changeable continuous stream of data is called analog data.
Analog computer can be used in scientific and industrial applications such as measure the electrical
current, frequency and resistance of capacitor, etc.

Digital Computer:
These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process data by way
of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They accept input and produce output as
discrete signals representing high (on) or low (off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers, alphabets,
symbols are all represented as a series of 1s and 0s.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Computer

Hybrid Computer
- A hybrid computer is a combination of digital and analog computers and it combines the best
features of both types of computers.
- For example a petrol pump contains a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into quantity
and price.
- Hybrid computer is used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient. - Hybrid computers
are also used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.
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- The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp 250, released by Packard Bell in 1961.
Characteristics of Computer
Word length, speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, reliability, automation and storage capability are
some of the key characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics is: ➢ Word
length:
A digital computer operates on binary digits – 0 and 1. It can understand information only in
binary digits (bits). The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is
called word length. Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. Word length is the
measure of the computing power of a computer. Longer the word length, more powerful the
computer is.

➢ Speed:
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

➢ Accuracy:
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

➢ Diligence:
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.

➢ Versatility:
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

➢ Reliability:
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

➢ Automation:
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

➢ Storage Capability:
Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also retrieved
whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary
memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large
 amount of data permanently.

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History of Computer
Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had been
several developments in the computing technology related to the mechanical computing devices. The
key developments that took place till the first computer was developed are as follows:

➢ Abacus:
Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for counting of large
numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of bars in horizontal positions
on which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have 10 beads each, representing units,
tens, hundreds, etc.

➢ Napier’s Bones:
Napier’s bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 ad. by an
English mathematician John Napier.

➢ Slide Rule:
Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th century. Using
the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. It was used extensively till late 1970s.

➢ Blaise Pascal:
Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could add and
subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

➢ Leibniz:
It was a mechanical device that could both multiply and divide. The German philosopher and
mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built it around 1673.

➢ Punch Cards:
Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He invented
the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole in the punched card as binary
one and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The 0s and 1s are the basis of the modern digital
computer.

➢ Charles Babbage:
Babbage’s Analytical Engine an English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do
complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was called as difference
engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a general-purpose calculating
machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also called the father of computer.

➢ Hollerith Punched Card:

Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith. The machine
could read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.
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Generations of Computer
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system. There are five computer generations known till date.

➢ First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

• The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very
expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first
computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

• First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations and solve one
problem at a time. It would take operators days or even weeks to setup a new problem.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

• UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S.
Census Bureau in 1951.

➢ Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

• Transistor was used in place of vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than first generation. Though the
transistor still generated a great deal of heat but was a vast improvement over the vacuum
tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts
for output.

• Second-generation computers moved from binary to assembly languages. High-level

programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

• The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

➢ Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

• Integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were
miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
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• Used keyboards and monitors instead of punched cards and printouts and interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one
time with a central program that monitored the memory.

• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

➢ Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present)

• The microprocessor brought the 4th generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced
the Macintosh.

• Computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet.

• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

➢ Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality.
• Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices
that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self organization.

Classification of Computer (Based on size)

Computer on the basis of Size can be classified into 4 major types:

➢ Super Computer
• Super computers are the fastest, most-powerful and most expensive computers. •
It has the ability to recover automatically from failures.
• It has the ability to support several Giga Bytes of RAM.
• Unlike conventional computers, which have a single processor to process one instruction
at a time, supercomputers have multiple processors (or CPUs) that process multiple
instructions at a time.
• Supercomputers are widely used in scientific applications such as aerodynamic design
and simulation, processing of geological data.
 • One of the most powerful supercomputers today is “The Cray-2” and some others are
CRAY 1, CRAY-MP, SX-2, HITAC S-300, etc.

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➢ Mainframe Computer
• A mainframe computer is usually slower, less power and less expensive than
supercomputers.
• Very large in size with approximately 1000 square ft. area.
• Mainframe processes several million instructions per second (MIPS). More than 1000
remote workstations can be accommodated by a typical mainframe computer. • Mainframes
are used by banks and many more business to update inventory, etc. • Many modern
mainframes have multiprocessing capabilities.
• E.g. IBM 4300 series, IBM 308X series, HP 9000 etc.

➢ Mini Computer
• These are also a general purpose computer, smaller than mainframe computer. Medium
sized computer, occupying approximately 10 sq ft of area.
• They have slower operating speed, smaller backup storage, limited hardware and less
memory than mainframes.
• Minicomputers are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing,
database management, statistical packages for social sciences.
• More than 50 terminals and large storage capacity device than microcomputers but smaller
than mainframe computers. E.g. Prime 9755

➢ Micro Computer
• A microcomputer is the smallest, least expensive of all the computers.
• Microcomputers have smallest memory and less power.
• Microcomputers are also called personal computers.
• The most common type of microcomputer is a desktop computer, which is a non-portable
personal computer.
• E.g. Desktop, laptop, notebook computers etc.
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Computer System and its parts
Computer system is a collection of entities (hardware, software, user and data) that are designed to
receive process, manage and present information in a meaningful format. Computers come in variety
of different sizes. No matter how large or small a computer system is has following four parts: 1)
Hardware 2) Software 3) Data 4) User

➢ Hardware
• The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware.
• Hardware is any part of the computer you can touch.
• These devices are required for input, output, storage and processing of the data. • Keyboard,
monitor, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of
 the hardware devices.

➢ Software

• Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed and
how these tasks are to be performed.
• A set of programs and documents are collectively called software.
• The hardware of the computer system cannot perform any task on its own. The hardware
needs to be instructed about the task to be performed. Software instructs the computer
about the task to be performed. The hardware carries out these tasks.

➢ Data

• Data is a collection of raw facts and figures.

• Computer’s primary job is to convert data into useful information.
• Stored using the binary number system.
• Data can be organized into files.

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➢ User

• Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. •
A role depends on ability.
✓ Setup the system.
✓ Install software.
✓ Manage file.
✓ Maintain the system.

Input-Process-Output Concept
A computer is an electronic device that
• Accepts data,
• processes data,
• Generates output, and
• Stores data.
The concept of generating output information from the input data is also referred to as input-process
output concept.
 ➢ Input:
The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like keyboard. The input
data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.

➢ Process:
The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some actions on the data by
using the instructions or program given by the user of the data. The action could be an
arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document, etc. During processing, the data,
instructions and the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s main memory.

➢ Output:
The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may be in the form
of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display the output on a monitor, send
output to the printer for printing, play the output, etc.

➢ Storage:
The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the secondary storage
devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever needed.

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Components of Computer Hardware
The computer system hardware comprises of three main components:
• Input/output (I/O) Unit,
• Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
• Memory Unit.
The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and processing
on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the data, the instructions
and the output information. The following figure illustrates the typical interaction among the
different components of the computer.

➢ Input/output Unit
 The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts data from the
user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the user. The Input
unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the
computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the
user. The input is provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and
mouse. Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and printer.

➢ Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer. It is responsible for
processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit
(CU).
• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
• CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of execution
of instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of
computer.
Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of calculation.

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➢ Memory Unit
Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during
the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the
computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before
processing. The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are
also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the
output device. CPU can work with the information stored in the main memory. Another kind of
storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the
programs and the output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic
disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.

Applications of Computer
Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below:
 Previous
➢ Education
Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance
performance in learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through
internet and video-based classes. Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their
work from the starting to till the end of their scholarly work.

➢ Entertainment
Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can download
and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for making
movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen to
music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc.

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➢ Sports
A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games
(like PUBG, chess, ludo etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training
players.

➢ Advertising
With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

➢ Home
Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use
computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and
relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are
embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,
 security devices, etc.

➢ Science and Engineering

Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex scientific calculations, for
designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for simulating and testing the
designs. Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and
for visualizing 3–dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the
rockets, space exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.

➢ Medicine
Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports.
Computation in the field of medicine allows us to offer varied miraculous therapies to the
patients. ECG’s, radiotherapy wasn’t possible without computers.

➢ Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organizations for: Payroll calculations, Sales analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting,
Managing employees database and Maintenance of stocks etc.

➢ Military
Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other equipment in the
deference system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only through computers.
Computer builds the links between the soldiers and commanders through the satellite.
Construction of weapons and controlling their function is not possible without the aid of
computers. The list of the criminals and the records of the cops are maintained regularly in the
system.

➢ Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the facilities of: Banks
provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

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Chapter-2
The Computer System Hardware
Introduction
Computer hardware consists of the components that can be physically handled. It refers to the
physical units or machine of functional units, which makes up the computer configuration which is
done to suit the goals and objectives of the user. The function of these components is typically
divided into three main categories: input, output, and storage. Components in these categories
connect to microprocessors, specifically, the computer’s central processing unit (CPU), the
electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and control of the computer, via wires or
circuitry called a bus. Hardware may be classified into Central Processing Units (CPU) and the
peripherals. The CPU entails Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Internal
Memory Unit (IMU) or main memory. The peripherals consist of the input, output and Auxiliary
Storage Units.
Strictly speaking, computer is made up of five district elements to include:
• A central processing unit (ALU and CU)
• Input unit
• Output unit
• Storage unit (Internal & Auxiliary)
• The communication network “Bus” that links all the elements of the system and connect the
external world.

Fig: Computer System

The computer user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The purpose of I/O unit is to provide
data and instructions as input to the computer and to present relevant information as output from the
computer. CPU controls the operations of the computer and processes the received input to generate
the relevant output. The memory unit stores the instructions and the data during the input activity, to
make instructions readily available to CPU during processing. It also stores the processed output.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is the main brain of the computer that accepts data, performs operations on the data and sends
out the result. Information from an input device or from the computer’s memory is communicated
via the bus to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the part of the computer that translates
commands and runs programs.

CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). In addition, CPU also has a
set of registers which are temporary storage areas for holding data, and instructions. ALU performs
the arithmetic and logic operations on the data that is made available to it. CU is responsible for
organizing the processing of data and instructions. CU controls and coordinates the activity of the
other units of computer. CPU uses the registers to store the data, instructions during processing.

Fig: CPU

➢ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• ALU consists of two units: arithmetic unit and logic unit.
• The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available to
it. Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are: addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
• The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit
performs comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations
include testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.
• ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to hold the data that
is being processed.

➢ Control Unit (CU)

• The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It organizes
the processing of data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and
coordinates the activity of the other units of computer.
• CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the
registers. CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which

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circuit needs to be activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or
logic operations. When a program is run, the Program Counter (PC) register keeps
track of the program instruction to be executed next.
• CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results,
the sequencing of events during processing etc.
• CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU
can perform.

➢ Registers
• Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the least storage
 capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and
manipulated by the CPU during instruction execution.
• Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing.
Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
• The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the registers of
CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added,
both numbers are brought in the registers, added and the result is also placed in a
register.
• Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific purpose.
Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows:
MAR(Memory Holds the memory location of data that needs to be
Address Register) accessed.

MDR (Memory Data Holds data that is being transferred to or from memory.
Register)

AC (Accumulator) Where intermediate arithmetic and logic results are

stored.

PC (Program Counter) Contains the address of the next instruction to be

executed.

CIR(Current Contains the current instruction during processing.

Instruction Register)

• The size of register, also called word size, indicates the amount of data with which the
computer can work at any given time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can
process data. The size of a register may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. For example, a 32–bit
CPU is one in which each register is 32 bits wide and its CPU can manipulate 32 bits
of data at a time. Nowadays, PCs have 32–bit or 64–bit registers.

Memory Unit
Computer memory refers to the area where data and programs are stored.
The memory unit consists of cache memory and primary memory. Primary memory or main memory
of the computer is used to store the data and instructions during execution of the instructions.
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary memory. In
addition to the main memory, there is another kind of storage device known as the secondary
memory. Secondary memory is non-volatile and is used for permanent storage of data and programs.
A program or data that has to be executed is brought into the RAM from the secondary memory.

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➢ Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU. Cache
memory increases the speed of processing.
• Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is used more often,
temporarily, and makes them available to CPU at a fast rate. During processing, CPU
 first checks cache for the required data. If data is not found in cache, then it looks in
the RAM for data.
• To access the cache memory, CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system bus
for data transfer. (The data transfer speed slows to the motherboard’s capability, when
data is passed through system bus. CPU can process data at a much faster rate by
avoiding the system bus).
• Cache memory is built into the processor, and may also be located next to it on a
separate chip between the CPU and RAM. Cache built into the CPU is faster than
separate cache, running at the speed of the microprocessor itself. However, separate
cache is roughly twice as fast as RAM.
• Cache memory is very expensive, so it is smaller in size. Generally, computers have
cache memory of sizes 256 KB to 2 MB.

➢ Primary Memory
• Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and
instructions during the processing of data. Primary memory is semiconductor
memory.
• Primary memory is of two kinds: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM).
• Random Access Meomory (RAM)
▪ RAM is volatile. It stores data when the computer is on. The information stored
in RAM gets erased when the computer is turned off. RAM provides
temporary storage for data and instructions.
▪ RAM stores data and instructions during the execution of instructions. The data
and instructions that require processing are brought into the RAM from the
storage devices like hard disk. CPU accesses the data and the instructions
from RAM, as it can access it at a fast speed than the storage devices
connected to the input and output unit.
▪ The input data that is entered using the input unit is stored in RAM, to be made
available during the processing of data. Similarly, the output data generated
after processing is stored in RAM before being sent to the output device. Any
intermediate results generated during the processing of program
are stored in RAM.

• Read Only Meomory (ROM)

▪ ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory. The storage in ROM
is permanent in nature, and is used for storing standard processing programs
that permanently reside in the computer. ROM comes programmed by the
manufacturer.

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➢ Secondary Memory
• The secondary memory stores data and instructions permanently. The information can
be stored in secondary memory for a long time (years), and is generally permanent in
nature unless erased by the user. It is a non-volatile memory.
 • It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drive, floppy drive and
optical disk drives are some examples of storage devices.
• The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but may be
required later for processing, are stored in secondary memory.
• It takes longer time to access the data and instructions stored in secondary memory
than in primary memory.
• Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary memory. •
Secondary memory is also cheaper than the primary memory.

Instruction Format, Instruction Set & Instruction Cycle An instruction

is an order given to computer processor by a computer program. At the lowest level, each instruction
is a sequence of 0s and 1s that describes a physical operation the computer is to perform (such as
"Add") and, depending on the particular instruction type, the specification of special storage areas
called registers that may contain data to be used in carrying out the instruction, or the location in
computer memory of data.
A computer program is a set of instructions that describe the steps to be performed for carrying out a
computational task.

➢ Instruction Format
An instruction format defines the different component of an instruction. The main
components of an instruction are opcode (which instruction to be executed) and operands
(data on which instruction to be executed).
• Opcode:
The operation code (opcode) represents action that the processor must execute. It
tells the processor what basic operations to perform.
• Operands
The operand code defines the parameters of the action and depends on the operation.
It specifies the locations of the data or the operand on which the operation is to be
performed. It can be data or a memory address.

Eg:- ADD B // Add the contents of register B to the content of the accumulator. MOV

C, A // Copy the content of accumulator in the register C.

➢ Instruction Set
An instruction set is the set of instructions. It is a part of computer architecture. It specifies
the operations, operands, and sequence for the processing of instructions. They are the set of
all basic operations for a processor to complete. All programs do communicate with the
processor using these instruction sets. These involve a series of logical operations that
perform a complete task. The processor understands the coded instructions.

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➢ Instruction Cycle
• The instruction cycle (also known as the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle or the fetch
execute cycle) is the basic operational process of a computer system.
 • The time taken for the execution of an instruction is known as Instruction Cycle. • It is
the process by which a computer retrieves a program instruction from its memory,
determines what actions the instruction describes, and then carries out those actions.
• This cycle is repeated continuously by a computer's central processing unit (CPU),
from boot-up until the computer has shut down

A instruction cycle involves four steps:

Fig: Instruction Cycle

• Fetching:
The processor fetches the instruction from the memory. The fetched instruction is
placed in the Instruction Register. Program Counter holds the address of next
instruction to be fetched and is incremented after each fetch.
• Decoding:
The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded. The instruction
is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s instruction
set. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an
instruction is decoded.
• Executing:
The decoded instruction or the command is executed. CPU performs the operation
implied by the program instruction. For example, if it is an ADD instruction, addition
is performed.
• Storing:
CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.

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Microprocessor
A microprocessor is the controlling unit of a computer made up of a small chip capable of
operations and communication purposes. This small chip is known as the CPU which is
microprocessors. It consists of ALU, Control Unit, and registers. This works on the instruction set
and the cycle of processing. They are classified as:
• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

➢ Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC chips have a larger set of complex instructions. This needs multiple numbers of
instruction cycles for execution. It works on the fetch and execution cycle which is a
combination of a register to register transfer functions. It has the ability to execute
addressing modes or multi-step operations within one instruction set. The CISC memory
reads and writes operations from the integral part for execution. Because of frequent memory
references, there is a reduction in the speed of the CISC machine. Earlier, the CISC machine
did not have the concept of pipelining. It has a variable-length instruction format. For
general purpose, where the speed of the processors is not the primary importance, there is the
use of CISC machines because of their low cost and affordability.

Advantages:
• They are less expensive than hardwiring a control unit and also are easy to implement.
• Only fewer instructions are needed to accomplish the execution of a program. •
It does not make the compiler complicated.

Disadvantages:
• The chip hardware is complex to use.
• However, there is a need for only fewer instructions, they are longer and take more
time for execution.

➢ Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

They are also the microprocessors designed to perform instructions at a higher speed. The
CISC used complex assembly language instructions, which slowed down the compiler so
RISC was evolved. So this contains simper instructions due to which RISC requires less no.
of transistors. These are short and simple so it can be executed in a single instruction cycle.
RISC cuts down on the number and complexity of instructions so that each one can be
accessed and executed faster, and fewer semiconductors are required to process them. There
is no micro-program in RISC for interpreting the instructions. It has an efficient instruction
pipeline. As soon as it completes one stage of the cycle, it proceeds with the second stage.
That is why; it is called functioning in a pipeline manner. By overlapping the execution,
RISC achieves execution parallelism.

Advantages:
• The execution time is faster than CISC.
• It does not require complex hardware.
• It uses fewer instructions per task.

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Disadvantages:
• The instruction schedule makes debugging difficult.
• It requires large memory caches to feed instructions.
 • Intermixing of machine language makes it hard to read.

➢ RISC vs. CISC

➢ Pipelining
Pipelining improves instruction execution speed by putting the execution steps into parallel.
A CPU can receive a single instruction, begin executing it, and receive another instruction
before it has completed the first. This allows for more instructions to be performed, about,
one instruction per clock cycle.

➢ Parallel Processing
Parallel processing is the simultaneous execution of instructions from the same program on
different processors. A program is divided into multiple processes that are handled in parallel
in order to reduce execution time.

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Interconnecting the Units of Computers
Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to
communicate with each other, they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’. A bus is a common
pathway through which information flows from one computer component to another. This pathway
is used for communication purpose and it is established between two or more computer components.
A computer bus can be divided into two types: Internal Bus and External Bus.

➢ Internal Bus:
Internal bus is used to connect the internal components of computer system such as
processor, RAM, chipset, hard disk. It is also called the System Bus.

➢ External Bus:
External bus is used to connect the external components of computer system such as
monitor, keyword, printer. The external bus allows various devices to be attached to the
computer. It allows for the expansion of computer’s capabilities. It is generally slower than
the system bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.

A System bus or Expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses: data bus, address bus and
control bus.

➢ System Bus (Internal Bus)

The functions of data bus, address bus and control bus, in the system bus, are as follows:

• Data Bus:
It transfers data between the CPU and memory. The bus width of a data bus affects
the speed of computer. The size of data bus defines the size of the processor. A
processor can be 8, 16, 32 or 64-bit processor. An 8–bit processor has 8 wire data bus
to carry 1 byte of data. In a 16–bit processor, 16–wire bus can carry 16 bits of data,
i.e., transfer 2 bytes, etc.

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• Address Bus:
It connects CPU and RAM with set of wires similar to data bus. Address bus carries
memory addresses for read and write operations. The width of address bus
determines the maximum number of memory locations the computer can address.
 Currently, Pentium Pro, II, III, IV have 36–bit address bus that can address 236 bytes
or 64 GB of memory.

• Control Bus:
It specifies whether data is to be read or written to the memory, etc.

➢ Expansion Bus (External Bus)

The functions of data bus, address bus and control bus, in the expansion bus, are as follows:

• Data Bus:
It is used to transfer data between I/O devices and CPU. The exchange of data
between CPU and I/O devices is according to the industry standard data buses. The
most commonly used standard is Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)
which is a 32-bit bus architecture. Some of the common bus technologies are:
▪ Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus for hard disks, sound cards,
network cards and graphics cards,
▪ Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus for 3–D and full motion video,
▪ Universal Serial Bus (USB) to connect and disconnect different devices.

• Address Bus:
It carries the addresses of different I/O devices to be accessed like the hard disk, CD
ROM, etc.

• Control Bus:
It is used to carry read/write commands, status of I/O devices, etc.

➢ External Ports
The peripheral devices interact with the CPU of the computer via the bus. The connections to
the bus from the peripheral devices are made via the ports and sockets provided at the sides
of the computer. The different ports and sockets facilitate the connection of different devices
to the computer. Some of the standard port connections available on the outer sides of the
computer are— port for mouse, keyboard, monitor, network, modem, and, audio port, serial
port, parallel port and USB port. The different ports are physically identifiable by their
different shapes, size of contact pins and number of pins.

Computer Cabinet
The computer cabinet consists of the components that are required for running the computer system
effectively with fewer errors. There are various elements in the cabinet to which some of them are
Motherboard, memory chips, cables, processors, ports, etc.
➢ Motherboard
The motherboard is the computer's main circuit board. It's a thin plate that holds the CPU,
memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the
video and audio, and connections to your computer's ports (such as USB ports). The
motherboard connects directly or indirectly to every part of the computer.
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➢ Ports and interfaces
Motherboard has a certain number of I/O sockets that are connected to the ports and
interfaces found on the rear side of a computer. We can connect external devices to the ports
 and interfaces, which get connected to the computer’s motherboard.
• Serial Port— to connect old peripherals.
• Parallel Port— to connect old printers.
• USB Ports—to connect newer peripherals like cameras, scanners and printers to the
computer.
• Fire wire is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and external hard drives.
• J45 connector (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the computer to a
network. It corresponds to a network card integrated into the motherboard. • VGA
connector for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-in graphics
card.
• Audio plugs for connecting speakers and the microphone. This connector interfaces
with the built-in sound card.
• PS/2 port to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.
• SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.
➢ Expansion Slots
The expansion slots are located on the motherboard. The expansion cards are inserted in the
expansion slots. These cards give the computer new features or increased performance.
There are several types of slots:
• ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot—To connect modem and input devices. • PCI
(Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot—To connect audio, video and graphics. They
are much faster than ISA cards.
• AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) slot—A fast port for a graphics card. • (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) Express slot—Faster bus architecture than AGP and PCI
buses.
• PC Card—It is used in laptop computers. It includes Wi-Fi card, network card and
external modem.
➢ Memory Chips
The RAM consists of chips on a small circuit board. Two types of memory chips— Single
In-line Memory Module (SIMM) and Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) are used in
desktop computers. The CPU can retrieve information from DIMM chip at 64 bits compared
to 32 bits or 16 bits transfer with SIMM chips. DIMM chips are used in Pentium 4 onwards
to increase the access speed.
➢ Processor
The processor or the CPU is the main component of the computer. Select a processor based
on factors like its speed, performance, reliability and motherboard support. Pentium Pro,
Pentium 2 and Pentium 4 are some of the processors.
➢ Storage Devices
The disk drives are present inside the machine. The common disk drives in a machine are
hard disk drive, floppy drive and CD drive or DVD drive. High-storage devices like hard
disk, floppy disk and CDs are inserted into the hard disk drive, floppy drive and CD drive,
respectively. These storage devices can store large amounts of data, permanently.

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