ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

-Faraz Shaikh
COMPUTER

Computer is an electronic device for storing and processing data, typically in binary form,
according to instructions given to it in a variable program.
A typical computer system irrespective of its size, class or type consists of hardware and
software, integrated and harmonized together to perform computational work (scientific or military) or
data processing.

HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Since the creation of man, a significant amount of human activities has been ascribed to
organizing and processing information so that it could be more easily presented for easy comprehension

1.Abacus (-2500BC): This is a hand- held device made of beads stung on rods in a frame. The rods
correspond to positions of the digits while the beads correspond to the digits.

2. Napierís Bone (2500BC): This was invented by John Napierís (1550 - 1617). This consists of small rods
with appropriate markings on them. It is a mechanical aid to computation that consists of nine such rods
(called bones) with one for each digit 1 through 9. He also invented logarithms which made possible to
do division and multiplication by performing addition and subtraction.

3. Slide Rule (1600AD) by William Oughtred (1575 - 660): He invented it in 1622 but announced it in
1632 this consist of rules on which markings represent logarithms of numbers and also permits
calculation involving exponents, trigonometric functions, etc.

4. Pascal mechanical calculator (1600) or Numerical wheel calculator:-Blaise Pascal (1623 -1664) in
1642 invented the first adding machine called Pascaline. The brass rectangular box used eight moveable
dials to add and sum up of eight figures long using base 10. It can perform all the four arithmetic
operation with previous unheard speed.

5. Leibnitz mechanical multiplier (1600): In 1694 Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibnitz (1646 -1716) improved
upon the pascaline by creating a machine that can also multiply using a system of dials and gear.

6 Colmarís Calculator (1820) by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar: This presented a more practical
approach to computing.

7 Punched-Card machine (Jacquardís loom) (1801): Joseph Marie Jacquard.

8 Mechanical computer: Charles Gabbage (1792-1871) Father of the computer.

Differenceenginepowered by steam and large as locomotive the machine has a stored program and
could perform calculations and print the result automatically. We also have Analytical engine credited to
him.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in
addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations,
and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper
tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to
a business client. It was used in the 1951U.S. Bureau Census.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
50s. The transistor was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy- efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input
and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this
time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and
printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors
and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were Computer built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation
filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. In 1981 IBM introduced its first
computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also
moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more
powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the
development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs,
the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being
used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically
change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.

Computer Components Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

COMPUTER HARDWARE :

Hardware system: Computer hardware consists of the components that can be physically
handled. It refers to the physical units or machine of functional units, which makes up the computer
configuration which is done to suit the goals and objectives of the user. The function of these
components is typically divided into three main categories: input, output, and storage. Components in
these categories connect to microprocessors, specifically, the computers central processing unit (CPU),
the electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and control of the computer, via wires or
circuitry called a bus. Hardware may be classified into Central Processing Units (CPU) and the
peripherals. The CPU entails Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Internal Memory
Unit (IMU) or main memory. The peripherals consist of the input, output and Auxiliary Storage Units.
Strictly speaking, computer is made up of five district elements to include:

1. A central processing unit (ALU and CU)

2. Input unit
3. Output unit
4. Storage unit (Internal and Auxiliary)
5.The communication network; “Bus” that links all the elements of the system, and connects the
6. External world. (Cables and Cords)
MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard is a printed circuit board that connects other components through the use of
traces, or electrical pathways. The motherboard is indispensable to the computer and provides the main
computing capability. Personal computers normally have one central processing unit (CPU) on the
motherboard.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This is the main brain of the computer that accepts data, performs operations on the data and
sends out the result.Information from an input device or from the computerís memory is communicated
via the bus to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the part of the computer that translates
commands and runs programs. It consists of ALU and CU, and a single chip or series of chips that
performs arithmetic and logical calculations

Most CPU chips are composed of four functional sections:

1. ALU: Calculating ability either arithmetical or logical operations.

2. Registers: Temporary storage areas that hold data, keep tracks of instruction, and hold the location
and results of these operations.
3. Control section: Times and regulates the operation of the entire computer system, by using its
instruction decoder to read patterns of data in a designated register and translate the patterns into
activities, such as addition or comparison. It also uses its interrupt input to indicate the order in which
individual operations uses the CPU and regulates the amount of CPU time allotted to each operation.
4. Internal Bus: Network of communication lines that connects the internal elements of the processor
and also leads to external connectors that links the processor to the other element of the computer.

DESCRIPTION

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic
calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operation like
compare numbers, letters, or special characters

2. Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.

1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.

2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware
to perform the requested operation.

3. Registers : Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area".
INPUT DEVICES

Input unit consists of external devices-that is, components outside the computers CPU. It
provides or fetches information and instructions to the computer. These include keyboard, mouse
(mechanical/ opto- mechanical opticals , light pen, joystick, scanner, microphones (voice recognition
modules), Optical Character Reader (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader Recognition (MICR), bar code
reader, badge reader, digitizer, touch screen and optical mark reader (OMR).

A. Light pen: This is a stylus with a light sensitive tip that is used to draw directly on a computers video
screen or to select information on the screen by pressing a clip in the light pen or by pressing the light
pen against the surface of the screen. The pen contains light sensors that identify which portion of the
screen it is passed over. It is mostly used with Laptop.

B. Mouse: This is a pointing device designed to be gripped by one hand. It has a detection device
(usually a ball) on the bottom that enables the user to control the motion of an on-screen pointer, or
cursor, by moving the mouse on a flat surface. As the device moves across the surface, the cursor moves
across the screen. To select items or choose commands on the screen, the user presses a button on the
mouse.

C. Joystick: It is a pointing device composed of a lever that moves in multiple directions to navigate a
cursor or other graphical object on a computer screen.

D. Keyboard: Keyboard is typewriter-like devices that allows the user to type in text, numeric and
execute commands with the aid of the functional keys on the keyboard.

E. Optical Scanner: This is light-sensing equipment that converts images such as a picture or text into
electronic signals that can be manipulated by a computer. For example, a
photograph can be scanned

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices consists of hardware that transfer information from the computers CPU to the
computer user. This includes the monitor, Printer, plotters, or speaker.

Video Graphic Adapter: This is a device that converts information generated by the computer into visual
information called Monitor. It looks similar to a television set. Information from the CPU is displayed on
the screen of the monitor.

Printers: Information and graphics processed or produced with the aid of computer are printed out as
hardcopy with the aid of printer. There are different types of printers; Dot-matrix printers, Laser
printers, Inkjet, etc
STORAGE DEVICES
Storage devices provide permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by the
computer. The two main types of storage devices are disk drives and memory. There are several types of
disk drives: hard disk drive, floppy disk, magneto-optical, and compact disk.

Hard disk drives store information in magnetic particles embedded in a disk. Usually a permanent part
of the computer, hard disk drives can store large amounts of information and retrieve that information
very quickly. The disks are of different sizes such as 1G, 10G, 40G, etc.

Floppy disk drives also store information in magnetic particles embedded in removable disks. Floppy
disks store less information than a hard disk drive and retrieve the information at a much slower rate. It
is of 2 type 51/4 floppy disk and 3 1 /2 floppy disk.

Magneto-optical disc drives store information on removable discs that are sensitive to both laser light
and magnetic fields. They can typically store as much information as hard disks, but they have slightly
slower retrieval speeds.

Compact Disc Drives store information on pits burned into the surface of a disc of reflective material
such as CD-ROM. CD-ROMs can store about as much information as a hard drive but have a slower rate
of information retrieval.

Digital Video Disc (DVD): This is similar and works like a CD-ROM but can store more than 15times as
much information.

Memory Cards work as flash drive but with an additional device called the card reader. This is very
effective and more durable than the flash drives. Some devices serve more than one purpose. For
example, floppy disks may also be used as input devices if they contain information to be used and
processed by the computer user. In addition, they can be used as output devices if the user wants to
store the results of computations on them.

SYSTEM MEMORY

Memory refers to the computer chips that store information for quick retrieval by the CPU.
They are basically divided into two ROM and RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store information and instructions that operate the
computers programs. Typically, programs are transferred from storage on a disk drive to RAM. RAM is
also known as volatile memory because the information within the computer chips is lost when power
to the computer is turned off or the computer hanged.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) contains critical information and software that must be permanently
available for computer operation, such as the operating system that directs the computers actions from
start up to shut down. ROM is called non-volatile memory because the memory chips do not lose their
information when power to the computer is turned off.
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

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BY-Faraz Shaikh