Introduction to nutrition Classification of nutrients

Basic nutritional concept 1. Major nutrients (Macronutrients):

Nutrition is a vital component to overall wellness and Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water.
health. Diet affects energy, wellbeing and many disease
2. Minor nutrients (Micronutrients): Vitamins and
states. There is a connection between lifetime
minerals.
nutritional habits and the risks of many chronic diseases
such as cardio vascular diseases, diabetes, cancer. A The major nutrients
well-balanced diet can prevent such conditions and
improve energy levels and overall health and wellness. 1. Major nutrients (Macronutrients):
The basis of nutrition is FOOD Are utilized for energy or are stored as fat.
Basic definition of term e.g: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water.
1) Nutrition – is the study of food in relation to health. It is also called micronutrients (needed intrace
2) Food – is any substance when ingested or eaten amount).
nourishes the body.  Do not supply energy or calories, instead they regulate
3) Nutrient – is a chemical component needed by the the metabolism.
body to provide energy, to build and repair tissues and  E.g: vitamins and minerals ( iron and zinc)
to regulate life process.
It is also called micronutrients (needed in trace
4) Digestion – it is a mechanical and chemical amount).
breakdown of food into smaller components.
 Do not supply energy or calories, instead they regulate
5) Absorption – it is a process where the nutrients from the metabolism.
foods are absorb by the body into the bloodstreams.
E.g: vitamins and minerals ( iron and zinc)
6) Metabolism – is a chemical process of transforming
foods into other substance to sustain life.

7) Enzymes – an organic catalyst that are protein in

nature and are produced by living cells. Physiologic value of foods
A catalyst speeds up or slows down chemical reactions Food is good to eat when it fulfills the ff. qualities:
without itself undergoing change.
1) It is nourishing or nutritious
8) Nutritional Status – is the condition of the body
resulting from the utilization of essential nutrients. 2) It has satiety value

9) Calorie – fuel potential in a food. One calorie 3) It is prepared under sanitary conditions
represents the amount of heat required to raise one
4) Its palatability factors (color, aroma, flavor, texture)
liter of water one degree Celsius.
5) Within the budget and suitable to the occasion.
10) Malnutrition – It is the condition of the body
resulting from a lack of one or more essential nutrients Nutrition classification
or due to excessive nutrient supply.
1) According to function

2) According to chemical nature

3) According to essentiality

4) According concentration
Classification of nutrients

1) According to function: 2. Prevents malnutrition

- Function as energy giving, body building, body Malnutrition means an undesirable kind of nutrition
regulating. leading to ill health. It results in a lack, excess or
imbalance of nutrients in diet.
2) According to chemical properties:
• It includes under nutrition and over nutrition: 
a) Organic – protein, lipids, carbohydrates and
vitamins 1. Under nutrition is a state of an insufficient
supply of essential nutrients.
b) Inorganic – water & minerals
2. Over nutrition refers to an excessive intake of
Nutrition and health
one or more nutrients which creates a stress in bodily
How nutrition is related to HEALTH functions.

The basic study of nutrition is of primary importance Malnutrition is directly responsible for certain specific
as: nutritional deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor,
marasmus, vitamin A deficiency, anemia, goiter etc.
1. It is fundamental for our own health, and
• Good nutrition is therefore essential for
2. It is essential for the health and well-being of our prevention of disease and promotion of good health.
patients and clients from the time of eating till it is
utilized for various functions. 3. Resistance to infection

Functions of nutrition Malnutrition predisposes the body to infections like

tuberculosis and other diseases.
1. Nutrition helps growth and development
Infections in turn aggregate malnutrition and
2. Prevents malnutrition  metabolism.
3. Resists infection and 4. Reduce mortality and morbidity
4. Prevents diseases (decrease morbidity and mortality) Thus, food plays a prominent role in providing physical,
1. Nutrition helps in growth and development mental and social wellbeing which is the WHO definition
of health.
 Nearly two thirds of those who do not report
daily mental health problems eat fresh fruit or  Thus, food reduces incidences of disease therefore it
fruit juice every day. This pattern is similar for reduces morbidity rate (death rate).
fresh vegetables and salad. Those who report Factors influencing food habits
some level of mental health problem also eat
fewer healthy foods (fresh fruit and vegetables, 1. Superstitions
organic foods and meals made from scratch)
2. Social and cultural factors
and more unhealthy foods (chips and crisps,
chocolate, ready meals and takeaways). 3. Religions factors

 A balanced mood and feelings of wellbeing can 4. Income

be protected by ensuring that our diet provides
5. Geography/availability
adequate amounts of complex carbohydrates,
essential fats, amino acids, vitamins and 6. Advertising and media
minerals and water.
Superstition, social and cultural factors

Food habits are handed over from generation

to generation. 

Though these factors have very little or no scientific

basis, people rigidly adhere to them.
Organs of the Digestive System
Religious belief
The alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract
 Hindus do not eat beef, and among Hindus digests and absorbs food
some communities do not eat fruits, onions and
▪ Alimentary canal – mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
garlic. Many Hindus are vegetarians. To eat
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
meat is to destroy the seeds of compassion.
▪ Accessory digestive organs – teeth, tongue,
 Islamic food laws prohibit the consumption of
gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas
“unclean” foods such as swine and animals
killed in a manner that prevents their blood There are four stages to food processing:
from being fully drained from their bodies
1. Ingestion: taking in food
 Jews do not eat pork and shellfish
2. Digestion: breaking down food into nutrients
GEOGRAPHY/AVAILABILITY
3. Absorption: taking in nutrients by cells
 In the olden days, man would eat whatever was
available to satisfy his hunger. 4. Egestion: removing any leftover wastes

 The food he got was the type he could cultivate A. Digestive Processes- there are six food processing
in his locality. activities:

 The nutrition value of natural foods does not 1. Ingestion- bringing food into the mouth (eating)
vary from country to country. 2. Propulsion- moving food through the GI tract,
 But there is a great variation in the composition peristalsis (contractions of smooth muscle in GI tract)
of prepared foods such as bread, biscuits, cakes helps to move the food along.
etc., due to variation in recipes and basic 3. Mechanical digestion- physical change of the food
ingredients used in different regions. particles from large to small, this helps to increase the
INCOME surface area to make chemical digestion more effective.
Actions include chewing, churning of food in stomach,
 Financial resources determine the type of food and mixing food with digestive juices.
we consume.
4. Chemical digestion- chemical change of the food
 Depending on the availability one selects the particles, bonds are broken to change a large molecule
food. People in lower income groups in India into a smaller one so absorption can happen more
consume, a combination of cereals and cheaply effectively. This involves the use of enzymes,
available green leafy vegetables, roots and hydrochloric acid, and other digestive juices.
tubers.
5. Absorption- transport of digested food molecules
 People of higher income groups, can choose from the GI into the blood and lymphatic vessels
 Food from all groups irrespective of seasons 6. Defecation- elimination of feces (indigestible
substance/digestive waste)
The Human Digestive System
Histology of the Alimentary Canal
The digestive system is used for breaking down food
into nutrients which then pass into the Circulatory From esophagus to the anal canal the walls of the GI
system and are taken to where they are needed in the tract have the same four tunics. From the lumen
body. outward they are the:
 1. mucosa Submucosa – dense connective tissue containing elastic
fibers, blood and lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
2. submucosa
nerves
3. muscularis externa
Muscularis externa – responsible for segmentation and
4. serosa peristalsis

▪ Each tunic has a predominant tissue type and a Serosa – the protective visceral peritoneum
specific digestive function
• Replaced by the fibrous adventitia in the
1. Mucosa esophagus

Innermost moist epithelial layer that lines the lumen of Organs of the Alimentary Canal
the alimentary canal
• Mouth
▪ Consists of three layers: a lining epithelium,
• Pharynx
lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae
• Esophagus
Its three major functions are:
• Stomach
▪ Secretion of mucus
• Small intestine
▪ Absorption of the end products of digestion
• Large intestine
▪ Protection against infectious disease
• Anus
Lining epithelium
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
▪ Consists of simple columnar epithelium and
mucus-secreting goblet cells ▪ Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening

The mucus secretions: ▪ Cheeks – form the lateral walls

• Protect digestive organs ▪ Hard palate – forms the anterior roof

from digesting
▪ Soft palate – forms the posterior roof
themselves
▪ Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate
• Ease food along the
tract Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
Stomach and small intestine mucosa contain: ▪ Vestibule – space between lips externally and
teeth and gums internally
• Enzyme-secreting cells
▪ Oral cavity – area contained by the teeth
Lamina propria
▪ Tongue – attached at hyoid bone and styloid
• Loose areolar and reticular connective
processes of the skull, and by the lingual
tissue
frenulum
• Nourishes the epithelium and absorbs
Tongue
nutrients
Functions include:
Muscularis mucosae
▪ Gripping and repositioning food during chewing
• smooth muscle cells that produce local
movements of mucosa ▪ Mixing food with saliva and forming the bolus

▪ Initiation of swallowing, and speech

Note: Lingual frenulum secures the tongue to the floor a. apical foramen - opening at the base
of the mouth h) enamel - covers the dentin on the crown
i) cementum - covers dentin on the root
Superior surface bears three types of papillae:

▪ Filiform – give the tongue roughness and

provide friction

▪ Fungiform – scattered widely over the tongue Esophagus

and give it a reddish hue
▪ Muscular tube going from the laryngopharynx
▪ Circumvallate – V-shaped row in back of tongue to the stomach

Salivary Glands ▪ Travels through the mediastinum and pierces

the diaphragm
▪ Parotid – lies anterior to the ear between the
masseter muscle and skin ▪ Joins the stomach at the cardiac orifice

• Parotid duct – opens into the vestibule Stomach

next to the second upper molar
Chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is
▪ Submandibular – lies along the medial aspect of converted to chyme
the mandibular body
▪ Cardiac region – surrounds the cardiac orifice
▪ Sublingual – lies anterior to the submandibular
▪ Fundus – dome-shaped region beneath the
gland under the tongue
diaphragm
Classification of Teeth
▪ Body – midportion of the stomach
Teeth are classified according to their shape and
▪ Pyloric region – made up of the antrum and
function:
canal which terminates at the pylorus
• Incisors – chisel-shaped teeth adapted for
- The pylorus is continuous with the duodenum through
cutting or nipping
the pyloric sphincter
• Canines – conical or fanglike teeth that tear or
▪ Greater curvature – entire extent of the
pierce
convex lateral surface
• Premolars (bicuspids) and molars – have broad
▪ Lesser curvature – concave medial surface
crowns with rounded tips and are best suited
for grinding or crushing ▪ Lesser omentum – runs from the liver to the
lesser curvature
During chewing, upper and lower molars lock together
generating crushing force ▪ Greater omentum – drapes inferiorly from the
greater curvature to the small intestine
Tooth Structure
▪ Rugae - folds in the inner lining of the stomach
a) crown - above the level of the gums
Microscopic Anatomy of the Stomach
b) root - one to three projections into socket
Epithelial lining is composed of:
c) neck - between crown and root on gumline
▪ Goblet cells that produce a coat of alkaline
d) dentin - hard shell of tooth
mucus
e) pulp cavity - center of tooth
- The mucous surface layer traps a bicarbonate-rich
f) pulp - lymph, blood, nerve, connective tissue fluid beneath it

g) root canal - passage through roots to the pulp

 ▪ Gastric pits contain gastric glands that secrete 2. body - tapers off beneath the stomach
gastric juice, mucus, and gastrin
3. tail - terminal part near the end
▪ Gastric glands of the fundus and body have a
4. pancreatic duct - merges with bile duct to
variety of secretory cells
duodenum
▪ Mucous neck cells – secrete acid mucus
a. hepatopancreatic ampulla (merging of
▪ Parietal cells – secrete HCl both)

Small Intestine: Gross Anatomy 5. accessory duct - empties into duodenum,

smaller
▪ Runs from pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal
valve Pancreas - histology

▪ The bile duct and main pancreatic duct join the 1. made of glandular epithelial cells
duodenum at the hepatopancreatic ampulla
2. pancreatic islets (of Langerhans) (1% of all
▪ The ileum joins the large intestine at the cells)
ileocecal valve
a. hormones: glucagon, insulin,
Has three subdivisions: somatostatin

1. duodenum 3. acini - (99% of the cells in pancreas)

2. jejunum a. mixture of enzymes called

"pancreatic juice"
3. ileum
Liver
Small Intestine: Microscopic Anatomy
▪ Superficially has four lobes – right, left,
Structural modifications of the small intestine wall
caudate, and quadrate
increase surface area:
▪ The largest gland in the body
▪ Villi – fingerlike extensions of the mucosa
Liver: Associated Structures
▪ Microvilli – tiny projections of absorptive
mucosal cells’ plasma membranes The falciform ligament:

Small Intestine: Histology ▪ Separates the right and left lobes anteriorly

The epithelium of the mucosa is made up of: ▪ Suspends the liver from the diaphragm and
anterior abdominal wall
▪ Absorptive cells and goblet cells
The ligamentum teres:
▪ Cells of intestinal crypts secrete intestinal juice
▪ Is a remnant of the fetal umbilical vein
▪ Peyer’s patches are found in the submucosa
and are collections of lymphatic/wbc tissue ▪ Runs along the free edge of the falciform
ligament
▪ Brunner’s glands in the duodenum secrete
alkaline mucus ▪ The lesser omentum anchors the liver to the
stomach
Pancreas - structure
▪ The hepatic blood vessels enter the liver at the
posterior to great curvature of the stomach
porta hepatis
1. head - enlarged portion in C-curve of the
▪ gallbladder - rests in a recess on the inferior
duodenum
surface of the right lobe; stores bile for
digestion of fats
Bile Large Intestine

Bile leaves the liver via: ▪ Is subdivided into the cecum, appendix, colon,
rectum, and anal canal
▪ Bile ducts, which fuse into the common hepatic
duct ▪ The saclike cecum:

▪ The common hepatic duct, which fuses with the – Lies below the ileocecal valve in the
cystic duct right iliac fossa

– These two ducts form the bile duct – Contains a wormlike vermiform
appendix
Liver: Microscopic Anatomy
Colon
lobules are hexagonal shaped and the structural and
functional units of the liver Has distinct regions:

▪ Composed of hepatocyte (liver cell) plates • ascending colon

radiating outward from a central vein
• hepatic flexure
▪ Portal triads are found at each of the six corners
• transverse colon
of each liver lobule
• splenic flexure
portal triads consist of a bile duct and
• descending colon
▪ Hepatic artery – supplies oxygen-rich blood to
the liver • sigmoid colon
▪ Hepatic portal vein – carries venous blood with • The transverse and sigmoid portions are
nutrients from digestive viscera anchored via mesenteries called mesocolons
▪ Liver sinusoids – enlarged, leaky capillaries • The sigmoid colon joins the rectum
located between hepatic plates
• The anal canal, the last segment of the large
▪ Kupffer cells – hepatic macrophages found in intestine, opens to the exterior at the anus
liver sinusoids
Anus
Hepatocytes
▪ internal sphincter - smooth muscle
Hepatocyte functions include: (involuntary)
▪ Production of bile ▪ external sphincter - skeletal muscle (voluntary)
▪ Processing bloodborne nutrients Mesenteries- double layer sheets of serosa membranes
that hold organs in place by connecting them to the
▪ Storage of fat-soluble vitamins
dorsal and ventral abdominal walls. Sometimes they
▪ Detoxification are referred to as ligaments.

The Gallbladder Ventral Mesenteries-

▪ Thin-walled, green muscular sac on the ventral 1. falciform ligament- connects liver to
surface of the liver anterior wall

▪ Stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its 2. lesser omentum- runs from the liver to
water and ions the lesser curvature

▪ Releases bile via the cystic duct, which flows Dorsal Mesenteries-
into the bile duct
 1. Greater omentum- from the greater SMALL INTESTINE FUCTION
curvature to the posterior wall,
The digestive process continues in the duodenum.
however it also connect to the
Secretions in the duodenum come from the accessory
intestines. It also holds a lot of fat
digestive organs--the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder—
2. Mesentery proper- support and hold the and the glands in the wall of the intestine itself. These
jejunum and ileum. secretions contain digestive enzymes and bile.

3. Transverse mesocolon- attaches the The intestinal glands secrete mucus, hormones,
transverse colon, it fuses with the electrolytes, and enzymes. The mucus coats the cells
greater omentum. and protects the mucosa from injury by HCl. Hormones,
neuroregulators, and local regulators found in these
4. Sigmoid mesocolon- connects sigmoid
intestinal secretions control the rate of intestinal
colon to posterior pelvic wall.
secretions and also influence GI motility.
FUNCTION OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Pancreatic secretions have an alkaline pH because of
The stomach mixes food with secretion. It secrete high concentrations of bicarbonate. This neutralizes the
hydrochloric acid in anticipated ingestion of food. acid entering the duodenum from the stomach. The
pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes, including
The function of this gastric secretion is two-fold: to TRYPSIN, which aids in digesting protein; AMYLASE,
break down food into more absorbable components which aids in digesting starch; and LIPASE, which ids in
and to aid in the destruction of most ingested bacteria. digesting fats. Bile (secreted by the liver and stored in
The stomach can produce about 2.4 L per day of these the gallbladder) aids in emulsifying ingested fats,
gastric secretions. Gastric secretions also contain the making them easier to digest and absorb.
enzyme pepsin important for initiating protein Intestinal secretions total approximately
digestion. Intrinsic factor is also secreted by the gastric
mucosa. This compound combines with dietary vitamin  1 L/day of pancreatic juice,
B2 so that the vitamin can be absorbed in the ileum. In
 0.5 L/day of bile, and
the absence of intrinsic factor, vitamin B, cannot be
absorbed and pernicious anemia results.  3 L/day of secretions from the glands of the
small intestine.
Peristaltic contractions in the stomach propel its
contents toward the pylorus. Because large food Two types of contractions occur regularly in the small
particles cannot pass through the pyloric sphincter, they intestines
are churned back into the body of the stomach. In this
 Segmentation contraction – churning motion
way, food in the stomach is agitated mechanically and
broken down into smaller particles.  Intestinal peristalsis – propel the contents of
small intestines to the colon
Food remains in the stomach for a variable length of
time, from a half-hour to several hours, depending on Chyme stays in the small intestine for 3 to 6 hours,
the size of food particles, the composition of the meal, allowing for continued breakdown and absorption of
and other factors. nutrients. Small, finger-like projections called villi are
present through- out the entire intestine and function
Peristalsis in the stomach and contractions of the
to produce digestive enzymes as well as to absorb
pyloric sphincter allow the partially digested food to
nutrients.
enter the small intestine at a rate that permits efficient
absorption of nutrients. This food mixed with gastric Absorption is the primary function of the small
secretions is called chyme. Hormones, neuroregulators, intestine. Vitamins and minerals are not digested but
and local regulators found in the gastric secretions rather absorbed essentially unchanged. Absorption be
control the rate of gastric secretions and influence gins in the jejunum and is accomplished by both active
gastric motility transport and diffusion across the intestinal wall into
the circulation.
Absorption of different nutrients takes place at different
locations in the small intestine. Iron and calcium
absorption takes place in the duodenum. Fats, proteins,
carbohydrates, sodium, and chloride are absorbed in
the jejunum. Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in
the ileum. Magnesium, phosphate, and potassium are
absorbed throughout the small intestine

COLON FUNCTION

Within 4 hours after eating, residual waste material

passes into the terminal ileum and passes slowly into
the proximal portion of the colon through the ileocecal
valve. This valve, which is normally closed, helps
prevent colonic contents from refluxing into the small
intestine. With each peristaltic wave of the small
intestine, the valve opens briefly and permits some of
the contents to pass into the colon.

Bacteria make up a major component of the contents of

the large intestine. They assist in completing the
breakdown of waste material, especially of undigested
or unabsorbed proteins and bile salts.

Two types of colonic secretions are added to the

residual material:

 Electrolyte solution

The electrolyte solution is chiefly a bicarbonate solution

that acts to neutralize the end products formed by the
colonic bacterial action.

 Mucus.

The mucus protects the colonic mucosa from the

interluminal contents also provides adherence for the
fecal mass.

Slow, weak peristaltic activity moves the colonic

contents slowly along the tract. This slow transport
allows efficient reabsorption of water and electrolytes,
which is the primary purpose of the colon.

Intermittent strong peristaltic waves propel the

contents for considerable distances. This generally
occurs after another meal is eaten, when intestine-
stimulating hormones are released.

The waste materials from a meal eventually reach and

distend the rectum, usually in about 12 hours. As much
as one fourth of the waste materials from a meal may
still be in the rectum 3 days after the meal was
ingested.