Fundamental of Computer

Unit-I
INTRODUCTION
Computer as a revolution left no area of life untouched in the present world. It is of tremendous
help in all field of life. Hence, the knowledge of computer is a necessity for existence of
everybody in this global village. The invention of computer has transformed our simple manual
works to sophisticated life of automated works to meet the global demand for the higher
productivity and increased efficiency with high precision.
Computer is increasingly becoming compulsory in nearly all fields of studies, not because of
anything but its accuracy and versatility in processing data. Many tasks at home or office are
being automated rapidly with computer. Thus it is becoming apparent that in whatever discipline
or working sector, the computer is now a very vital tool for efficiency improvement and
precision of job or task execution.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory. These instructions tell the machine what to do. The computer is capable of accepting
data (input), processing data arithmetically and logically, producing output from the processing,
and storing the results for future use.
Most computers that sit on a desktop are called Personal Computers (PCs).
HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Since the creation of man, a significant amount of human activities has been ascribed to
organizing and processing information so that it could be more easily presented for easy
comprehension. Many devices have been used in the past before the advent of computer. It is
then necessary to vividly look into their evolution.
Early computing machines:
1. Abacus (-2500BC): This is a hand- held device made of beads stung on rods in a frame. The
rods correspond to positions of the digits while the beads correspond to the digits.
2. Napier’s Bone (2500BC): This was invented by John Napier’s (1550 - 1617). This consists of
small rods with appropriate markings on them. It is a mechanical aid to computation that consists
of nine such rods (called bones) with one for each digit 1 through 9. He also invented logarithms
which made possible to do division and multiplication by performing addition and subtraction.
3.Slide Rule (1600AD) by William Oughtred (1575 - 660): He invented it in 1622 but
announced it in 1632 this consist of rules on which markings represent logarithms of numbers
and also permits calculation involving exponents, trigonometric functions, etc.
4. Pascal mechanical calculator (1600) or Numerical wheel calculator:-Blaise Pascal(1623-664)
 in 1642 invented the first adding machine called Pascaline. The brass rectangular box used eight
moveable dials to add and sum up of eight figures long using base 10. It can perform all the four
arithmetic operation with previous unheard speed.
5. Leibnitz mechanical multiplier (1600): In 1694 Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibnitz (1646 - 716)
improved upon the pascaline by creating a machine that can also multiply using a system of dials
and gear.
6. Colmar’s Calculator (1820) by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar: This presented a more
practical approach to computing.
7. Punched-Card machine (Jacquard’s loom) (1801): Joseph Marie Jacquard.
8. Mechanical computer: Charles Gabbage (1792-1871) Father of the computer. Difference
engine powered by steam and large as locomotive the machine has a stored program and could
perform calculations and print the result automatically. We also have Analytical engine credited
to him.
Characteristics of Computers
• Speed. A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. ...
• Accuracy. Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. ...
• Diligence. A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency
and accuracy. ...
• Versatility. ...
• Reliability. ...
• Memory…
 Limitations of Computer :
Computer cannot operate without the instructions given by humans. It is programmed to work
effectively, fast and accurately. Computer cannot think by itself and does not have common
sense. It is totally dependent on humans.
• Depend on users input.
• Computer have no imagination.
• Cannot detect error in logic.
• Only expert user can work on it.
• Cannot take its own decisions.
• No Self-Intelligence
• No Feeling
• No Learning Power
• No Self Intelligence
• No Decision-Making power
• No learning power
• Lack of Common sense
• Computer can’t express their Ideas
• Computer can’t implement

Basic Computer Organization

INPUT DEVICES
Input unit consists of external devices—that is, components outside the computer’s CPU. It
provides or fetches information and instructions to the computer. These include keyboard,
mouse (mechanical/ opto-mechanical/ opticals), light pen, joystick, scanner, microphones
(voice recognition modules), Optical Character Reader (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader
Recognition (MICR), bar code reader, badge reader, digitizer, touch screen and optical mark
reader (OMR).

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices consists of hardware that transfer information from the computer’s CPU to the
computer user. This includes the monitor, Printer, plotters, or speaker.

STORAGE DEVICES
Storage devices provide permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by the
computer. The two main types of storage devices are disk drives and memory. There are several
types of disk drives: hard disk drive, floppy disk, magneto-optical, and compact disk.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This is the main brain of the computer that accepts data, performs operations on the data and
sends out the result. Information from an input device or from the computer’s memory is
communicated via the bus to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the part of the
computer that translates commands and runs programs. It consists of ALU and CU, and a single
chip or series of chips that performs arithmetic and logical calculations.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape,
and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered
to a business client. It was used in the 1951U.S. Bureau Census.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s.
The transistor was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy- efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this
time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers
that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic
core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards
and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the
home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of
the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday
products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful,
they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of
the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self- organization.
INPUT DEVICES
Input unit consists of external devices—that is, components outside the computer’s CPU. It
provides or fetches information and instructions to the computer. These include keyboard,
mouse (mechanical/ opto-mechanical/ opticals), light pen, joystick, scanner, microphones (voice
recognition modules), Optical Character Reader (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader
Recognition (MICR), bar code reader, badge reader, digitizer, touch screen and optical mark
reader (OMR).
A. Light pen: This is a stylus with a light sensitive tip that is used to draw directly on a
computer’s video screen or to select information on the screen by pressing a clip in the light pen
or by pressing the light pen against the surface of the screen. The pen contains light sensors that
identify which portion of the screen it is passed over. It is mostly used with Laptop.

B. Mouse: This is a pointing device designed to be gripped by one hand. It has a detection
device (usually a ball) on the bottom that enables the user to control the motion of an on-screen
pointer, or cursor, by moving the mouse on a flat surface. As the device moves across the
surface, the cursor moves across the screen. To select items or choose commands on the screen,
the user presses a button on the mouse.

C. Joystick is a pointing device composed of a lever that moves in multiple directions to

navigate a cursor or other graphical object on a computer screen.

D. Keyboard: Keyboard is typewriter-like devices that allows the user to type in text, numeric
and execute commands with the aid of the functional keys on the keyboard.
E. Optical Scanner: This is light-sensing equipment that converts images such as a picture or
text into electronic signals that can be manipulated by a computer. For example, a photograph
can be scanned into a computer and then included in a text document created on that computer.
The two most common scanner types are the flatbed scanner, which is similar to an office
photocopier, and the handheld scanner, which is passed manually across the image to be
processed.
F. Microphone: This is a device for converting sound into signals that can then be stored,
manipulated, and played back by the computer. A voice recognition module is a device that
converts spoken words into information that the computer can recognize and process.

G. Modem: It stands for modulator-demodulator, is a device that connects a computer to a

telephone line or cable television network and allows information to be transmitted to or received
from another computer. Each computer that sends or receives information must be connected to a
modem.

H.VDU: Stands for "Visual Display Unit." A VDU displays images generated by a computer or
other electronic device. The term VDU is often used synonymously with “monitor” but it can
also refer to another type of display, such as a digital projector. Visual display units may be
peripheral devices or may be integrated with the other components. For example, the Apple iMac
uses an all-in-one design, in which the screen and computer are built into a single unit.
Early VDUs were primarily cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and typically had a diagonal size of
13 inches or less. During the 1990s, 15" and 17" displays became standard, and some
manufacturers began producing displays over 20" in size. At the turn of the century, flat panel
displays became more common, and by 2006, CRT displays were hard to find.

I. Scanner: A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters,
magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in hand-
held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white only, or color.

J. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

The term magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) refers to the line of numbers that appears at
the bottom of a check. The MICR line is a group of three numbers, which are the check number,
account number, and bank routing number. The MICR number includes the magnetic ink
character recognition line printed using technology that allows certain computers to read and
process the printed information.

• Magnetic ink character recognition is the line on the bottom of a personal check that
includes the account, routing, and check numbers.
• MICR numbers are readable by individuals and computers, where its special font helps
limit check fraud.
• The technology is also used to print financial forms, credit card invoices, and rebate
coupons.

K. OCR: Stands for "Optical Character Recognition." OCR is a technology that recognizes text
within a digital image. It is commonly used to recognize text in scanned documents, but it serves
many other purposes as well.OCR software processes a digital image by locating and
recognizing characters, such as letters, numbers, and symbols. Some OCR software will simply
export the text, while other programs can convert the characters to editable text directly in the
image. Advanced OCR software can export the size and formatting of the text as well as the
layout of the text found on a page.
OCR technology can be used to convert a hard copy of a document into an electronic version (or
soft copy. For example, if you scan a multipage document into a digital image, such as a TIFF
file, you can load the document into an OCR program, which will recognize the text and convert
the document to an editable text file. Some OCR programs allow you to scan a document and
convert it to a word processing document in a single step.
While OCR technology was originally designed to recognize printed text, it can be used to
recognize and verify handwritten text as well. For example, postal services such as USPS use
OCR software to automatically process letters and packages based on the address.

L. OMR: Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is the technology of electronically extracting

intended data from marked fields, such as check boxes and fill-in fields, on printed forms. It is
generally distinguished from OCR by the fact that a recognition engine is not required. This
requires the image to have high contrast and an easily-recognizable or irrelevant shape.
OMR technology scans a printed form and reads predefined positions and records where marks
are made on the form. This technology is useful for applications in which large numbers of
hand-filled forms need to be processed quickly and with great accuracy, such as surveys, reply
cards, questionnaires, academic testing and ballots. A common OMR application is the use of
“bubble sheets” for multiple-choice tests used by schools.
The student indicates the answer on the test by filling in the corresponding bubble, and the form
is fed through an optical mark reader (also abbreviated as OMR, a device that scans the
document and reads the data from the marked fields. The error rate for OMR technology is less
than 1%.

M. Printers and its type: A printer is an external hardware output device that takes the
electronic data stored on a computer or other device and generates a hard copy. For example, if
you created a report on your computer, you could print several copies to hand out at a staff
meeting. Printers are one of the most popular computer peripherals and are commonly used to
print text and photos. The picture is an example of an inkjet computer printer.
Below is a list of all the different types of computer printers. Today, the most common printers
are inkjet and laser printers.
• 3D printer
• AIO (all-in-one) printer
• Dot matrix printer
• Inkjet printer
• Laser printer
• LED printer
• MFP (multifunction printer)
• Plotter
• Thermal printer

N. Plotter:A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for printing
vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or another writing tool to
draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series of dots like a traditional printer.
Though once widely used for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been
phased out by wide-format printers. Plotters produce a hard copy of schematics and other similar
applications.
Advantages of plotters
• Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.
• They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet
steel, cardboard, and plastic.
• Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image
degradation.

Disadvantages of plotters
• Plotters are quite large compared to a traditional printer.
• Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.

Types of Plotters
The different types of plotters include:

• Drum plotters: A drum plotter draws on paper that is wrapped around a drum. The drum
turns and produces one direction of the plot, while at the same time the pens move to
produce the other direction.
 • Flatbed plotters: A flatbed plotter draws on paper that is placed on a flat surface.
• Electrostatic plotter: An electrostatic plotter draws on paper that has a negative charge
with a toner that has a positive charge.
• Roller Plotter: A roller plotter prints out the drawing while the payer gets moved
through the plotter.

Microfilm: Microfilm is an analog storage medium using film reels which are exposed and
developed into photographic records using a photographic process. It is typically used to
store paper documents such as periodicals, legal documents, books and engineering
drawings. It is compact in nature, is low cost to produce and store and requires far smaller
storage space than paper documents. Therefore, it is considered to be a good archival form.
Microfilm has long been a popular means for storing information in less space than is taken
up by paper documents. Today computer output microfilm (COM) has become a popular
method of obtaining and storing computer output.

Microfiche: Microfiche is a card made of transparent film used to store printed information
in miniaturized form. To read the card, one places it under the lens of a microfiche reader
machine, which magnifies it.
Microfiche is a thin photographic film, usually four by five inches, which is capable of
storing information in miniaturized form. This technique is used in preserving fragile
materials such as archival documents, journals, books, newspapers and magazines, as well
as a method of saving space in libraries and other archives.
There are many advantages when microfiche is used, like easy storage. Many documents
can be stored in a small space, as a single sheet can store numerous images. It also provides
an easy and convenient way to access grouped documents. Updating is also easy, as a new
sheet can be added to the file at any point of time, and this helps in keeping the documents
organized. This is one of the biggest reasons for using it for archiving photos, newspapers,
journals and other documents. Microfiche is a flat film sheet and does not require the
spinning of film onto reels, as in case of microfilm. Microfiche also takes less space and has
fewer storage requirements compared to microfilm.

Voice Recognition and Response Devices: Voice recognition is a computer software

program or hardware device with the ability to decode the human voice. Voice recognition
is commonly used to operate a device, perform commands, or write without having to use a
keyboard, mouse, or press any buttons. Today, this is done on a computer with ASR
(automatic speech recognition) software programs. Many ASR programs require the user to
"train" the ASR program to recognize their voice so that it can more accurately convert the
speech to text. For example, you could say "open Internet" and the computer would open
the Internet browser.
There are two types of speech recognition. One is called speaker–dependent and the other is
speaker–independent. Speaker–dependent software is commonly used for dictation
software, while speaker–independent software is more commonly found in telephone
applications.
 Unit-II
Storage Devices: Storage devices are the computer hardware used to remember/store data.
There are many types of storage devices, each with their own benefits and drawbacks.
Computer Storage contains many computer components that are used to store data. It is
traditionally divided into primary storage, secondary storage and tertiary storage.

Primary Storage:
• Also known as main memory.
• Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
memory bus.
• The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
• Example:
– RAM
– ROM
– Cache

RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine
is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
RAM allows your computer to perform many of its everyday tasks, such as loading
applications, browsing the internet, editing a spreadsheet, or experiencing the latest game.
• There are two types of RAM: –
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

ROM
Read-Only Memory (ROM), is a type of electronic storage that comes built in to a device
during manufacturing. You'll find ROM chips in computers and many other types of
electronic products; VCRs, game consoles, and car radios all use ROM to complete their
functions smoothly. This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up. ROM is
memory that cannot be changed by a program or user. ROM retains its memory even after
the computer is turned off. For example, ROM stores the instructions for the computer to
start up when it is turned on again.

Cached Memory:
Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the
CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately
available to the CPU when needed. Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to
access data from the Main memory. Cache Memory: Cache memory is the small size of
RAM inside the processors. This cache memory is SRAM (Static RAM) unlike the DRAM
(Dynamic RAM) which we find in normal RAM. This SRAM is quite fast compared to
DRAM. In computers, we find different levels of cache memory.
The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the
cache memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever
the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If the data is not found
 in cache memory, then the CPU moves into the main memory. Cache memory is placed
between the CPU and the main memory.

Registers:
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. A processor register may hold an
instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters).
There are various types of Registers those are used for various purposes. Some Mostly used
Registers are Accumulator (AC), Data Register (DR), Address Register (AR), Program
Counter (PC), Memory Data Register (MDR), Index Register (IR), and Memory Buffer
Register (MBR).
The final step in memory is the registers. These are memory cells built right into the CPU
that contain specific data needed by the CPU, particularly the arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU). An integral part of the CPU itself, they are controlled directly by the compiler that
sends information for the CPU to process.

Storage Concept:
Storage is a process through which digital data is saved within a data storage device by
means of computing technology. Storage is a mechanism that enables a computer to retain
data, either temporarily or permanently. Storage may also be referred to as computer data
storage or electronic data storage.
Data can be stored in many formats in any computer hardware. This completely depends on the
application that is creating this data. Following are some of the well-known data storage formats
and access mechanisms.

Disk Storage

Many of the disk operations like “read” and “write” involve disk storage.
Disk storage is one of the most heavily used mechanisms as on today. In Disk storage, also many
types and methods have evolved over a period.

▪ Block Storage: Data is stored in “logical blocks” these blocks are smallest units of storage with
addresses attached to them in any storage subsystem. Disk level read/write operations can be
used for block storage and block storage access.
▪ File Storage: Any data file is nothing but collection of “block of blocks” of data. Any file
typically will contain two parts:
1. Meta data of a file which stores the directory structure and information about the file.
2. File content which contains the actual file content part of the data. File storage leads to File
Systems, which will have directories, files; regular files and etc file related meta data inside
them. These File Systems are logically arranged for ease of access and data operation.

Hard disk:
A hard drive is the hardware component that stores all of your digital content. Your
documents, pictures, music, videos, programs, application preferences, and operating
system represent digital content stored on a hard drive. Hard drives can be external or
internal.
The hard drive contains a spinning platter with a thin magnetic coating. A "head" moves
over the platter, writing 0's and 1's as tiny areas of magnetic North or South on the platter.
To read the data back, the head goes to the same spot, notices the North and South spots
flying by, and so deduces the stored 0's and 1's.

Floppy disk:
The floppy disk (or a 3 1/2 floppy for today's standard) is a removable magnetic storage
medium. Floppy disks are used for moving information between computers, laptops or other
devices. Some early digital cameras, electronic music instruments and older computer game
consoles use floppy disks.
Today, the most commonly used floppy disks are 3.5 inches and have the capacity of 800
KB to 2.8 MB (with a standard of 1.44 MB). The high-density floppy disk drive was first
introduced in 1995.

CDROM:
CD-ROM, abbreviation of compact disc read-only memory, type of computer memory in
the form of a compact disc that is read by optical means. A CD-ROM drive uses a low-
power laser beam to read digitized (binary) data that has been encoded in the form of tiny
pits on an optical disk.

Magnetic tape:
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on
a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany in 1928, based on
magnetic wire recording. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, and
magnetic videotape provides a low-cost medium for recording analog voice and video
signals directly and simultaneously.

Sequential Vs Direct Access Devices:

Primary storage media such as semiconductor memory chips are called direct access
memory or random-access memory (RAM). Magnetic disk devices are frequently called
direct access storage devices (DASDs). In contrast, media such as magnetic tape cartridges
are known as sequential access devices.
Direct access speaks to the ability to access something (often memory) using a specific
address. In a collection of items, each item has a distinct address; and a specific, individual
item can be accessed by making use of its address.
Sequential access storage media such as magnetic tape do not have unique storage addresses
that can be directly addressed. Instead, data must be stored and retrieved using a sequential
or serial process. Data are recorded one after another in a predetermined sequence (e.g.,
numeric order) on a storage medium. Locating an individual item of data requires searching
the recorded data on the tape until the desired item is located.