Physics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 12: Thermodynamics

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Physics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 12

THERMODYNAMICS
The branch dealing with measurement of temperature is called thremometry and the devices
used to measure temperature are called thermometers.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy which flows from a higher temperature body to
a lower temperature body when they are placed in contact.
Heat or thermal energy of a body is the sum of kinetic energies of all its constituent particles,
on account of translational, vibrational and rotational motion.
The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J).
The practical unit of heat energy is calorie.
1 cal = 4.18 J
1 calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
Mechanical energy or work (W) can be converted into heat (Q) by 1 W = JQ
where J = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat.
J is a conversion factor (not a physical quantity) and its value is 4.186 J/cal.
Temperature
Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. A device which is used
to measure the temperature, is called a thermometer.
Highest possible temperature achieved in laboratory is about 108 while lowest possible
temperature attained is 10-8 K.
Branch of Physics dealing with production and measurement temperature close to 0 K is known
as cryagenics, while that deaf with the measurement of very high temperature is called pyromet
Temperature of the core of the sun is 107 K while that of its surface 6000 K.
NTP or STP implies 273.15 K (0°C = 32°F).
Different Scale of Temperature
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1. Celsius Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting point ice is taken as 0°C and the
boiling point of water as 100°C and space between these two points is divided into 100
equal parts
2. Fahrenheit Scale In this scale of temperature, the melt point of ice is taken as 32°F and
the boiling point of water as 211 and the space between these two points is divided into
180 equal parts.
3. Kelvin Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting pouxl ice is taken as 273 K and
the boiling point of water as 373 K the space between these two points is divided into
100 equal pss
Relation between Different Scales of Temperatures
Thermometric Property
The property of an object which changes with temperature, is call thermometric property.
Different thermometric properties thermometers have been given below
(i) Pressure of a Gas at Constant Volume
where p, p100. and pt, are pressure of a gas at constant volume 0°C, 100°C and t°C.
A constant volume gas thermometer can measure tempera from – 200°C to 500°C.
(ii) Electrical Resistance of Metals
Rt = R0(1 + αt + βt2)
where α and β are constants for a metal.
As β is too small therefore we can take
Rt = R0(1 + αt)
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where, α = temperature coefficient of resistance and

R0 and Rt, are electrical resistances at 0°C and t°C.
where R1 and R2 are electrical resistances at temperatures t1 and t2.
where R100 is the resistance at 100°C.
Platinum resistance thermometer can measure temperature from —200°C to 1200°C.
(iii) Length of Mercury Column in a Capillary Tube
lt = l0(1 + αt)
where α = coefficient of linear expansion and l0, lt are lengths of mercury column at 0°C and
t°C.
Thermo Electro Motive Force
When two junctions of a thermocouple are kept at different temperatures, then a thermo-emf is
produced between the junctions, which changes with temperature difference between the
junctions. Thermo-emf
E = at + bt2
where a and b are constants for the pair of metals.
Unknown temperature of hot junction when cold junction is at 0°C.
Where E100 is the thermo-emf when hot junction is at 100°C.
A thermo-couple thermometer can measure temperature from —200°C to 1600°C.
Thermal Equilibrium
When there is no transfer of heat between two bodies in contact, the the bodies are called in
thermal equilibrium.
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with thirtli body C, then bodies A
and B will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Triple Point of Water
The values of pressure and temperature at which water coexists inequilibrium in all three states
of matter, i.e., ice, water and vapour
called triple point of water.
Triple point of water is 273 K temperature and 0.46 cm of mere pressure.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass the substance through 1°C is
called its specific heat.
It is denoted by c or s.
Its SI unit is joule/kilogram-°C'(J/kg-°C). Its dimensions is [L2T-2θ-1].
The specific heat of water is 4200 J kg-1°C-1 or 1 cal g-1 C-1, which high compared with most
other substances.
Gases have two types of specific heat
1. The specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv).

2. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cr).
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is greater than specific heat constant volume (CV), i.e.,
Cp > CV .
For molar specific heats Cp – CV = R

where R = gas constant and this relation is called Mayer’s formula.
The ratio of two principal sepecific heats of a gas is represented by γ.
The value of y depends on atomicity of the gas.
Amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of any substance is given by
Q = mcΔt
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 where, m = mass of the substance,

 c = specific heat of the substance and
 Δt = change in temperature.
Thermal (Heat) Capacity
Heat capacity of any body is equal to the amount of heat energy required to increase its
temperature through 1°C.
Heat capacity = me
where c = specific heat of the substance of the body and m = mass of the body.
Its SI unit is joule/kelvin (J/K).
Water Equivalent
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is same as the heat capacity of the body. It is
denoted by W.
W = ms = heat capacity of the body.
Latent Heat
The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of state
is called latent heat.
Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by
Q = mL
where m = mass of the substance and L = latent heat.
Its unit is cal/g or J/kg and its dimension is [L2T-2].
For water at its normal boiling point or condensation temperature (100°C), the latent heat of
vaporisation is
L = 540 cal/g
= 40.8 kJ/ mol
= 2260 kJ/kg
For water at its normal freezing temperature or melting point (0°C), the latent heat of fusion is
L = 80 cal/ g = 60 kJ/mol
= 336 kJ/kg
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It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling was 100°C gets converted to
water at 100°C, then it gives out 536 heat. So, it is clear that steam at 100°C has more heat than
wat 100°C (i.e., boiling of water).
After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very This is because the snow
absorbs the heat from the atmosphere to down. So, in the mountains, when snow falls, one does
not feel too but when ice melts, he feels too cold.
There is more shivering effect of ice cream on teeth as compare that of water (obtained from
ice). This is because when ice cream down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.
Melting
Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant temperature is melting.
Evaporation
Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperatures (even below boiling point) is called
evaporation.
Boiling
When a liquid is heated gradually, at a particular temperature saturated vapour pressure of the
liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure, now bubbles of vapour rise to the surface d
liquid. This process is called boiling of the liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid boils, is called boiling point The boiling point of water
increases with increase in pre sure decreases with decrease in pressure.
Sublimation
The conversion of a solid into vapour state is called sublimation.
Hoar Frost
The conversion of vapours into solid state is called hoar fr..
Calorimetry
This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the measorette heat. The heat is usually
measured in calories or kilo calories.
Principle of Calorimetry
When a hot body is mixed with a cold body, then heat lost by ha is equal to the heat gained by
cold body.
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Heat lost = Heat gain
Thermal Expansion
Increase in size on heating is called thermal expansion. There are three types of thermal
expansion.
1. Expansion of solids
2. Expansion of liquids
3. Expansion of gases
Expansion of Solids
Three types of expansion -takes place in solid.
Linear Expansion Expansion in length on heating is called linear expansion.
Increase in length
l2 = l1(1 + α Δt)
where, ll and l2 are initial and final lengths,Δt = change in temperature and α = coefficient of
linear expansion.
Coefficient of linear expansion
α = (Δl/l * Δt)
where 1= real length and Δl = change in length and
Δt= change in temperature.
Superficial Expansion Expansion in area on heating is called superficial expansion.
Increase in area A2 = A1(1 + β Δt)
where, A1 and A2 are initial and final areas and β is a coefficient of superficial expansion.
Coefficient of superficial expansion
β = (ΔA/A * Δt)
where. A = area, AA = change in area and At = change in temperature.
Cubical Expansion Expansion in volume on heating is called cubical expansion.
Increase in volume V2 = V1(1 + γΔt)

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where V1 and V2 are initial and final volumes and γ is a coefficient of cubical expansion.
Coefficient of cubical expansion
where V = real volume, AV =change in volume and Δt = change in temperature.

Relation between coefficients of linear, superficial and cubical expansions
β = 2α and γ = 3α
Or α:β:γ = 1:2:3
2. Expansion of Liquids
In liquids only expansion in volume takes place on heating.
(i) Apparent Expansion of Liquids When expansion of th container containing liquid, on

heating is not taken into accoun then observed expansion is called apparent expansion of
liquids.
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid
(ii) Real Expansion of Liquids When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating
is also taken into account, then observed expansion is called real expansion of liquids.
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
Both, yr, and ya are measured in °C-1.
We can show that yr = ya + yg
where, yr, and ya are coefficient of real and apparent expansion of liquids and y g is coefficient
of cubical expansion of the container.
Anamalous Expansion of Water
When temperature of water is increased from 0°C, then its vol decreases upto 4°C, becomes
minimum at 4°C and then increases. behaviour of water around 4°C is called, anamalous
expansion water.
3. Expansion of Gases
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There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases
(i) Volume Coefficient (γv) At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit
volume per degree celsius is called volume coefficient.
where V0, V1, and V2 are volumes of the gas at 0°C, t1°C and t2°C.
(ii) Pressure Coefficient (γp) At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit pressure per
degree celsius is called pressure coefficient.
where p0, p1 and p2 are pressure of the gas at 0°C, t1° C and t2° C.
Practical Applications of Expansion
1. When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the end of two rails.
2. The transmission cables are not tightly fixed to the poles.
3. The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of
wheel.
4. A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by warming the
neck of the bottles.
Important Points
 Due to increment in its time period a pendulum clock becomes slow in summer and will
lose time.
 Loss of time in a time period ΔT =(1/2)α ΔθT
∴ Loss of time in any given time interval t can be given by
ΔT =(1/2)α Δθt
 At some higher temperature a scale will expand and scale reading will be lesser than true
values, so that
true value = scale reading (1 + α Δt)
Here, Δt is the temperature difference.
 However, at lower temperature scale reading will be more or true value will be less.
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The branch of physics which deals with the study of transformation of heat energy into other
forms of energy and vice-versa.
A thermodynamical system is said to be in thermal equilibrium when macroscopic variables

(like pressure, volume, temperature, mass, composition etc) that characterise the system do not
change with time.
Thermodynamical System
An assembly of an extremely large number of particles whose state can be expressed in terms
of pressure, volume and temperature, is called thermodynamic system.
Thermodynamic system is classified into the following three systems
(i) Open System It exchange both energy and matter with surrounding.
(ii) Closed System It exchanges only energy (not matter) with surroundings.
(iii) Isolated System It exchanges neither energy nor matter with the surrounding.
A thermodynamic system is not always in equilibrium. For example, a gas allowed to expand
freely against vacuum. Similary, a mixture of petrol vapour and air, when ignited by a spark is
not an equilibrium state. Equilibrium is acquired eventually with time.
Thermodynamic Parameters or Coordinates or Variables
The state of thermodynamic system can be described by specifying pressure, volume,

temperature, internal energy and number of moles, etc. These are called thermodynamic
parameters or coordinates or variables.
Work done by a thermodynamic system is given by
W = p * ΔV
where p = pressure and ΔV = change in volume.
Work done by a thermodynamic system is equal to the area enclosed between the p-V curve
and the volume axis
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Work done in process A-B = area ABCDA
Work done by a thermodynamic system depends not only upon the initial and final states of the
system but also depend upon the path followed in the process.
Work done by the Thermodynamic System is taken as
Positive → 4 as volume increases.
Negative → 4 as volume decreases.
Internal Energy (U)
The total energy possessed by any system due to molecular motion and molecular
configuration, is called its internal energy.
Internal energy of a thermodynamic system depends on temperature. It is the characteristic

property of the state of the system.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
According to this law, two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium with C, that
is if TA = TC and TB = TC, then this implies that TA = TB i.e., the systems A and B are also in
thermal equilibrium.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Heat given to a thermodynamic system (ΔQ) is partially utilized in doing work (ΔW) against
the surrounding and the remaining part increases the internal energy (ΔU) of the system.
Therefore, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
First law of thermodynamics is a restatement of the principle conservation of energy.
In isothermal process, change in internal energy is zero (ΔU = 0).
Therefore, ΔQ = ΔW
In adiabatic process, no exchange of heat takes place, i.e., Δθ = O.
Therefore, ΔU = – ΔW
In adiabatic process, if gas expands, its internal energy and hence, temperature decreases and
vice-versa.
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In isochoric process, work done is zero, i.e., ΔW = 0, therefore
ΔQ = ΔU
Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamical process is said to take place when some changes’ occur in the state of a
thermodynamic system i.e., the therrnodynamie parameters of the system change with time.
(i) Isothermal Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant

temperature is called an isothermal process.
Isothermal processes are very slow processes.
These process follows Boyle’s law, according to which
pV = constant
From dU = nCvdT as dT = 0 so dU = 0, i.e., internal energy is constant.
From first law of thermodynamic dQ = dW, i.e., heat given to the system is equal to the work
done by system surroundings.
Work done W = 2.3026μRT l0g10(Vf / Vi) = 2.3026μRT l0g10(pi / pf)
where, μ = number of moles, R = ideal gas constant, T = absolute temperature and Vi Vf and Pi,
Pf are initial volumes and pressures.
After differentiating P V = constant, we have
i.e., bulk modulus of gas in isothermal process, β = p.
P – V curve for this persons is a rectangular hyperbola
Examples
(a) Melting process is an isothermal change, because temperature of a substance remains

constant during melting.
(b) Boiling process is also an isothermal operation.
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(ii) Adiabatic Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system for which there is no
exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings.
Adiabatic processes are very fast processes.
These process follows Poisson’s law, according to which
From dQ = nCdT, Cadi = 0 as dQ = 0, i.e., molar heat capacity for adiabatic process is zero.
From first law, dU = – dW, i.e., work done by the system is equal to decrease in internal
energy. When a system expands adiabatically, work done is positive and hence internal energy
decrease, i.e., the system cools down and vice-versa.
Work done in an adiabatic process is
where Ti and Tf are initial and final temperatures. Examples
(a) Sudden compression or expansion of a gas in a container with perfectly non-conducting

wall.
(b) Sudden bursting of the tube of a bicycle tyre.
(c) Propagation of sound waves in air and other gases.
(iii) Isobaric Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant pressure is
called an isobaric process.
Molar heat capacity of the process is Cp and dQ = nCpdT.
Internal energy dU = nCv dT
From the first law of thermodynamics

dQ = dU + dW
dW = pdV = nRdT
Process equation is V / T = constant.
p- V curve is a straight line parallel to volume axis.
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(iv) Isochoric Process A process taking place in a tlaermodynars system at constant volume is
called an isochoric process.
dQ = nCvdT, molar heat capacity for isochoric process is Cv.
Volume is constant, so dW = 0,
Process equation is p / T = constant
p- V curve is a straight line parallel to pressure axis.
(v) Cyclic Process When a thermodynamic system returns to . initial state after passing
through several states, then it is called cyclic process.
Efficiency of the cycle is given by
Work done by the cycle can be computed from area enclosed cycle on p- V curve.
Isothermal and Adiabatic Curves
The graph drawn between the pressure p and the volume V of a given mass of a gas for an
isothermal process is called isothermal curve and for an adiabatic process it is
called adiabatic curve .
The slope of the adiabatic curve
= γ x the slope of the isothermal curve
Volume Elasticities of Gases
There are two types of volume elasticities of gases
(i) Isothermal modulus of elasticity ES = p
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(ii) Adiabatic modulus of elasticity ET = γ p
Ratio between isothermal and adiabatic modulus
ES / ET = γ = Cp / CV
where Cp and Cv are specific heats of gas at constant pressure and at constant volume.
For an isothermal process Δt = 0, therefore specific heat,
c = Δ θ / m Δt = &infi;
For an adiabatic process 119= 0, therefore specific heat,
c = 0 / m Δt = 0
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics gives a fundamental limitation to the efficiency of a heat
engine and the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator. It says that efficiency of a heat
engine can never be unity (or 100%). This implies that heat released to the cold reservoir can
never be made zero.
Kelvin’s Statement
It is impossible to obtain a continuous supply of work from a body by cooling it to a

temperature below the coldest of its surroundings.
Clausius’ Statement
It is impossible to transfer heat from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature body
without use of an extemal agency.
Planck’s Statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that will convert heat completely into work.
All these statements are equivalent as one can be obtained from the other.
Entropy
Entropy is a physical quantity that remains constant during a reversible adiabatic change.
Change in entropy is given by dS = δQ / T
Where, δQ = heat supplied to the system
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and T = absolute temperature.
Entropy of a system never decreases, i.e., dS ≥ o.
Entropy of a system increases in an irreversible process
Heat Engine
A heat energy engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
A heat engine consists of three parts
(i) Source of heat at higher temperature
(ii) Working substance
(iii) Sink of heat at lower temperature
Thermal efficiency of a heat engine is given by
where Q1 is heat absorbed from the source,
Q2 is heat rejected to the sink and T1 and T2 are temperatures of source and sink.
Heat engine are of two types
(i) External Combustion Engine In this engine fuel is burnt a chamber outside the main body
of the engine. e.g., steam engine. In practical life thermal efficiency of a steam engine varies
from 12% to 16%.
(ii) Internal Combustion Engine In this engine. fuel is burnt inside the main body of the
engine. e.g., petrol and diesel engine. In practical life thermal efficiency of a petrol engine is
26% and a diesel engine is 40%.
Carnot’s Cycle
Carnot devised an ideal cycle of operation for a heat engine, called Carnot’s cycle.
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A Carnot’s cycle contains the following four processes
(i) Isothermal expansion (AB)
(ii) Adiabatic expansion (BO)
(iii) Isothermal compression (CD)
(iv) Adiabatic compression (DA)
The net work done per cycle by the engine is numerically equal to the area of the loop
representing the Carnot’s cycle .
After doing the calculations for different processes we can show that
[Efficiency of Carnot engine is maximum (not 1000/0) for given temperatures T1 and T2. But
still Carnot engine is not a practical
engine because many ideal situations have been assumed while designing this engine which
can practically not be obtained.]
Refrigerator or Heat Pump
A refrigerator or heat pump is a device used for cooling things. It absorb heat from sink at
lower temperature and reject a larger amount of heat to source at higher temperature.
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is given by
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where Q2 is heat absorbed from the sink, Q1 is heat rejected to source and T1 and T2 are
temperatures of source and sink.
Relation between efficiency (η) and coefficient of performance (β)
genius Physics……..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
ELECTROSTATICS : Study of Electricity in which Electrostatic series :If two substances are
electric charges are static i.e. not moving, is rubbed together the former in series acquires
called electrostatics the positive charge and later, the –ve.
• STATIC CLING (i) Glass (ii) Flannel (iii) Wool (iv) Silk (v) Hard Metal (vi)
• An electrical phenomenon that accompanies Hard rubber (vii) Sealing wax (viii) Resin (ix) Sulphur
dry weather, causes these pieces of papers to
stick to one another and to the plastic comb. Electron theory of Electrification
• Due to this reason our clothes stick to our
body. • Nucleus of atom is positively charged.
• The electron revolving around it is negatively
• ELECTRIC CHARGE : Electric charge is charged.
characteristic developed in particle of material • They are equal in numbers, hence atom is
due to which it exert force on other such electrically neutral.
particles. It automatically accompanies the • With friction there is transfer of electrons,
particle wherever it goes. hence net charge is developed in the particles.
• Charge cannot exist without material carrying

• It also explains that the charges are
it
compulsorily developed in pairs
• It is possible to develop the charge by rubbing equally . +vein one body and –ve in second.
two solids having friction. • It establish conservation of charges in the
universe.
• Carrying the charges is called electrification. • The loss of electrons develops +ve charge.
• Electrification due to friction is called frictional While excess of electrons develop –ve charge
electricity. • A proton is 1837 times heavier than electron
hence it cannot be transferred. Transferring
Since these charges are not flowing it is also lighter electron is easier.
called static electricity. • Therefore for electrification of matter, only
electrons are active and responsible.
There are two types of charges. +ve and –ve. Charge and Mass relation
• Similar charges repel each other,
• Charge cannot exist without matter.
• Opposite charges attract each other.
• One carrier of charge is electron which has
• Benjamin Franklin made this nomenclature of mass as well.
charges being +ve and –ve for mathematical • Hence if there is charge transfer, mass is also
calculations because adding them together transferred.
cancel each other. • Logically, negatively charged body is heavier
then positively charged body.
• Any particle has vast amount of charges. Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
• Conductors : Material in which electrons can
• The number of positive and negative charges move easily and freely.
are equal, hence matter is basically neutral. Ex. Metals, Tap water, human body.
Brass rod in our hand, if charged by rubbing the
• Inequality of charges give the material a net charge will move easily to earth. Hence Brass is a
charge which is equal to the difference of the conductor.
two type of charges. The flow of this excess charge is called discharging
• Insulator : Material in which charge cannot

move freely. Ex . Glass, pure water, plastic etc.
genius Physics Copyright-- Pradeep Kshetrapal Notes only for class students. Not to be circulated Page 1
• Electrons can be forced to move across an

insulator by applying strong force (called
electric field.) Then this acts like a conductor. Basic properties of Electric charge
• Additivity of Electric charges

• dielectric strength. • Quantization of Electric charge
The maximum electric field an insulator can withstand
• Conservation of Electric Charge
without becoming a conductor is called its dielectric
strength.
Additivity of Charges...
• Semiconductor : is a material which under
• Charges can be added by simple rules of
little stimulation (heat or Elect. Field) converts
algebra. Addition of positive and negative
from insulator to a conductor.
charge makes Zero charge
Ex. Silicon, germanium.
• Superconductor : is that material which
Quantization of Electric charge
presents no resistance to the movement of the
• Principle: Electric charge is not a continuous
charge through it.
quantity, but is an integral multiple of
The resistance is precisely zero.
minimum charge ( e).
• Reason of quantization:
Electrostatic Induction
• Minimum charge e exist on an electron.
• Phenomenon of polarization of charges in a
• The material which is transferred during
body, when a charged body is present near it,
electrification is an electron, in integral
is called electrostatic induction.
numbers.
• In this process bodies are charged without
• Hence charge transferred has to be integral
touching them.
multiple of e.
• Charge on an electron (-e) and charge on a
• Charging by Induction
proton (+e) are equal and opposite, and are
the minimum.
This minimum charge is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
one electron has charge - 1.6 x 10-19 C
One proton has charge + 1.6 x 10-19 C
• Charge on a body Q is given by

Q = + ne
Where n is a whole number 1,2,3…..
and e = 1.6 x 10-19
A charged object will induce a charge on a
nearby conductor. In this example, a negatively • since e is smallest value of charge, it is called
charged rod pushes some of the negatively Elementary Charge or Fundamental charge
charged electrons to the far side of a nearby
copper sphere because like charges repel each
other. The positive charges that remain on the
near side of the sphere are attracted to the
rod. • ( Quarks : In new theories of proton and
neutrons, a required constituent particles
• If the sphere is grounded so that the electrons called Quarks which carry charges +(1/3)e or
can escape altogether, the charge on the +(2/3)e.
sphere will remain if the rod is removed.
• But because free quarks do not exist and their directly proportional to the product of the charges,
sum is always an integral number, it does not inversely proportional to the square of the distance
violet the quantization rules.) between them and
acts along the straight line joining the two charges.
•
Conservation of Charges
•
Like conservation of energy, and Momentum,
the electric charges also follow the rules of
conservation.
1. Isolated (Individual) Electric charge can neither
be created nor destroyed, it can only be
transferred.
2. Charges in pair can be created or destroyed.
Example for 1.
At Nuclear level : Decay of U-238

238 234
U Th + 4 He (Radio active decay)
Atomic number Z of radioactive material U-238 is 92.

Hence it has 92 protons hence charge is 92e. Thorium
has Z= 90, hence charge is 90e, alpha particles have
charge 2e. Therefore charges before decay are 92 and
after decay are 90+2=92
Example for 2. (a) Annihilation (destruction in pair)

In a nuclear process an electron -e and its antiparticle
positron +e undergo annihilation process in which they If two charges q1 and q2 are placed at distance r then,
transform into two gamma rays (high energy light)
e- + e + y + y
where c is a constant .
Example for 2 (b):Pair production:
is converse of annihila tion, charge is also conserved c is called Coulomb's constant and its value is
when a gamma ray transforms into an electron and a
positron
y e- + e+ (pair production)
The value of c depends upon system of units and on

the medium between two charges
It is seen experimentally that if two charges of 1
Coulomb each are placed at a distance of 1 meter in air
or vacuum, then they attract each other with a force
Electric Force - Coulumb’s Law (F) of 9 x 109 Newton.
• Coulumb’s law in Electrostatics : Accordingly value of c is 9 x 109 Newton x m2/coul2
Force of Interaction between two stationery point
charges is
e0 is permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value • No, In S.I. System, the fundamental quantity is
is e0 = 8.85 x 10-12 coul2 / N x m2 Electric current and its unit is Ampere.
If point charges are immersed in a dielectric medium, Therefore coulomb is defined in it’s terms as
then e0 is replaced by e a quantity-characteristic of the under:
matter involved In such case. For vacuum e = e0 • Coulomb is that quantity of charge which
passes across any section of a conductor per
second when current of one ampere flows
through it, i.e.
• 1 coulomb=1 Ampere x 1 sec
Permittivity, Relative Permittivity and Dielectric
Constant
In cgs electrostatic system, the unit of charge is
Permittivity is a measure of the property of the
called as STATECOULUMB or esu of charge.
medium surrounding electric charge which determine
• In this system electrostatic constant c=1 for
the forces between the charges.
Its value is known as Absolute permittivity of that
Medium e vacuum or air,
More is Permittivity of medium, Less is coulombs One stat coulomb is defined that amount of charge
Force. which when placed at a distance of 1 cm in air from an
For water, permittivity is 80 times then that of vacuum, equal and similar charge repel it with a force of one
hence force between two charges in water will be 1/80 dyne.
time force in vacuum (or air.)
Relative Permittivity(er) : It is a dimension-less In cgs electromagnetic system, the unit of charge is
characteristic constant, which express absolute called ABCOULOMB or emu of charge
permittivity of a medium w.r.t. permittivity of vacuum 1 Coulomb = 3 x 109 statcoulomb
or air. It is also called = 1/10 abcoulomb
Dielectric constant (K) K= er = e/e0 \ 1 emu = 3x1010 esu of charge
Vector form of Coulumbs’ Law

Equation of Coulumbs force showing magnitude as
well as direction is called Vector form of coulumbs’
law.
If 12 is unit vector pointing from q1 to q2, then as per
diagram 12 and 21 will be in the same direction, then
21 = 12 (vector equation )…….. 1.
q1 12 q2
• Unit of charge:- In S.I. System of units, the 12 21
unit of charge is Coulomb. R

Similarily 12 = 21 …………….. 2
• One coulomb is defined as that charge, which,
when placed at a distance of 1 m in air or
vacuum from an equal and similar charge, Since 21 = - 12 21 = - 12
repel it with a force of 9 x 109 Newton

• Charge on one electron is 1.6019x10-19 coul. Electrostatic Force between two point charges in terms
Hence of their position vectors.
• One coulomb is equivalent to a charge of 6.243 (i).Let there be two point charges q1 and q2 at points A
x 1018 electrons & B in vacume. With reference to an origin O let their
Is electric charge a fundamental quantity?
position vectors be (OA) and (OB). Then If a number of Forces F11, F12,F13,……F1n are acting on a single
AB= . According to triangle law of vectors : charge q1 then charge will experience force F1 equal to
+ = = - and vector sum of all these forces .
= - F1 = F11 + F12 + F13 + …… + F1n
The vector sum is obtained as usual by parallelogram law of

vectors.
All electrostatics is basically about Coulomb’s Law and

Principle of superposition.
Y 12
A B
q1 q2 21
X
(ii) According to Coulumb’s law, the Force 12 exerted on q1
by q2 is given by : 12 = 21 where 21 is a unit
vector pointing from q2 to q1 . We know that 21 = =
Hence, general Vector forms of Coulumb’s equation is

21 = and
NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE
12 =
1.How many electrons must be removed from the sphere to give it
a charge of +2 μC . Is there any change in the mass when it is
Comparison of Electrostatic and Gravitational Force given this positive charge. How much is this change?
1. Identical Properties :
 Both the forces are central forces, i.e., they act along 2. Two identical charged copper spheres A and B have their centers
the line joining the centers of two charged bodies. separated by a distance of 50 cm. A third sphere of same size but
 Both the forces obey inverse square law, F uncharged is brought in contact with the first, then brought in
 Both are conservative forces, i.e. the work done by contact with the second and finally removed from both. What is
them is independent of the path followed. the new force of repulsion between A and B?
 Both the forces are effective even in free space.
2. Non identical properties : 3. A central particle of charge –q is surrounded by two circular
a. Gravitational forces are always attractive in rings of charged particles, of radii r and R, such that R > r. What are
nature while electrostatic forces may be attractive or the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the
repulsive. central particle due to other particles.
b. Gravitational constant of proportionality does not
depend upon medium, the electrical constant of
proportionality depends upon medium.
c. Electrostatic forces are extremely large as
compared to gravitational forces
Qn. Compare electrostatic and gravitational force between

one electron and one proton system.
9
Ans : Fe= = 9x10 Newton
-11
Fg=G =6.67x10 Newton
Fe / Fg = 2.26 x 1039
Principle of Superposition of Charges :
charges q and 2q, respectively. A distance h directly

beneath each of these spheres is a fixed sphere with positive
4.-Three equal charges each of 2.0 x 10-6 are fixed at three corners
charge Q. a. Find the distance x when the rod is horizontal
of an equilateral triangle of side 5 cm. Find the coulomb force
experienced by one of the charges due to other two.
and balanced. (b) What value should h have so that the rod
exerts no vertical force on the bearing when the rod is
5. horizontal and balanced?
q X 2q
Bearing
h W h
Q Q
6. A charge q is placed at the center of the line joining two

equal charges Q. Show that the system of three charges will
be in equilibrium if q = Q/4.
7. Two particles having charges 8q and –2q are fixed at a

distance L. where, in the line joining the two charges, a
proton be placed so that it is in equilibrium (the net force is
zero). Is that equilibrium stable or unstable? 9. In the basic CsCl (Cesium
chloride) crystal, Cs+ ions form the corners of a cube and a Cl- ion is
8. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the at the centre of cube. Edge length is 0.40 nm.
net electrostatic force on the charged particle in the lower
7 (a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on
left corner of the square if q = 1.0 x 10 C and a = 5.0 cm? Cl- ion by the eight Cs+ ions.?
+q a -q (b) If one of the Cs+ ion is missing the crystal is said to have defect.
How much will be the force on chlorine ion in that case?
10. Two similar helium-filled spherical balloons

a a tied to a 5 g weight with strings and each
carrying a charge q float in equilibrium as shown.
Find (a) the magnitude of q, assuming that
the charge on each balloon is at its centre
+2q a -2q and (b) the volume of each balloon.
-3
Assume that the density of air =1.29 kg m
and the density of helium in the balloon
9. Two tiny conducting balls m-3
is= 0.2 kg . Neglect the weight of the
of identical mass m and -7 -3 3
unfilled balloons. Ans: q = 5.5 x 10 V = 2.3 x 10 m
identical charge q hang from
non conducting threads of θ θ 11. Two identically charged spheres are suspended by strings of
length L. Assume that θ is so L L 0
equal length. The strings make an angle of 30 with each other.
small that tan θ can be replaced -3
When suspended in a liquid of density of 800 kg m , the angle
by sin θ; show that, remain the same. What is the dielectric constant of the liquid? The
for equilibrium, -3
density of the material of the sphere is 1600 kg m Ans : K = 2
X=( )1/3
12. A rigid insulated wire frame in the form of a right angled
triangle ABC, is set in a vertical plane. Two beads of equal
x masses m each and carrying charges q1 q2 are connected by a
cord of length l and can slide without friction on the wires.
.8.A long non-conducting massless rod of length L, pivoted at Considering the case when the beads are stationary,
its centre and balanced with a block of weight W at a determine (a) angle a (b) the tension in the cord and
(c) the normal reaction on the beads.
distance x from the left end. At the left and right ends of the If the cord is now cut what are
rod are attached small conducting spheres with positive the value of the charges for
which the beads continue
genius Physics Copyright-- Pradeep Kshetrapal Notes only for class students.
to remain stationary Not to be circulated Page 6
charge. Depending on shape of it is given different

names
1.Linear distribution: when charge is evenly

distributed over a length. In such case we use a
ELECTRIC FIELD quantity Linear charge density λ. Which has relation
ELECTRIC FIELD-is the environment created by an
λ= , Where ‘Q’ is charge distributed over a
electric charge (source charge) in the space around it,
long conductor of length ‘L’
such that if any other electric charges(test charges)is
present in this space, it will come to know of its
presence and exert a force on it.
+
+
+
+
(Force on q) +
Q q +
+
+
+
+
INTENSITY (OR STRENGTH ) OF ELECTRIC FIELD AT A
LOCATION Is the force exerted on a unit charge placed
at that location
: if intensity of electric field at a location is E and a 2- Areal distribution: charge is evenly distributed
charge ‘q’ is placed ,then force experienced by this over a surface area,S.
charges F is
The surface charge density is ‘σ‘
given by
Direction of force F is in direction of electric field E Where Q is charge given to a surface of area ‘S’.
3-volumetric distribution: charge is

evenly distributed throughout the body
By equ.1and 3 : Intensity of electric field due to Source having volume ’V’Volumetric charge density is ‘ρ‘
charge Q is
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC FIELD
DUE TO DIFFERENT DISTRIBUTION OF
CHARGES
By coloumb’s law we know that in similar situation 1-Due to point change Q

if q=1 then
2-E due to linear distribution of electric charge
Relation in F, E and Test charge q is
DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE
Electric charge on a body may be concentrated at a
point, then it is called a ‘point charge’. If it is
distributed all over, then it is called distribution of
3 - E due to areal distribution of charge: ON THE AXIAL LINE
E DUE TO +q
ALONG
4- E due to volumetric distribution of charge E DUE TO –q
OPPOSITE TO
NET ELECTRIC FIELD
DIPOLE
1-Dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges

at finite & fixed distance.
example: molecule of electrolytic compounds.
Example - HCl, H2O.
2-CO2 & CH4 are non-polar because centers of –ve & SINCE >
+ve charges co-incide and there is no distance between
them.
: IS IN THE DIRECTION OF
3-if non polar atom is placed in an elect.field a distance
is created between +ve & -ve charge: it become polar. IF R>>L THE, E=
Dipole moment:-the effectiveness or strength of a 2 ON EQUATORIAL LINE (TRANSVERAL LINE)

dipole is measured by the physical quantity .Dipole
moment . it is calculated as = q x 2
P=q x 2L(magnitude) or = q x 2 (vector)
E due to +q , E+q
E due to -q E-q
Where ‘q’ is each charge and ‘2L’ is distance between
them.(each charge is at a distance L from ‘center’ of |E+q| = |E-q| = Eq
dipole)
each Eq is resolved in two direction. One along
Dipole moment = q x 2 is a vector quantity it has
magnitude p=2qL equatorial line and other in axial directions which are
And its direction is along line from –q to +q. the Esinθ and normal direction E cosθ .
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO DIPOLE
Esinθ in opposite direction cancel each other while z

E cosθ add up to two.
: net electric field E = 2E cosθ
E(net) = 2Ecosθ
E= 3/2
IF R>>L Then, E=
The direction is opposite to that of P
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electric Field at equatorial line is half of the field on

axial line in strength and opposite in direction.
Electric Line of Force :

The idea of Lines of Force was given by Michel Faraday.
These are imaginary lines which give visual idea of
Electric field, its magnitude, and direction.
A line of force is continuous curve the tangent to which

at a point gives the direction of Electric field, and its
concentration gives the strength of Field.
Electric Field at A is stronger than field at B.
Properties of Electric Lines of Force :
Electric Lines of Force :

1.start from positive charge and end at negative.
2.Electric Lines of forces are imaginary but Electric
field they represent is real.
3.The tangent drawn at any point on the line of force
gives the direction of force acting on a positive charge
at that point.
4.In SI system, the number of electric lines originating
or terminating on charge q is q/ε . That means lines
associated with unit charge are 1/ ε
5.Two lines of force never cross each other, because if
they do so then at the point of intersection, intensity Lines of force due to Two positive charges
will have two directions which is absurd.
6. Electric Lines of force can never be a closed loop
since they do not start and end at the same point. The
lines are discontinuous, start from + and terminate at –
7. The electric line of force do not pass through a
conductor as electric field inside a conductor is zero.
8. Lines of force have tendency to contract
longitudinally like a stretched string, producing
attraction between opposite charges and edge effect.
9.Electric Lines of force start and end Normal to the
surface of conductor.
10. Crowded lines represent strong field while distant Elect field lines due to straight line distribution :
lines represent weak field. Equidistant parallel lines And Electric field lines due to very large sheet of
represent uniform field. Non-straight or non- parallel charge are shown in the previous page.
represent non-uniform field. In the diagram a is
uniform while b, c, and d are non-uniform fields. Electric dipole in electric field
When a dipole is placed in an electric field each charge
experience a force (F=qe) . Positive, in the direction of
field and negative, opposite to direction of field.
+q A F
2L
F θ
Field Lines due to some charge configurations.
1.Single positive or negative charge -q B C
Net Force on dipole : F + (-F) = 0 zero
Hence dipole will not make any linear motion.
Torque on dipole: A couple of force is acting on the

body of dipole system at different points, the forces
are equal and opposite in uniform field. Hence they
form a couple of forces which create a torque.
Two equal and opposite charges : Therefore dipole is capable of rotation in a uniform
electric field. The moment of forces or Torque is
τ = F x AC = qEx2Lsinθ = 2qL E Sinθ = PESinθ
or τ =P x E Or, W = PE – = pE
NOTE :
3.If a dipole is rotated through 900 from the direction
1.Direction of torque is normal to the plane containing of the field, then work done will be
dipole moment P and electric field E and is governed
by right hand screw rule. W = pE = pE
2. If Dipole is parallel to E the torque is Zero. 4. If the dipole is rotated through 1800 from the
direction of the field, then work done will be :
3. Torque is maximum when Dipole is perpendicular to
E and that torque is PE
W = pE = 2 pE
4. This equation gives the definition of dipole moment.
If E is 1 N/C then P=T.
Potential Energy of a dipole kept in Electric field :
Therefore; Dipole Moment of a dipole is equal to the 1. dipole in Equilibrium ( P along E ):-
Torque experience by that dipole when placed in an A dipole is kept in Electric field in equilibrium
electric field of strength 1 N/C at right angle to it. condition, dipole moment P is along E
To calculate Potential Energy of dipole we calculate
5. If a dipole experiencing a torque in electric field is
work done in bringing +q from zero potential i.e. to
allowed to rotate, then it will rotate to align itself to
location B, and add to the work done in bringing –q
the Electric field. But when it reach along the direction
from to position A.
of E the torque become zero. But due to inertia it
1.The work done on –q from up to A
overshoots this equilibrium condition and then starts
= -(Work done up to B + Work done from B to A)
oscillating about this mean position.
2.Work done on +q = +(Work done up to B)
6.Dipole in Non-Uniform Electric field : Adding the two
Total work done = Work done on –q from B to A
In case Electric field is non-uniform, magnitude of force = Force x displacement
on +q and –q will be different, hence a net force will be = -qE x 2L = - 2qLE
acting on centre of mass of dipole and it will make a =- P.E
linear motion. At the same time due to couple of This work done convert into Potential Energy of dipole
forces acting, a torque will also be acting on it. U= -P. E
Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniform Electric If P and E are inclined at angle θ to each other then
field: magnitude of this Potential Energy is
U = - P E Cos θ
1.If a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field
experience a torque. If it is rotated from its equilibrium
position, work has to be done on it. If an Electric dipole
with moment P is placed in electric field E making an
angle α, then torque acting on it at that instant is
Electric – Potential
τ = PESinα
2. If it is rotated further by a small angle dα then work (1) Electric Potential is characteristic of a
done dw = (PEsinα).dα location in the electric field. If a unit
Then work done for rotating it through an angle θ from charge is placed at that location it has
equilibrium position of angle 0 is :- potential energy (due to work done on
its placement at that location). This
potential energy or work done on unit
θ
W= = PE charge in bringing it from infinity is
called potential at that point.
Hence applied force F = -

(2) Potential – Difference (i) is the work
done on unit charge for carrying it from
one location to other location A. Work done in moving distance dr is
A B
dw = -
Total work done in bringing the charge from

VA qV distance to distance r is
Potential at A --------------------------VA
W =
Energy with q at A is q VA
Energy with Q at B is q VB = -
Difference of Energy UA – UB = q (VA – VB)

= - =
Using work energy theorem . W = q ((VA – VB)
Or, VA – VB = W/q & UA – UB = W. W/q = OR V=

If VB = 0 { At Potential V = 0 , Inside
Earth VE = 0}
Then VA = W / q Where Q is source charge, r is distance & V r is

potential at that point.
This equation gives definition of potential V at
point A as under :- Basically V r is also a “potential difference”
“Potential of a point in electric field is the work between potential of this point P and Potential at
done in bringing a unit charge from infinity (Zero (i.e., 0).
potential) to that point, without any acceleration.”
Expression of potential at a point due to source

**********
charge Q :-
Relation between E & V
Let there be a charge Q which creates
electric field around it. Point P is at distance ‘r”
from it. Let’s calculate potential at this point.
dr
P
A test charge q is moved against E for a small distance
Q r dr. then work done dw by applied force -qE is dw
= - qE dr
dr
Or, dw / q = - E dr
A test charge ‘q’ is moved for a small
Or, dv = - E.dr
displacement dr towards Q.
Or, E = - dv / dr
Electric field due to Q at P, E = Electric field is derivative of potential difference. –

ve sign show that direction of E is opposite to
To move it against this electrical force we have to direction of dv. I.e., dv decrease along the
apply force in opposite direction direction of E
VA VB +q -q
2L
VA > vB
Q
This also show that an electric charge At P – V+q =
4 0 ( r  l )
experience force from high potential towards
low potential if allowed to move, it will do so in Q
this direction only. V-q =
4 0 ( r  l )
If E and are not collinear and make angle
 between them, then according to relation of  1 1 
Total V =– V+q + V-q =   
work & force  r l r l 
dv = - E dr Cos 
Or, - dv / dr = E Cos  =
2Ql
=
P
Or, dv = - E . dr 4 0 ( r  l )
2 2
4 0 (r 2  l 2 )
Or V = E . dr P
If r > > L Then V =
4 0 r 2
Or { Potential difference is a scalar quantity 2) At a point on equatorial line
( work) given by dot product of two vector - q & + q are placed at A & B. Point P is on equatorial
E & dr.
Principle of super position:-

1) Potential at a point due to different charges
is Algebric sum of potentials due to all individual
charges.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
2) Potential due to +ve charge is +ve

line
Every point on equatorial line is equidistant from +q &

-q. Therefore +ve & -ve potential are equal Hence net
potential is zero.
“Potential at every point on equatorial line of dipole is

zero.”
iii) Potential due dipole at any general point.
Potential due to –ve charge is –ve
Potential due to a dipole
1) At a point on axial line:-
Potential due to spherical shell
A spherical shell is given change Q. The electric field is

directed normal to surface i.e., Radially outward.
“Hence charge on the surface of a shell behaves as if all
the charge is concentrated at centre.
Draw normal from A & B on PO Q
Hence potential at distance r is V =
PB PN = PO – ON = r – L Cos  ------------ (i) 4 0 r
PA PM = PO + OM = r + L Cos  ----------- (ii) Potential on the surface of shell V =

Q
4 0 R
Q Q
V+q = =
4 0 PB 4 0 (r  L cos ) Inside shell Electric field is Zero.
Therefore change in potential dv = Zero X dr = 0 i.e., No
Q Q change in potential. Hence potential
V-q = = inside a spherical shell is same as on the surface and it
4 0 PA 4 0 (r  L cos  )
is same at every point.
Q
It is V = Where R is radius of shell.
4 0 R
Total V = V+q + V-q =
Q  1 1 
   Relation of V & r for spherical shell
4 0  r  LCos  r  LCos  
Q  r  L cos   r  LCos  
=  
4 0  r 2  L2Cos 2 
Q X 2 LCos 
=
4 0 (r 2  L2Cos )
In case of non-conducting sphere of charge. potential

PCos keeps on increasing up to centre as per diagram.
Or V=
4 0 ( r 2  L2Cos )
Q r
If r > > L P
PCos v
Then, Or, V =
4 0 r 2
0,0 R r
A body of potential v’ is placed inside cavity of shell ii) V2 – V1 = dv = - E Cos  . dr

with potential V then potential of the body become
V+v’ E
V+v ’
V2
v’ V
V1
iii) No work is done in carrying an electric charge

.Equipotential Surface from one point of E.P. Surface to other point
(Whatever is the path)
A real or imaginary surface in an electric field which
has same potential at very point is an equipotential A
surface or simply, an equipotential.
Ex:- A shell having electric charge at its centre, makes

an equipotential surface as it has same potential
Q
at every point of the surface.
4 0 R
Electric Net work done in carrying change from A to B is Zero, B
lines of to C is Zero, because W = qV and V is same on this
force and equipotential Surface
equipotent
iv) Surface of a conductor in electrostatic field is always
ial surface an equipotential surface.
are at right
angle to Distribution of charge on uneven surface: - charge
density is more on the surface which is pointed, or has
each other.
smaller radius. Therefore if a conductor is brought near
pointed charged surface, due to high density of charge
induction will be more. Electric field set up will be very
strong. This leads to construction of use of lightning
arrester used on the buildings.
Gauss's Law
Electric Flux
Think of air blowing in through a window. How much
air comes through the window depends upon the speed
of the air, the direction of the air, and the area of the
Proof:- Suppose E is window. We might call this air that comes through the
not at right angle to equipotential surface, and makes window the "air flux".
angle  with it. Then it has two components, E Cos
 along surface and E Sin  normal to surface due to We will define the electric flux for an electric field
that is perpendicular to an area as
component E Cos  , force q E Cos  should be
created on surface and it should move the charge. But =EA
we find that charges are in equilibrium. i.e.
E Cos  = 0 ;
since E = 0, therefore Cos  = 0 or ∠  = 900
Hence E is always at right angle to equip. surface.
For a curved surface, that will not be the case. For that
case, we can apply this definition of the electric flux
over a small area A or A or An.
If the electric field E is not perpendicular to the area,

we will have to modify this to account for that.
Then the electric flux through that small area is and
=E A cos or
=E A
To find the flux through all of a closed surface, we need

to sum up all these contributions of over the entire
surface,
Think about the "air flux" of air passing through a
window at an angle . The "effective area" is A cos
or the component of the velocity perpendicular to the Cosθ
window is v cos . With this in mind, we will make a
general definition of the electric flux as
We will consider flux as positive if the electric field E
goes from the inside to the outside of the surface and
we will consider flux as negative if the electric field E
goes from the outside to the inside of the surface. This
= E A cos is important for we will soon be interested in the net
You can also think of the electric flux as the flux passing through a surface.
number of electric field lines that cross the
surface.
Remembering the "dot product" or the "scalar product",

we can also write this as
=E A
where E is the electric field and A is a vector equal to

the area A and in a direction perpendicular to that
area. Sometimes this same information is given as
A=An
Gauss’s Law : Total electric flux though a closed
where n is a unit vector pointing perpendicular to the surface is 1/ε₀ times the charge enclosed in the
area. In that case, we could also write the electric flux surface.
across an area as
ΦE=q / ε₀
=E nA But we know that Electrical flux through a closed
surface is
Both forms say the same thing. For this to make any
sense, we must be talking about an area where the
= q / ε₀
direction of A or n is constant.
This is Gauss’s theorem.
PROOF : Let’s consider an hypothetical spherical Consider a Gaussian Surface in the shape of a cylinder
surface having charge q placed at its centre. At every having axis along conductor. It has radius r so that
point of sphere the electrical field is radial, hence point P lies on the surface. Let its length be l.
making angle 0 degree with area vector. The electric field is normal to conductor, hence it is
symmetrical to the surfaces of these cylinder.
At the small area flux dφ = +

+ plain
=
+
+
= ds (E= , Cos0=1) + P curved
+ E
+
=
+
+
For a sphere is 4πr2. + r
+
Φ= x 4πr2. +
+
Or, Φ = q / ε₀
Now = for curved surface + for 2
This is Guass Theorem. (Hence proved) plane surfaces.
= +
=E for curved surface ( E is uniform)
= E2πrl ( 2πrl, for cylindrical curved surface)
Application of Gauss’s Law
The charge enclosed within Guassian surface =λl
To calculate Electric Field due to different charge
distributions. According to Gauss theorem : = q / ε₀
For this purpose we consider construction of a Putting values : E2πrl = λl / ε₀

Guassian surface.
Or, E=
Guassian Surface : It is an imaginary surface in the

electric field which is Electric field due to a plain surface : -
1.closed from all sides
2. Surface is Symmetrical about the charges in it There is a very large plain surface having sueface
3. Electric field on the surface is symmetrical density σ . There is a point P at normal distance r .
Electric field due to line charge : Let’s consider a Gaussian surface, in shape of a cylinder
Electric charge is distributed on an infinite long straight which has axis normal to the sheet of charge and
conductor with linear charge density λ. We have to containing point P at its plain surface (radius a ).
find Electric field on a point P at normal distance r.
Electric field E is normal to the surface containing
charge hence it is normal to the plain surface of
cylinder and parallel to curved surface.
Now = for complete area of Gaussian surface

= = E (E is uniform)
curved ++++
= E x 4πr . (for spherical shell
2
= 4πr2 )
plain +++++++ plain
+
+
Charge within Gaussian surface = q
-E ++++++ a E
++++++ Applying Gauss’s Law : = q / ε₀

+++++++ Putting values E x 4πr = q / ε₀
2
Or E=
Now = for curved surface + for 2
plane surfaces.
= + + This expression is same as electric field due to a point
= for plain surfaces 2E ( E is uniform) charge q placed at distance r from P. i.e. In this case if
= 2Eπa2 complete charge q is placed at the centre of shell the
The charge enclosed inside Gaussian surface q = σ.A electric field is same.
Or, q = σπa2
Case 2. If P is on the surface.
Applying Gauss’s Law : = q / ε₀ In above formula when r decrease to R the electric
field increase.
Putting values 2Eπa2 =
On the surface (replace r with R) E=
Or E= Hence this is electric field on the surface of a shell and
its value is maximum compared to any other point.
Electric Field due to charge distributed over a
spherical shell :- Case 3. If P is within the surface. Or ‘r’ R
Charged Shell +
+ +
+ +
+ R +
+
r +
+ + + Gaussian Surface
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
+ R + + +
+ +
r Let’s consider +a Gaussian surface, a concentric
+ + P E spherical shell of radius r passing through P.
+ +
+ +
+ + Then charge contained inside Gaussian surface is Zero.
+
According to Gauss’s Theorem = q / ε₀
If q is zero then = 0.
As ds is not zero then E = 0
The spherical shell or spherical conductor has total

charge q, surface charge density σ , radius R. We have It is very important conclusion reached by Gauss’s Law
to find Electric Field E at a point P at distance ‘r ’. that Electric field inside a charged shell is zero.
The electric field inside conductor is Zero. This
Case 1. If P is outside shell. phenomenon is called electrostatic shielding.
Let’s assume a Gaussian surface, which is a concentric
sphere of radius r and P lies on its surface. Variation of E with r ( distance from centre)
Electric field is normal to surface carrying charge.
Hence it is radially outward. Therefore for a small area
on the Gaussian surface ds E is normal to surface i.e.
angle between and is 0.
Putting values E x 4πr2 = ρ πr / ε₀

E=
Surface It shows that inside a sphere of charge, the electric

E=0 E field is directly proportional to distance from centre.
At centre r=0 E=0
On the surface E = = (ρ = q / πr3)
Electric Field due to (filled-up) sphere of charge
(Volumetric distribution of charge) : Variation of E with r ( distance from centre)
Gaussian Surface E
Charged Sphere
+++++++++
++++++++
++ + + + + + + +
r
+++++++++ R
E
+ + + + + + + +P +
+ + + + + +++ + +
+++++++++
+++++++++
++ + + + + + + +
+++++++++ Electric field due to two charged parallel surface
Charges of similar nature
+++++++++
1 2
+++++++++
E1 = - + E1 = + + E1 = +
+ +++ + + + + + +
+ +
+++++++++ + +
+++++++++ E2 = - + E2 = - E2 = +
+
+++++++++ + +
Case I. When+P+is+ Out
+ + +side
+ + sphere.
+ Same as in the case + +
+ + + + + + + + + E=E1+E2= - + E=0 E=E1+E2= +
of charged shell E = +
+++++++++ + +
a. Charges of + opposite nature + :-
Case 2. When + +point
+ + +P+ is+ +on+ the surface of shell: Same
+1 2+
+++++++++ +
as in case of shell . E = ++ E1 = + + E =+
+++++++++ E1 = - -+ 1
Case 3 If point++P + +is+inside
+ + + +the charged sphere. ++
-+
Consider Gaussian surface, a concentric spherical shell +
++++++++ E2 = + -
of radius r, such that point P lies on the surface. + E2 = + E2 = -
Electric field is normal to the surface. + -
+ -
E= -E1 + E2= 0 E=+E1+E2 E= +E1 - E2= 0
Now = for complete area of Gaussian surface + -
+ =+ -
= = E (E is uniform)
+ -
= E x 4πr . (for spherical shell
2
= 4πr2 )
+
-
+ :
Equipotential Surface
Charge within Gaussian surface = charge density x -
+
volume. Energyof a charged + particle in terms - of potential:-
= ρ πr3 (where ρ is the charge per unit volume.) -
Applying Gauss’s Law = q / ε₀
Work required to bring a charge q at a point of

potential V is W = qV. This work done on the charged
particle converts to its potential energy.
Potential energy of charge q at potential V is U = qV
Electron-Volt : By relation Work/energy = qV, the Corona discharge : when an uncharged body is
smallest unit of work/energy is Electron Volt. brought near a charged body having sharp corners
there is large number of charges at the corners. Due to
One electron volt is the work done by/on one induction, they induce large number of opposite
electron for moving between two points having charges. This creates a very strong Electric field
potential difference of one Volt. between them. Finally the dielectric strength breaks-
down and there is fast flow of charges. This Spray of
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules charges by spiked object is called Corona discharge.
The lightening arrester work on the principles of

Corona discharge where the charge pass through
Potential Energy of system of charges
conductor of arrester, and the buildings are saved
(i) System of Two charges :
A B
q1 -------- r ----------------q2
Potential due to q1 at B is potential at distance r :
V = Potential Energy of system U =
(ii) System of three charges

We make different pairs and calculate energy as under
U= + +
(iii) System of Four charges

Four charges make six pairs : Potential Energy U=
+ + + + +
The energy is contained in the system and not by

any one member. But it can be used by one or
more members.
Distribution of charge on irregular shaped conductors :

Van-de-Graff generator
Potential at each point is equal.
Introduction : It’s a device used to create very high
Electric field is always normal to surface. potential which is used for experiments of nuclear
physics in which a charged particle with very high
Charge is distributed unevenly. Charge per unit area is
energy is required to hit the nucleus as target.
more at the surface which has smaller radius.
Therefore charge density is always more on the Principles : The following principles are involved in the
corners. device.
1.Charge on a conductor always move to and stay on
the outer surface.
E 2.Pointed Corners conduct charges very effectively.
(corona discharge )
3.If charge q is given to a body, its potential increases

by relation V=
4. If a body of small potential v’ is placed inside a shell
having potential V, then the body acquires potential
V+v’
Description : There is a large spherical conducting shell

of diameter of few meters placed on a non-conducting
concrete structure few meters above the ground.
A long belt of insulating material like silk rubber or

rayon moves around two pulleys, driven by a motor.
Two combs with pointed heads near belt are fitted.

Lower one is spray comb and the upper Collecting
Comb. The spray comb is connected with a high
tension source.
There is a discharge tube. One end having source of

ion to be accelerated is inside the shell. Target is
placed at the other end connected to earth.
The whole system is enclosed in a steel chamber filled

with nitrogen or methane at high pressure.
Working : The spray comb is given a positive potential

4
( Volt) w.r.t. earth by the source of high Tension.
Due to sharp points there is spray of charge on belt.
The belt moves up with power of motor. When the
Relation between Equipotential surfaces and E-Lines
charges reach near upper comb, due to induction and
corona discharge the charge on belt is transferred to
comb. From comb it moves to inner layer of shell.
Since charge always stay at the outer surface, it moves
to outer surface and the inner surface again become
without any charge, ready to receive fresh charge
again. As shell receive charge it Potential increase
according to relation V= . This potential is
distributed all over and inside the shell.
The new charged particles which are coming having

small potential v’ from lower comb, acquire potential
V+v’ due to their position inside the shell. There new
potential is slightly higher than shell, therefore charges Equi potential lines
move from belt to comb to shell. This increases V
further. This process keeps on repeating and V
increase to a very high value, that is break-down
voltage of compressed nitrogen 107volt.
The ion inside discharged plate also acquires this

potential due to its location inside the shell. Its energy
increases by relation U = qV. The target is connected to
E - Electric
earth at zero potential. Hence this ion gets accelerated
force lines
and hits the target with very high energy.
CAPACITOR
It is a device to store charge and in turn store the PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR : -
electrical energy.
Since single conductor capacitor do not have large
Any conductor can store charge to some extent. But capacitance , parallel plate capacitors are
we cannot give infinite charge to a conductor. When constructed.
charge is given to a conductor its potential increases.
But charge cannot escape the conductor because air, Principle : Principle of a parallel plate capacitor is
or medium around conductor is di-electric. that an uncharged plate brought bear a charged
When due to increasing charge the potential increase plate decrease the potential of charged plate and
to such extent that air touching the conductor starts hence its capacitance (C = ) increase. Now it can
getting ionized and hence charge gets leaked. No take more charge. Now if uncharged conductor is
more charge can be stored and no more potential earthed, the potential of charged plate further
increase. This is limit of charging a conductor. decreases and capacitance further increases. This
arrangement of two parallel plates is called parallel
The electric field which can ionize air is 3 x 109 vm-1. plate capacitor.
CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR Expression for capacitance :
q
Term capacitance of a conductor is the ratio of charge Charge q is given to a plate
to it by rise in its Potential + -
Of area ‘A’. Another plate
C= -
+ -
is kept at a distance ‘d’.
A E
In this relation if V=1 then C= q. Therefore , -
After induction an +
-
Capacitance of a conductor is equal to the charge
Electric field E is set-up + -
which can change its potential by one volt.
-
Unit of capacitance : Unit of capacitance is Between the plates. Here + d -
farad, (symbol F ). q = σA and E= -
+ - by
One farad is capacitance of such a conductor whose The Potential difference between plates is given
potential increase by one volt when charge of one V = Ed = d -
+
coulomb is given to it. -
Now C = = = +
One coulomb is a very large unit. The practical smaller
units are
+
i. Micro farad ( μF ) = 10-6F.(used in electrical circuits) C =
Ii Pieco farad ( pF) = 10-12 used in electronics circuits
+
If a dielectric of dielectric constant K is inserted
Expression for capacitance of a spherical conductor : between the plates, then capacitance increase by
+
If charge q is given to a spherical conductor of radius r, factor K and become
its potential rise by V = +
Therefore capacitance C = = q/ = C =
+
Or for a sphere C= Note : The capacitance depends only on its
configuration i.e. plate area and distance, and on the
The capacitor depends only on the radius or size medium between them.
of the conductor. The other examples of parallel plate capacitors is
The capacitance of earth (radius 6400 km) is

Cylindrical capacitor C =
calculated to be 711 x 10-6 coulomb.
and Spherical capacitor. C =
Combination of capacitors If n capacitor of capacitance c are joint in series

Capacitors can be combined in two ways. 1. Series
then equivalent capacitance Ce =
and 2. Parallel.
Series Combination : Parallel combination :

If capacitors are connected in such a way that we can If capacitors are connected in such a way that there
proceed from one point to other by only one path are many paths to go from one point to other. All these
passing through all capacitors then all these capacitors paths are parallel and capacitance of each path is said
are said to be in series. to be connected in parallel.
Here three capacitors are connected in series and are

connected across a battery of P.D. ‘V’.
The charge q given by battery deposits at first plate of

first capacitor. Due to induction it attract –q on the
opposite plate. The pairing +ve q charges are repelled Here three capacitors are connected in parallel and are
to first plate of Second capacitor which in turn induce connected across a battery of P.D. ‘V’.
-q on the opposite plate. Same action is repeated to all The potential difference across each capacitor is equal
the capacitors and in this way all capacitors get q and it is same as P.D. across Battery.
charge. As a result ; the charge given by battery q, The charge given by source is divided and each
every capacitor gets charge q. capacitor gets some charge. The total charge
q = q1 + q2 + q3
The Potential Difference V of battery is sum of Each capacitor has charge
potentials across all capacitors. Therefore q1=c1v1, q2=c2v2, q3=c3v3
V = v1 + v2 + v3
v1 = , v2 = , v3= Equivalent Capacitance : We know that
----------------------------- q = q1 + q2 + q3
Equivalent Capacitance : The equivalent capacitance divide by v = + +
across the combination can be calculated as Ce = q/V
Or 1/ Ce = V/q or, C = c1+c2+c3
= (v1 + v2 + v3 ) / q
= v1 /q + v2 /q + v3/q The equivalent capacitance in parallel increases, and it
is more than largest in parallel.
Or 1/Ce = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
In parallel combination V is same therefore
The equivalent capacitance in series decrease and (v =) = =
become smaller then smallest member.
In parallel combination q c . Larger capacitance
In series q is same. Therefore by q=cv, we have
larger is charge.
c1v1 = c2v2 = c3v3
or v i.e. larger c has smaller v, and smaller c Charge distribution : q1=c1v, q2=c2v, q3=c3v.
has larger v across it.
In 2 capacitor system charge on one capacitor
For 2 capacitor system C = , and v1 = .v q1 = .q
n capacitors in parallel give C = nc
Energy stored in a capacitor: When charge is added to

a capacitor then charge already present on the plate Energy in combination : ( ( )²
repel any new incoming charge. Hence a new charge
has to be sent by applying force and doing work on it.
All this work done on charges become energy stored in Hence Loss in energy : E1 – E2
the capacitor.
At any instant work done dw = V.dq, or dw = .dq = { c1v12 + c2v22 } – { ( ( )²}
Therefore work done in charging
the capacitor from charge 0 to q W= = ( ) (v₁ − v₂)²
= = =
This work done convert into electrical Potential It is a positive number which confirm that there is
loss of energy in transfer of charges. Hence
Energy stored in the capacitor U = = = cv2
loss of energy = ( ) (v₁ − v₂)²
This energy is stored in the form of Electric field
between the plates.
Energy per unit volume u = cv2/V = Wheatstone bridge in combination of capacitors :
Five capacitors joined in following manner is called

Or, energy density u = wheatstone bridge connection.
c₁
Connecting two charged capacitors :- When two A B
C2 R
conductors are connected the charges flow from C5
P c₃ S Q
higher potential plate to lower potential plate till
they reach a common potential. C4
Common Potential : A capacitor of capacitance c1 Or, it is redrawn as under :
and potential v1 is connected to another capacitor
Q
of capacitance c2 and potential v2. The charge flow
c₁ C2
from higher potential to lower potential and it
reach an in between value V such that R
P C5
V= or V =
c C4
Loss of Energy on connecting two conductors : ₃

S
A capacitor of capacitance c1 and potential v1 is In the above arrangement, if ratio c1/c2 = c3/c4
connected to another capacitor of capacitance c2 then the bridge is said to be balanced. In such case
and potential v2. The charge flow from higher the potential at point Q and S are equal.
potential to lower potential and in this process it The potential across c5 is zero hence it does not
looses some energy as charge has to do some carry any charge. In this way it is not participating
work while passing through connecting wire. The in storage of charges. Then it can be omitted for
energy is lost in form of heat of connecting wire. further calculations. Calculations are done for c1
c2, c3 and c4 only.
Expression for energy lost : In the above two
Dielectrics: are non conducting materials. They do not have
capacitors the energy contained in the two before free charged particles like conductors have. They are two
connection, E1 = c1v12 + c2v22 . . . . . . . (i) types.
i. Polar : The centre of +ve and –ve charges do not
coincide. Example HCl, H2O, They have their own
Common Potential after connection, V = dipole moment.
Combined capacitance
ii. Non-Polar : The centers of +ve and –ve charges

coincide. Example CO2 , C6H6 . They do not have
their own dipole moment.
In both cases, when a dielectric slab is exposed to an
electric field, the two charges experience force in opposite
directions. The molecules get elongated and develops i.
surface charge density σp and not the volumetric charge
density. This leads to development of an induced electric
field Ep , which is in opposition direction of external electric
field Eo . Then net electric field E is given by E = E o - Ep . This
indicates that net electric field is decreased when dielectric
is introduced.
The ratio = K is called dielectric constant of the dielectric.

Clearly electric field inside a dielectric is E= .
Dielectric polarization : when external electric field E0 is

applied , molecules get polarized and this induced dipole
moment of an atom or molecule is proportionate to applied
electric field. i.e. p Eo
or p = αε₀E₀
here α is a constant called atomic / molecular polarizability.

3 -29
It has dimensions of volume ( L ) it has the order of 10 to
-30 3
10 m .
This polarization is a vector quantity and is related to

resultant electric field E as under :
= χeεE
Where χe is a constant called electric susceptibility of the

dielectric.
The induced charge σp is due to this polarization, hence

σp =
When this dielectric is introduced between the two plates

having charge density σ then resultant electric field can be
related as
E. = E - Ep = =
or ( =σ
or =σ
The quantity is called electric displacement in dielectric.
We can prove that K = 1+ χe

Physics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 12: Thermodynamics

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Physics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 12

The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J).

The practical unit of heat energy is calorie.

Mechanical energy or work (W) can be converted into heat (Q) by 1 W = JQ

where J = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat.

NTP or STP implies 273.15 K (0°C = 32°F).

Different Scale of Temperature

Relation between Different Scales of Temperatures

(i) Pressure of a Gas at Constant Volume

(ii) Electrical Resistance of Metals

where α and β are constants for a metal.

As β is too small therefore we can take

where, α = temperature coefficient of resistance and

where R1 and R2 are electrical resistances at temperatures t1 and t2.

where R100 is the resistance at 100°C.

Platinum resistance thermometer can measure temperature from —200°C to 1200°C.

(iii) Length of Mercury Column in a Capillary Tube

Thermo Electro Motive Force

where a and b are constants for the pair of metals.

Unknown temperature of hot junction when cold junction is at 0°C.

Where E100 is the thermo-emf when hot junction is at 100°C.

A thermo-couple thermometer can measure temperature from —200°C to 1600°C.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Triple Point of Water

Triple point of water is 273 K temperature and 0.46 cm of mere pressure.

Its SI unit is joule/kilogram-°C'(J/kg-°C). Its dimensions is [L2T-2θ-1].

Gases have two types of specific heat

1. The specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv).

For molar specific heats Cp – CV = R

The ratio of two principal sepecific heats of a gas is represented by γ.

The value of y depends on atomicity of the gas.

 where, m = mass of the substance,

Thermal (Heat) Capacity

Its SI unit is joule/kelvin (J/K).

W = ms = heat capacity of the body.

Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by

where m = mass of the substance and L = latent heat.

Its unit is cal/g or J/kg and its dimension is [L2T-2].

Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant temperature is melting.

The conversion of a solid into vapour state is called sublimation.

The conversion of vapours into solid state is called hoar fr..

Heat lost = Heat gain

Three types of expansion -takes place in solid.

Linear Expansion Expansion in length on heating is called linear expansion.

Coefficient of linear expansion

where 1= real length and Δl = change in length and

Δt= change in temperature.

Superficial Expansion Expansion in area on heating is called superficial expansion.

Increase in area A2 = A1(1 + β Δt)

Coefficient of superficial expansion

where. A = area, AA = change in area and At = change in temperature.

Cubical Expansion Expansion in volume on heating is called cubical expansion.

Increase in volume V2 = V1(1 + γΔt)

Coefficient of cubical expansion

where V = real volume, AV =change in volume and Δt = change in temperature.

In liquids only expansion in volume takes place on heating.

(i) Apparent Expansion of Liquids When expansion of th container containing liquid, on

Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid