Quantity of heat

Introduction
Heat is a form of energy and it a scalar quantity. When two bodies at different temperature are brought in
contact, the hotter body cools down, and the colder body warms up until both attain same temperature. In
this case energy has transferred from hotter body to colder body. This energy in transit whenever
temperature difference maintained is called heat. Thus heat energy cannot be measured directly as what
quantity of heat is on the body but it can be measured as what quantity of heat is transferred from one body
to another. The quantity of heat transferred in the process will change the temperature of the body and the
change in temperature will depend upon the mass of the body as well as on the nature of the material
(specific heat capacity) of the body. From the information of temperature change, mass and specific heat
capacity, quantity of heat exchanged can be calculated. SI unit of heat is taken as Joule (J) and next common
unit is calorie (cal).
1 cal = 4.18 J  4.2 J.
When liquid in a thermos flask is shaken vigorously or gas in a cylinder is suddenly compressed,
temperature of liquid or gas gets raised without supplying heat. In this situation, work done on the system
becomes a source of heat energy.

Calorimetry
Calorimetry is a branch of physics which deals with the experimental techniques for quantitative measurement of heat
exchange.
A vessel or pot used for the measurement of quantity of heat that flows from hot body to cold body is
called calorimeter.

Calorimeter
Thermometer
Calorimeter is a device used for the quantitative measurement of heat Stirrer
exchange.
Generally calorimeters are made up of copper. This is because that Cotton (or wool)

(i) Specific heat capacity of copper is low so it absorbs or loses less

amount of heat and quickly attains equilibrium; (ii) In all Copper calorimeter

temperature range its specific heat capacity is almost constant. Wooden box

[Fig. Calorimeter]
[Fig. 17.1, Calorimeter]
Heat content of a body (or Heat equation)
When a substance is heated, it absorbs heat energy and hence its temperature rises until it remains in the
same phase.
Similarly when it is cooled it loses heat energy and its temperature falls until it remains in the same phase.
Experimentally, it is found that amount of heat energy Q transferred to or by a body of mass m to change its
temperature by  is,
i. directly proportional to its mass, m i.e., Qm . . . (1)
ii. directly proportional to the change in temperature of the body,  i.e., Q  . . . (2)
 Combining equations (1) and (2) we get,
Q m 
or, Q = S m 
or, Q = m S  . . . (3)
Where, S is proportionality constant and is known as specific heat capacity of the material of the body.
Equation (3) represents heat content of the body and known as heat equation.
(The relation is valid until the applied heat causes change in temperature without changing the phase
(state) of the body.)
SI unit of heat is Joule (J) and other common unit of heat is calorie (cal).
One calorie: 1 calorie is defined as amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1 degree
Celsius (generally from 14.5C- 15.5C).
1 cal = 4.2 J

Specific Heat Capacity

From heat equation, Q = m S When m = 1 unit of mass and  = 1 unit of temperature, then from heat
equation,
S = Q.
Thus, specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of substance by unity. It is given by
Q
S=
m
Specific heat capacity depends on nature of substance and system of unit used.

Why do different materials have different specific heat capacities?

When heat is supplied it is used in different ways in different materials. Supplied heat may increase the vibrational
motion as well as rotational motion. Increase in vibrational motion results in increase in temperature where as
increasing rotational motion result increase in the potential energy only. Depending on fractional value of supplied
heat in vibrational and rotational motion of molecules, different materials have different specific heat capacities.

SI unit of S is J/kg K and its CGS unit is cal/gm°C

1 Cal 4.2J
We have, 1 cal/gm°C = 1 gm × 1°C = 1 = 4.2 × 1000 J/kg K = 4200 J/kg K
1000 kg × 1K

Water has specific heat capacity 4200 J kg–1 K–1. This means 4200J heat is required to raise the temperature of
1 kg of water by 1K. This value is the highest value among all solid and liquid.

Suppose Q amount of heat is given to two different substances of specific heat capacities S 1 and S2. Let both
substances have same mass m and suffer the respective temperature difference of 1 and 2. Then, from
given condition,
Heat given to first system = Heat given to second system
S1m1 = S2m2
or, S11 = S22
 S1 2
or, S2 = 1
1
i.e., S 

If S1 > S2 then, 2 > 1 and if S2 > S1 then, 1 > 2. This clearly shows that when same amount of heat is
given to the same mass of two different substances then temperature of substance having low value of
specific heat capacity increases more than other.

Specific heat of water is more than that of copper. What do you mean by this?

This means, to raise the temperature of same mass of water and copper by same unit, water requires more value
of heat than that required for copper.

Milk boils faster than water, why?

Significance of High and Low Specific Heat Capacity of Substance

Substance having large value of specific heat capacity can absorb large amount of heat from any object
brought in thermal contact and can reduce the temperature of that object by sufficiently large value. But this
brings almost no change in temperature of its own. Water has high specific heat capacity and shows such
behavior. Therefore water can be used as cooling agent in many heat producing appliances and to lower
down temperature of a person suffering from high fever. Also substance having high value of specific heat
capacity can release large amount of heat to anybody brought in thermal contact and raises the temperature
of that body by sufficiently large value. But it brings almost no change in temperature of its own. Water has
high specific heat capacity and shows such behavior. Therefore water can be used as heating agent in room
heating system, hot water bag etc.
Substance having low value of specific heat capacity can absorb or lose almost negligible amount of heat
from or to any other body brought in thermal contact and immediately it attains thermal equilibrium. This
action does not bring any change in thermal configuration of the body in contact. Mercury has low value of
specific heat capacity and shows such behavior. Therefore mercury can be used as thermometric substance
in thermometer. In the same way copper can be used to make calorimeter. Also substance having low value
of specific heat capacity gets sufficiently large value of change or rise in temperature even from the small
amount of heat applied. Cooking oil has low specific heat capacity and shows such behavior. Therefore
cooking oil can be used to make fried food items. This makes the cooking easier, faster, and also makes food
items tasty. From the same theory, massage oil gets heated sufficiently from the heat of friction/massage
and this is suitable for massage.
The same mass of iron and lead are heated up to same value of temperature and placed on ice. Which one
sinks more in the ice and why?
Iron sinks more than lead on ice because iron releases more heat to the ice than by lead while cooling through the
same range of temperature as Iron has more specific heat capacity.

Water is used as heating and cooling agent, why?

Should a thermometer bulb have large heat capacity or small heat capacity?

The atmospheric temperature in the cities on sea – cost change very little, why?

Calculate the difference in temperature between the water at the top and bottom of a waterfall 200 m high.
(Specific heat of water = 4200 J / kg K)
Solution:
Height (h) = 200 m
Specific heat capacity of water (S w) = 4200 J/kg K
Temperature difference between the water at the top and bottom of a waterfall 200 m high (say ) =?
Here, Heat energy gained by water = loss in P.E. by water
or, mw Sw  = mw g h (Where, m w is mass of water)
gh 10 × 200
or,  = S = 4200
w
20 10 2
= 42 = 21 = 0.48 K [g = 10 m/s ]
Hence, the required temperature difference is 0.48 K or 0.48C or 0.864F or 0.384R.

Heat Capacity (or Thermal Capacity)

Heat capacity or thermal capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to change the temperature
of any mass of the substance through 1°C (or 1 K).
If Q is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance of mass m through  then
Q = m S  [Where, S is specific heat capacity of the body]
If the change in temperature or 1°C) then,
Q=mS
This quantity of heat which is actually the product of mass and specific heat capacity of the body is called heat
capacity of given body. SI unit of heat capacity is J/K and CGS unit is cal/°C.

Principle of Calorimetry
Statement: “In the process of heat exchange between two objects in a closed system, the amount of heat lost by a hot
body must be equal to amount of heat gained by a cold body.” That is, for closed systems
Heat lost = Heat gained
Here closed system means isolated system in which objects under consideration do not exchange heat with
its surroundings. When two objects at different temperature are mixed together, the hot object loses heat
while cold object gains heat until both attain same temperature. If there is no loss of heat to the
surrounding, then the quantity of heat lost by hot body is equal to quantity of heat gained by cold body.
Specific heat capacity of different substances is measured using this principle.
Principle of Calorimetry is an alternative form of the law of conservation of energy.

A student claims that when two bodies, not initially in thermal equilibrium, are placed in contact, the rise in
temperature of the cooler body must always equal the drop in temperature of the warmer. Do you agree? Is there
a principle of conservation of temperature or something like that?
Specific Heat Capacity of a Solid by Method of
Mixture
Principle of Calorimetry is used to determine the specific heat capacity of substance by the method of
mixture. Regnault's apparatus is used for this purpose.
First of all, mass of a dry and clean calorimeter with its stirrer is measured. About two-third volume of
calorimeter is filled with water. Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water is measured. Now, the
calorimeter is kept inside an insulated box. Then initial temperature of calorimeter with stirrer and water is
noted by inserting a thermometer.

Thermometer

Heat shield
Steam
Steam inlet
Steam
outlet Steam chamber
Solid ball

Calorimeter

[Fig. Determination of Specific heat capacity of solid]

[Fig. 17.4, Determination of Spefific heat capacity of solid]

At the mean time, a solid whose specific heat capacity is to be determined is taken into the steam chamber
of Regnault's apparatus as shown in figure above. When, steam is passed into the chamber, temperature of
solid starts to rise. After reaching the solid in thermal equilibrium (steady state) with steam, the
thermometer reading is taken. Now, solid is suddenly and carefully transferred in to the calorimeter by
keeping it just below the steam chamber. Then, the mixture is stirred gently until the temperature of the
mixture reaches to a constant value. Temperature of mixture is noted at this steady point and mass of
mixture is measured.
Let, mass of dry calorimeter with stirrer = m1
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water = m2
Initial temperature of calorimeter with stirrer = 1= Initial temperature of water
Steady temperature of solid = 2
Final temperature of mixture = 
Mass of mixture = m3
 Mass of water only (mw) = m2 – m1
Mass of solid only (ms) = m3 – m2
Decrease in temperature of solid = 2 – 
Increase in temperature of water and calorimeter =  – 1
Now heat lost by solid, Ql = ms S (2 – ) = (m3 – m2) S (2 – )
Where, S is the specific heat capacity of solid which is to be determined.
Similarly heat gained by water and Calorimeter is,
Qg = mw Sw ( –1) + m1 Sc ( – 1) = [(m2 – m1) Sw + m1 Sc] ( – 1)
Where, Sw and Sc are the specific heat capacity of water and calorimeter respectively, which are known.
During experiment, calorimeter is kept in insulating box so there is no loss of heat to the surroundings.
Therefore from principle of Calorimetry,
Heat lost (Ql) = Heat gained (Qg)
(m2 – m2) S (2 – ) = [(m2 – m1) Sw + m1Sc] ( – 1)
[(m2 – m1) Sw + m1Sc] ( – 1)
or, S=
(m3 – m2).(2 – )
Since all the terms on right hand side are measured, the value of S of solid can be calculated.

Newton's Law of Cooling

According to Newton's law of cooling “The rate at which hot liquid loses heat is directly proportional to the
difference of temperature between the liquid and its surroundings”. Mathematically,
dQ
– dt – 
Let us consider a hot liquid at temperature  is in contact with surroundings at temperature 0. Suppose
dQ
liquid loses dQ amount of heat in time dt. So that rate of loss of heat becomes – dt (–ve sign indicates the
loss of heat). According to Newton's law of cooling,
dQ
– dt – 0)
dQ
or, dt = – K ( – 0) . . . (1)
Where, K is proportionality constant whose value depends on nature of liquid and area of liquid exposed to
the surroundings.
If the temperature of liquid falls by d in time dt, then,
dQ = m S d . . . (2)
Where, m is mass and S is specific heat capacity of the liquid.
From equations (1) and (2) we get,
d
–m S dt = K– 0)
d K
or, = –mS dt
( – 0)  
Integrating both sides we get,
d K
 = – mS dt
( – 0)  
K
or, loge– 0) + C1 = –mS t + C2
  (0,0)
[Fig. Fall in temperature with time]
time (t)
–K
or, loge– 0) = mS t + C2 – C1 [Fig. 17.4, Fall in temperature with
  time]
–K
or, loge– 0) = mS t + C . . . (3) [ C = C2 – C1]
 
Here, C1 and C2 are integration constants. Equation (3) gives the straight line of the form y = m x + C as shown
in figure above. For any liquid allowed to cool, if graph between loge– 0) and time t gives straight line of
the form y = m x + C then it verifies the Newton's law of cooling. Newton's law of cooling may hold nearly
true for cooling of human body because human body cells contain almost liquid. Therefore questions like,
why do we eat more in winter than in summer?, Why must a small baby be wrapped up more by clothes than
a grown one? etc. can be explained from Newton's law of cooling.

Limitations of Newton’s Law of Cooling

 It can be applied only for small difference of temperature about (30 – 35)C between the liquid and its
surroundings. That means, it does not hold true for the cooling of very hot liquid.
 It cannot be applied for the gases and solids.
Law holds true only if surroundings is of still air.

Method of cooling can be used only for liquid but not for solid and gas, why?

By stirring, temperature can be made same throughout the liquid but it is impossible in the case of solid. In case of
gas, mass of gas is very small as compared to mass of calorimeter. In comparison to calorimeter, heat lost by gas is
negligible. Due to above mentioned reasons only the liquid is suitable for the method of cooling but not solid and
gas.

One can drink tea comparatively within a short time in winter than summer even if the temperature of the tea is
same in both cases, why?

Why is a baby wrapped tightly than a man in winter?

OR,Why a newly born baby should wrap more than grown up?

A substance takes 3 min in cooling from 50C to 45C and takes 5 min in cooling from 45C to 40C. What is
the temperature of its surroundings? How much time it will take to cool this substance from 40C to 35C?

Solution:
Case I: Time interval (t)1 = 3 min =3  60 S = 180 S
Temperature interval ()1 = (50 – 45) C = 5C
Temperature of substance (1) =  2  = 47.5C
50 + 45
 
Temperature of surroundings (0) =?
Using Newton's law of cooling,
()1
mS = k (1 – 0) . . . (1)
(t)1
Where m and S are mass and specific heat capacity of given substance and k is proportionality constant.
Case II: Time interval (t)2 = 5 min = 560 S = 300 S
Temperature interval ()2 = (45 – 40) C = 5C
Temperature of substance (2) = 2  = 42.5 °C
40 + 45
 
Using Newton's law of cooling,
()2
mS = k (2 – ) . . . (2)
(t)2
Dividing equations (1) by (2) and using given values;
(∆)1
mS (∆t)
1 k(1 – 0)
=
(∆)2 k (2 – 0)
mS (∆t)
2
 ()1 (t)2 (1 – 
or, × =
(t)1 ()2 –
5 5 47.5 – 0
or, 3 × 5 =
42.5 – 0
or, 5 (42.5 – 0) = 3 (47.5 – 0)
or, 212.5 – 5 0 = 142.5 – 3 0
or, 5 0 – 3 0 = 212.5 – 142.5 = 70
or, 2 0 = 70
70
or, 0 = 2 = 35°C
Therefore, temperature of surroundings, 0 = 35C
Case III:
Time interval (t)3 = ?
Temperature interval ()3 = (40 – 35) = 5C
Temperature of substance (3)=  2  = 37.5C
40 + 35
 
Temperature of surrounding () = 35C
Using Newton's law of cooling,
()3
mS = k (3 – 0)
(t)3
5
or, m S = k (37.5 – 35) . . . (3)
(t)3
Dividing equations (2) by equation (3)
(∆)2
mS (∆t)
2 k (2 – 0)
=
(∆)3 k (3 – 0)
mS (∆t)
3

( (t)3 2 – 0
or, × =
t ()3 3 – 0
5 (t)3 42.5 – 35
or, 5 × 5 = 37.5 – 35

or, (t)3 = 52.5 = 5 × 3 = 15 min

7.5
 
Hence, the temperature of surrounding is 35° C and time required to cool from 40°C to 35°C is 15 min

Specific Heat of a Liquid by the Method of Cooling

Newton's law of cooling can be used to determine the specific heat capacity of liquid. It is based on the
principle that when two liquids are cooled under identical conditions their rates of cooling are equal.
 T3

T1 T2

Inlet

Constant temperature enclosure

A B

Outlet

[Fig. 17.5, Apparatus for the determination

[Fig. Apparatus of specific heat of
for the determination ofliquid by the
specific method
heat of cooling]
of liquid by the method of cooling]

Firstly, two identical, clean and dry calorimeters (let A and B) with their
stirrers are weighted separately. Calorimeter B is filled with hot water to
a certain volume and calorimeter A is filled up to same level with
experimental liquid at same temperature. Again mass of calorimeters 1
with their contents are measured separately. After, this both calorimeters
are kept inside same cooling apparatus (common surroundings) as
2
shown in figure above. Temperature reading of cooling apparatus is
noted by thermometer T3 and it is maintained constant. Liquid

The temperature readings of experimental liquid and water in their

t1 t2
respective calorimeters are taken for each interval of 1 minute by
thermometers T1 and T2. Cooling curves for each are plotted as shown
in figure. Here, t1 and t2 represent the time required to cool through (1 Time (t)

– for calorimeter A and B respectively. Suppose, [Fig. , Cooling curve for determination of specific
[Fig. 17.6, Cooling curve for determination of
heat of liquid]
Mass of dry and clean calorimeter A with its stirrer = m 1 specific heat of liquid]
Mass of dry and clean calorimeter B with its stirrer = m 2
Mass of calorimeter B with stirrer and water = m 3
Mass of calorimeter A with stirrer and liquid = m 4
Mass of water alone (mw) = m3 –m2
Mass of liquid alone ( ml) = m4 – m1
Let Sw, Sc and S be the respective values of specific heat capacity of water, material of calorimeter and that
of liquid which is to be determined.
Here, both liquids are allowed to cool from same temperature in the common surroundings and also time is
taken for equal fall in temperature to each. Therefore, from Newton's law of cooling rate of loss of heat by
each calorimeter must be same.

i.e., dQA = dQB

 dt   dt 
or, msdliquid + ms.dA = msdwater + msdB
 dt   dt   dt   dt 
( – (1 – 2) (1 – 2) (1 – 2)
or, ml S + m1Sc t = m w Sw t + m2Sc t
t 1 2 2
 (mlS + m1Sc) mwSw + m2Sc
or, t1 = t2
t1
or, ml S + m1Sc = (mw Sw + m2Sc)t
2

t1
or, ml S = (mw Sw + m2Sc)t – m1Sc
2

(mwSw + m2Sc) t1 m1Sc

or, S= ml t2 – ml
Since all parameters on R.H.S are known, the value of specific heat capacity of liquid S can be calculated.

Change of Phase
Every substances found around us may fall under either of three states (or phases); solid, liquid and gas. If
the intermolecular space is smaller then, the objet remains in solid state. For sufficiently large
intermolecular space, object remains in gas state and for moderate value, the object remains in liquid state.
The phase of substance is determined by the condition of temperature and pressure exerted to the object. To
change the phase, it requires the change of pressure or change in heat content or both.

Gas

latent heat of
vaporisation Melting (fusion)
latent heat of Solid
sublimation Liquid
freezing (solidification)

Solid
latent heat of liquid Gas
fusion

[Fig.18.1,
[Fig. Change of state
Change of matter]
of state of matter]
Either the heat is supplied or is dragged out to change the phase of matter. When heat is continuously
supplied to solid phase of an object, the temperature of object goes on increasing up to a particular point called
melting or freezing point. Then solid starts to convert into liquid and temperature remains constant until all
the solid converts into liquid even though heat is supplied continuously. The total amount of heat used to
convert the state of matter from the solid to liquid and which is hidden from thermometer reading is called
latent heat of melting or latent heat of fusion. Similarly heat used to change the state of matter from liquid to gas
and which remains hidden from thermometer reading is called latent heat of vaporization. Latent heat is also
called heat of transformation. The temperature at which solid changes into liquid is called melting point and
temperature at which liquid changes into gas is called boiling point. Different objects have different values of
melting point and different values of boiling point. Even for a single object, melting point and boiling point
vary according to pressure exerted on it.
While changing phase of object, latent heat is used in two purposes; one to overcome external atmospheric
pressure to create a space for expansion
(called external latent heat), the next which is
used to reduce the intermolecular force of
attraction (called internal latent heat).
External latent heat is much smaller than
liquid vaporizing
internal latent heat. Both, heat required to (boiling)
work against intermolecular force of liquid + gass
attraction and heat required to create space
for expansion in case of change of phase
from liquid to gas are much greater than
those in case of change of phase from solid to solid+liquid
liquid. Therefore latent heat for vaporization
latent latent heat of
is always greater than latent heat for fusion. heat of vaporization
fusion
Latent heat is not used to change velocity
Heat
and hence kinetic energy of molecules. [Fig. Nature of temperature versus heat graph]
[Fig. 18.2, Change of state with latent heat]
Hence during change of phase, supplied heat
causes increase of potential energy but not of kinetic energy of molecules. Therefore, heat can also be
considered as potential energy.

If you add heat to an object, does necessarily increase its temperature? Justify your answer.

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is defined as the heat required to change the state of unit mass of
substance from solid to liquid at its melting point. Experimentally,
Latent heat (Q)  mass of substance (m)
or, Q=Lm
Q
or, L=m
Where, L is the specific latent heat of fusion of given substance and its value depends on nature of
substance and system of units used.
SI unit of Q J
Here, SI unit of L = SI unit of m = Kg = J/kg = J kg–1
CGS unit of Q Cal
CGS unit of L = CGS unit of m = g = cal/gm = cal gm-1
1 cal 1 × 4.2 J
Again,1 cal/gm = 1 gm = 1 = 4.2 × 1000 J/kg= 4200 J/kg = 4200 J kg–1
1 × 1000kg
Specific latent of fusion of ice is 80 cal/gm in CGS and 80 × 4200 J/Kg (= 3.36 × 10 5 J/Kg) in SI. This means
80 calories of heat is required to convert 1 gram of ice (at its melting point) into water or, 3.36 × 10 5 Joule of
heat is required for 1 kg of ice for same phenomenon.
Specific Latent of Vaporization
Specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to convert the state of unit
mass of substance from liquid to vapour at its boiling point.
Experimentally, Latent heat (Q) mass of substance (m)
or, Q = Lm
Q
or, L=m

Where, L is specific latent heat of vaporization of given substance and its value depends on nature of material
and system of units used. SI unit of L is J/kg and CGS unit L is cal/gm. Also, 1 cal/gm = 4200 J/kg.
Water has specific latent of vaporization 540 cal/gm in CGS and 540 × 4200 J/kg = 2.26 × 10 6 J/kg in SI.
Hence, 1 gm of water takes 540cal heats to convert from liquid state to gas state at its boiling point whereas
1kg water takes 2.26 × 106 J heat for the same phenomenon.

How much heat is required to convert 10 gm ice at–10C into steam at 100C? (Sp. heat capacity of ice 0.5
cal/gmC, Sp. heat capacity of water is 1 cal/gm °C, latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 cal/gm, latent heat
of fusion of ice is 80 cal/gm)
Solution:
Mass of ice (mi) = 10 gm
Sp. heat of ice (Si) = 0.5 cal/gmC
Latent heat of fusion of ice (Li) = 80 cal/gm
Latent heat of vaporization of water (L w) = 540 cal/gm
Specific heat capacity of water (S w) = 1 cal/gmC
Heat required (Q) =?
100°C
–10°C 0°C 0°C 100°C

10 g
10gm 10 g
10gm 10 g
10gm 10 g
10gm 10 g
10gm
   
Ice Q1 Ice Q2 Water Q3 Water Q4
Steam

o
Now, heat required to change temperature of 10 gm ice from –10C to 0 C is given by
Q1 = mi Si 10 × 0.5 × [0 – (–10)] = 50 cal
Amount of heat required to convert ice at 0C into water at 0C is given by
Q2 = mi Li = 10 × 80 = 800 cal
Amount of heat required to convert water at 0C to water at 100C is given by
Qmi Sw × 1 × 100 = 1000 cal
Amount of heat required to convert water at 100C to steam at 100C is given by
Q4 = mi Lw = 10 × 540 = 5400 cal
Therefore, the total amount of heat required is given by
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +Q4
= (50 + 800 + 1000 + 5400) cal
= 7250 cal= 7250 × 4.2 J= 30450 J
Hence, 30450 J heat is required.

From what height a block of ice must be dropped in order that it may completely melt. It is assumed that 20% of
2
energy of fall is retained by ice. [L = 80 cal/gm, g = 10 m/S ]
Solution:
2
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/S
5
Latent heat of fusion of ice (L) = 3.3610 J/kg
 Suppose h be the height from where a block of ice is dropped so that it can melt by taking 20% of its loss in
P.E. ( = m g h) as latent heat. Let m is mass of ice and g is acceleration due to gravity.
According to question,
m L = 20% of m g h
20
or, L= 100 × g × h
L × 100 80 × 100 × 4200
or, h = g × 20 = 10 × 20 =168000 m
Hence the block of ice should be dropped from the height of 168000 m.

What is the result of mixing 10 gm of ice at 0C into 15 gm of water at 20C in a vessel of mass 100 gm and
specific heat 0.09 cal/gmC? (Sp. heat capacity of water 1 cal/gm °C)
Solution:
Mass of ice (mi) = 10 gm
Mass of water (mw) = 15 gm
Mass of vessel (mv) = 100 gm
Temperature of ice (i) = 0C
Temperature of vessel with water () = 20C
Specific heat of water (Sw) =1 cal/gC Latent heat of fusion of ice (L i) = 80 cal/g
Specific heat of vessel (Sv) = 0.09 cal/gC
Now, Heat lost by water and vessel when temperature decreases from 20C to 0C is,
Q1 = mw Sw ( – 0) + mv Sv ( – 0)
=15 × 1(20 – 0) + 100 × 0.09 × (20 – 0)
= (300 + +180) = 480 cal
Heat required to melt 10 gm of ice is,
Q = mi Li = 10 × 80 = 800 cal
Here, Q Q, This suggests total ice cannot melt and whole mixture remains at 0C. If m be the amount of
ice that melts by Q amount of heat then,
Q 1 = m Li
Q1 480
or, m = L = 80 = 6 gm
i
Hence mixture contains (10 – 6) = 4 gm of ice and
(15 + 6) =21 gm of water all at 0C

A mixture of 500 gm of water and 100 gm of ice at 0C are kept in a copper calorimeter of mass 200 gm. How
much steam from the boiler be passed to the mixture so that temperature of the mixture reaches to 40C?
Solution:
Mass of water (mw) = 500 gm
Mass of ice (mi) = 100 gm
Mass of calorimeter (mc) = 200 gm
Initial temperature of steam (s) = 100C
Initial temperature of water, ice and calorimeter = 0C
Latent heat of ice (Li) = 80 cal/gm
Specific heat of water (Sw) = 1 cal/gmC
Specific heat of calorimeter (S c) = 0.092 cal/gmC
Latent heat of steam (Ls) = 540 cal/gm
Final temperature of mixture (m) = 40C
Mass of steam (ms) =?
Now total heat gained by water, ice and calorimeter is,
 Qg = (mS)w+mi Li+(mS)i+(mS)c
= mwSw(m– 0)+ miLi+ miSw(m – 0)+ mc Sc(m – 0)
= 500  1  (40 – 0) + 100  80 + 100  1 
(40 – 0) + 200  0.092  (40 - 0)
= 32736 cal
Total heat lost by steam in cooling from 100C to 40C is,
QL = msLs+msSw(s–m) = ms540+ms1(100 – 40) = 600 m s
From principle of Calorimetry,
Heat lost (QL) = Heat gained (Qg)
or, 600 ms = 32736
or, ms = 54.56 gm
Hence required value of mass of steam is 54.56 gm.
50 gm of ice at –6C is dropped into water at 0C. How many grams of water freeze? (Sp. heat capacity of ice =
–1 –1
2000 J kg C , latent heat of fusion of ice 80 cal/gm)
Solution:
Initial temperature of ice (1) = – 6C
Final temperature of ice (f) = 0C
Mass of ice (mi) = 50 gm
Sp. heat of ice (Si) = 2000 J/kg C
Mass of water that can freeze (m w) =?
Heat gained by ice at –6C when it gets converted to ice at 0C is given by
Q1 = m S  1000 × 2000 × [0 – (–6)] = 600 J
50
 
The heat lost by water during freezing is given by
5
Q2 = m L= mw (3.36 × 10 )
But according to question,Q 1 = Q2
5
or, 600J = mw 3.36 × 10
600 –3
or, mw = 3.36 × 105 = 1.786 × 10 kg
–3
Hence 1.786 × 10 kg water freezes.

Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice by the Method of Mixture

The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is defined as the heat
required to change the state of unit mass of ice into water at its
melting point (i.e., at 0°C). Method of mixture is adopted Thermometer

and principle of Calorimetry is used to determine specific Stirrer

latent heat of fusion of ice.
Firstly a clean and dry calorimeter with its stirrer is Cotton (or wool)
2 Ice
weighted. About 3 volume of calorimeter is filled with
water. Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water is Copper calorimeter
measured. Then calorimeter is placed inside insulating
Wooden box
wooden box as shown in figure. Initial temperature of the
system is noted by inserting a thermometer. After this
some dried pieces of melting ice (dried with the help of [Fig. Determination of latent heat of fusion of ice]
[Fig. 18.3, Determination of latent
heat of fusion of ice]
blotting paper) are poured in to the calorimeter. Then the mixture is stirred well until ice is completely
melted. At this moment thermometer shows constant reading for a while. Then temperature is noted as
final temperature of the mixture. Now calorimeter is taken out from wooden box and then mass of mixture
is measured.
Now suppose,
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer = m1
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water = m2
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer, water and ice = m3
Initial temperature of calorimeter with stirrer = 1°C = Initial temperature of water
Temperature of ice = 0°C
Final temperature of mixture = 2C
Therefore, mass of water only m w = m2 – m1
Mass of ice only mi = m3 – m2
Now using principle of Calorimetry
Heat lost by calorimeter along with stirrer and water = Heat gained by ice.
or, (m S)c m S)w = Heat gained by ice (to change the phase + to reach temperature C from 0C)
or, m1 Sc (1 –2) + mw Sw (–  mi Li + mi Sw (– 
or, mi Li = (m1Sc + mw Sw) (1 – ) – mI Sw 
(m1Sc + mwSw) ( – )
or, Li = mi – Sw  
Where, Sc and Sw are specific heat capacities of calorimeter and water respectively which are given in table.
Li is specific latent heat of fusion of ice which is to be determined. All the parameters on right hand side are
measured so the value of Li can be calculated.
Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Steam by the Method of Mixture
Specific latent heat of steam is defined as the amount of heat required to convert unit mass of water into steam at its
boiling point. Method of mixture is adopted and principle of Calorimetry is used to determine specific latent
heat of steam.

Insulating materials

Wooden box

[Fig. Determination of Latent heat of steam]

First of all, a dry and clean calorimeter with its stirrer is weighted. Then about two-third volume of
calorimeter is filled with water. Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water is measured. Now the
calorimeter is placed inside insulating wooden box. Initial temperature of calorimeter and water is noted by
inserting a thermometer as shown in figure above. At the meantime steam is produced in a boiler.
Temperature of steam is noted at its steady value. After this steam is supplied in to the calorimeter for some
time and its supply is cut off. Now, temperature of mixture is noted and calorimeter is taken out from the
box. Mass of mixture is measured.

Here suppose,
Mass of dry calorimeter with stirrer = m1
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer and water = m2
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer, water and steam = m3
Initial temperature of calorimeter with stirrer = 1 = Initial temperature of water
Initial temperature of steam = 2
Final temperature of mixture = 3
Therefore, mass of water alone, mw = m2 – m1
Mass of steam alone, ms = m3 – m2
Now, Heat gained by calorimeter, stirrer and water
Qg = (mS)calorimeter + (mS)water
or, Qg = m1Sc (3 – 1) + mw Sw (3 –  = (m1Sc + mw Sw) (3 – 1)
Where, Sc and Sw be the specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter and water respectively which are
given in table.
Similarly heat lost by the steam,
Ql = Heat lost by steam (to change the phase + to reduce the temperature from  to 3)
or, Ql = (m L)steam + ms Sw (2 – 3) = ms × L + ms Sw (2 – 3)
Where, L is the specific latent heat of the steam which is to be determined.
From the principle of calorimetry,
Heat lost by the steam (Ql) = Heat gained by calorimeter with stirrer and water (Q g)
or, ms L + ms Sw (2 – 3) = (m1 Sc + mw Sw) (3 – 1)
or, ms L = (m1Sc + mw Sw) (3 – 1) – ms Sw (2 – 3)
(m1Sc + mwSw)(3 – 1)
or, L= ms – Sw (2 – 3)
Here, all parameters on R.H.S are measured. Therefore value of latent heat of steam L can be calculated.

Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point

Boiling (Ebullition)
The process of conversion of liquid into gaseous state at constant temperature is called boiling. During
boiling, liquid takes certain amount of heat from surroundings as latent heat. Boiling is fast and noisy
process. The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the external (atmospheric) pressure on its surface. Therefore boiling point is the function of
pressure and hence the function of altitude. The boiling point of liquid increases with increase in pressure
and it decreases with decrease in pressure. That is boiling point of liquid decreases with increase in altitude
and it increases with decrease in altitude. For example, water boils at lower temperature at top of Mt.
Everest than at sea level, rice cooks faster in rice cooker than in open pot. While cooking rice in a pressure
cooker, steam produced gets trapped over water surface and creates greater pressure inside cooker. This
causes increases in boiling point of water (generally above 120C). Water which boils at higher temperature
than its boiling point gives heat to rice at greater rate. As a result rice cooks faster.

Evaporation
The slow and silent process of conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.
During evaporation, molecules from free surface of liquid drag heat from neighboring molecules and
convert into vapour. This causes decrease in temperature of remaining molecules of liquid. This effect is
called cooling effect. The following factors affect the rate of evaporation of liquid.
1. Nature of liquid; Rate of evaporation for volatile liquid is more than that for non-volatile liquid.
2. Wind; rate of evaporation  speed of wind
1
3. Humidity of air; rate of evaporation Humidity%

 Temperature of liquid; evaporation increases with increase in temperature of liquid.

5. Surface area of exposure of liquid to the surroundings; rate of evaporation surface area of exposure
of liquid.
6. Pressure over liquid; evaporation increases with decrease in pressure over the liquid.
Some examples of Evaporations
 A person feels cooling when he pours a little sprit on his hand.
 It takes longer time to dry wet cloths in rainy summer than in sunny winter.
 We feel cold only while coming out in open air after having bath in a bathroom but not inside bathroom.
 We feel cold when electric fan is operated in a closed room.
 We feel cool in mouth when we eat halls.

Differences between Evaporation and Boiling:

Evaporation Boiling
1. This is the silent and slow process of 1. This is the fast and noisy process of
conversion of liquid into vapour. conversion of liquid into vapour.
2. This occurs at free surface of liquid. 2. This occurs throughout the volume of the
liquid.
3. Cooling effect is observed. 3. No cooling effect is observed.
4. This takes place at all temperature. 4. This takes place at fixed temperature
(boiling point).

Effect of Pressure on Melting Point of Substance

Melting point of solid or freezing point of liquid is greatly affected by change in value of pressure applied
on it. For example;
1. For the substances like ice and cast iron whose volume decreases on liquefaction, their melting point
decreases with increase in pressure. Melting point of ice decreases by 0.0072C for every 1 atm. increase
in pressure.
There is an avalanche when large amount of snow collects at a location.
A large iceberg melts at the base but not at the top.
 When large amount of snow collects at a location due to greater mass from above, lower portion feels
high pressure. Increase in pressure reduces the melting point of snow and snow converts into water
from lower portion. This water acts like lubricant so that upper part of snow accelerates from higher to
lower height. The continuation of process takes the form of an avalanche.
2. For the substances like wax, lead etc whose volume increases on liquefaction, their melting point
increases with increase in pressure.
When substance expands on melting, increase in pressure tries to decrease its volume. That means,
increase in pressure opposes the melting of substance. As a result, more energy is needed for solid to be
in liquid state. The supply of more energy (heat) causes melting point to increase. While if a substance
contracts after melting, increase in pressure also supports to decrease the volume of substance. As a
result, less energy (heat) is required for the contraction which is sufficient to change the state. Hence
melting point of substance decreases.

Why do we feel cold when electric fan is operated in a closed room? Is there any fall in temperature of the room?

When electric fan is operated in a closed room, the air molecules starts moving faster. These faster moving
molecules cause increase in rate of evaporation from our body. As a result, rate of loss of heat from our body
increases and we feel cold. But there is no fall in temperature of the room rather it increases due to increase in
kinetic energy of air molecules.

Animal protrude their tongue during summer, why?

Most of the body part of animal like dogs is covered by fur and they have less number of sweat glands. So they do
not perspire from their skin. But by keeping their tongue out, water molecules, saliva etc gets evaporated by taking
latent heat from their tongue. As a result of this, animal's body loses heat and they feel relief from overheating
their body during summer.

Why it takes longer time to dry wet cloths in rainy summer than in sunny winter?

Why do we feel cold when we spray perfume on our body?

Why do you feel cool in mouth when you eat halls?

Regelation (Re=again + gelation = freezing)

The phenomenon of melting of ice under the application of pressure
(compression) and freezing after the removal of applied pressure is
called regelation. Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday. This Ice
phenomenon can be explained with the help of following example;
Copper
wire
1. When a fine metallic wire with a heavy load hangs over a block of
ice as in figure above, the wire passes through the block of ice
without separating ice into two pieces. Because of the weight on the
string, ice gets more pressure from wire and the melting point of ice Lead
in contact portion decreases. As a result, ice melts there by taking
latent heat from surrounding ice and wire goes deep. But when, wire [Fig.18.5,
Regelation]
[Fig. Regelation]
goes deeper, water above wire freezes by releasing heat to the
surrounding ice. This is due to removal of pressure and increase in melting point. Finally wire emerges
from ice. In this way ice remain in a single block but wire passes through it.
2. When two pieces of ice are pressed against each other and released, they stick together forming a single
piece.
The pressing against each other causes the increase in pressure in the contact portion of ice so melting
point decreases to that portion. As a result ice in contact portion starts melting taking latent heat from
remaining portion. When pressure is removed melting point again increases to 0 C so the melted ice
again freezes and two pieces of ice join to form single piece.
Explain why two pieces of ice stick when pressed together?

A large iceberg melts at the base but not at the top, why?

Phase Diagram and Triple Point

P(atm) P (atm)

liquid
Tc
water B
solid
1
Ice 5.11
0.006 Tripple point
Triple point steam
vapour

O T(°C) T (°C)
0.01 100 – 56.6
(a) (b)

[Fig. 21.3, (a) PT diagram for water, (b) PT diagram for carbondioxide.]
[Fig. (a) PT diagram for water, (b) PT diagram for carbondioxide]
The solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter are called phases of matter. Three dimensional graphs
(P -V-T) give the phase diagram. Moreover the phase of the matter can be well studied with the help of a
two dimensional (P-T graph) diagram. (P-T) diagram of the matter is called phase diagram. Therefore phase
diagram can be defined as the two dimensional pressure-temperature (P-T graph) diagram with three
curves (fusion curve, vaporization curve, sublimation curve) which clearly explains the different phases
(solid, liquid and gas) of a matter. The phase diagram of a substance is obtained by drawing P-T curves as
shown in figure above.
 Vaporization curve (steam line)
 Fusion curve (Ice line)
 Sublimation curve (Hoar frost line)
1. Vaporization curve (steam line): The graph showing variation of boiling point of a substance with the
pressure is called vaporization curve. At every point on vaporization curve, the substance in liquid state
co-exists in equilibrium with its vapour. With the value of pressure and temperature above the
vaporization curve, substance exists in liquid state whereas with the value of temperature and pressure
below vaporization curve, the substance exists in gaseous state. When the substance changes its phase
from liquid to vapour, it crosses the vaporization curve at a point where it takes latent heat for phase
change.
2. Fusion curve (Ice line): The graph showing the variation of the melting point of solid with pressure is
called fusion curve (Ice line). At each point on the curve, the substance in solid state co-exists in
equilibrium with the substance in liquid state. Matter is totally in solid state above fusion curve (ice line)
whereas it remains in liquid state below the fusion curve. When substance changes from solid phase to
liquid phase it crosses the fusion line at a point where it takes latent heat for the phase change.
3. Sublimation curve (Hoar-frost line): At very low temperature and pressure, substances are found to
 sublimate. For example, solid CO2 (dry ice) sublimates even at atmospheric pressure. A curve which
shows the variation of sublimation point with pressure is called sublimation curve or hoar-frost line. At
each point on the curve the substance in solid state coexist in equilibrium with substance in gaseous
state. Matter is totally in solid state above sublimation curve whereas it remains in gaseous state below
the curve. When substance changes directly from solid phase to gaseous phase, it crosses the
sublimation line where it takes required latent heat for phase change.

Triple Point
Triple point of a substance is the point in P-T diagram representing a particular temperature and pressure at which all
three states (solid state, liquid state and gaseous state) of that substance can co-exist.
In other words the triple point of a substance is the point in its P-T diagram at which vaporization curve,
fusion curve and sublimation curve intersect each other.
For water triple point is (P, T) = (0.006 atm., 0.01°C) which is shown in figure 11.11 (a).
For CO2 triple point is (P, T) = (5.11 atm., –56.6°C) which is shown in figure 11.11( b).
Note: Useful Information of Triple Point:
i. Phase curves meet at a point to give triple point but do not intersect to from an area.
ii. The negative slope of the ice line for water indicates that melting point of ice decreases with increase of
pressure.
iii. For CO2 which expands on melting. The triple point of such substances is below its melting point at
normal pressure and all three curves have positive slopes.
To prove that all the three phase lines meet at single point i.e., there exist single triple point
Suppose vaporization curve (steam line AB), sublimation curve (hoar frost line EF), and fusion curve (ice
line CD) cannot meet at a single point and give more than one triple
P
points as shown in figure . This produces a triangular region EAC.
D
Then according to the definition of triple point, substance in triangular
region must be in solid state as it is above fusion line, must be in vapor
B
state as it is below sublimation line and must be in liquid state as it is
E
above vaporization curve. This shows that a substance exists in solid, A
C
liquid and gaseous states simultaneously. This is impossible. Hence F
there exists only one triple point for a substance. Melting point and
boiling point of a substance are greatly affected by the variation of pressure T(°C)

but triple point has no such variation. Therefore generally triple point is used [Fig.[Fig. Unique value of triple point]
21.4,Unique value of tripple point ]
as standard fixed point in modern thermometry.

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