Periodic trends refer to the systematic variations in the properties of elements as you

move across a periodic table (from left to right) or down a group (from top to bottom).
These trends are a result of the changing atomic structure and electron configuration of
elements.

Here are some key periodic trends in the properties of elements:

1. Atomic Size (Atomic Radius):

 Across a period (from left to right): Atomic size decreases. This is due to an increase in
the effective nuclear charge, which attracts electrons more strongly, pulling the electron
cloud closer to the nucleus.

 Down a group (from top to bottom): Atomic size increases. This is because new energy
levels (shells) are added, resulting in electrons being further from the nucleus.

2. Ionization Energy:
 Across a period: Ionization energy increases. This is the energy required to
remove an electron from an atom. As you move across a period, the
effective nuclear charge increases, making it harder to remove electrons.
 Down a group: Ionization energy decreases. Electrons in higher energy
levels are farther from the nucleus and are shielded by inner electrons, so
they are easier to remove.

3. Electron Affinity:

 Across a period: Electron affinity generally increases. Electron affinity is the energy
change when an atom gains an electron. As you move across a period, atoms have a
stronger attraction for additional electrons.

 Down a group: Electron affinity tends to decrease. Atoms in lower energy levels are less
likely to gain additional electrons because they are already relatively stable.

4. Electronegativity:
 Across a period: Electronegativity increases. Electronegativity is a measure
of an element's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond. Elements on
the right side of the periodic table have higher electronegativities.
 Down a group: Electronegativity decreases. Elements lower in a group
have lower electronegativities because the outermost electrons are further
from the nucleus.
5. Metallic Character:
 Across a period: Metallic character decreases. Metals are found on the left
side of the periodic table, and as you move to the right, elements become
more nonmetallic.
 Down a group: Metallic character increases. Elements lower in a group
tend to exhibit more metallic properties, such as luster, conductivity, and
malleability.
6. Chemical Reactivity:
 Across a period: Elements on the left side (alkali metals) are highly reactive
with other elements, while elements on the right side (noble gases) are
generally unreactive.
 Down a group: Chemical reactivity tends to increase as you move down a
group, with the lower elements being more reactive.
7. Melting and Boiling Points:
 Across a period: Melting and boiling points vary, but there is no consistent
trend. Some elements have high melting and boiling points (metals), while
others have lower values (nonmetals).
 Down a group: Melting and boiling points generally decrease because of
the increasing atomic size and weaker intermolecular forces.

These periodic trends are useful for predicting the behavior of elements in chemical
reactions and understanding their properties in various contexts. Keep in mind that
there can be exceptions and anomalies in certain parts of the periodic table due to
unique electron configurations and bonding characteristics of specific elements.

ATOMIC NUMBER

-Atomic number, also known as the atomic or proton number, is a fundamental concept in chemistry and
physics. It is represented by the symbol "Z" and defines the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. Here are some key details about atomic number:

- Atomic number is a fundamental concept in chemistry that defines an element's identity based on the
number of protons in its nucleus. It plays a central role in understanding the periodic table and the
behavior of elements in chemical reactions.

1. Definition: Atomic number is the unique identifier for each element. It tells you the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element. In a neutral atom, the atomic number also
equals the number of electrons in the electron cloud.

2. Arrangement on the Periodic Table: Elements on the periodic table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number. This arrangement forms the basis for the periodic table's structure.

3. Relationship to Chemical Properties: Atomic number plays a crucial role in determining an

element's chemical properties. Elements with the same atomic number belong to the same
element, meaning they have the same number of protons and, in a neutral state, the same
number of electrons. Chemical reactions and bonding are largely determined by the interactions
between these protons and electrons.
 4. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei,
leading to different atomic masses. These variants are called isotopes. Atomic number remains
the same for all isotopes of an element, but the atomic mass varies.

5. Identification: Atomic number is used to uniquely identify elements. For example, hydrogen has
an atomic number of 1, helium has an atomic number of 2, carbon has an atomic number of 6,
and so on. This numeric designation simplifies communication and ensures precision in scientific
discussions.

6. Determination: The atomic number of an element can be determined through various analytical
techniques, including X-ray crystallography, mass spectrometry, and spectroscopy. These
methods provide information about an element's atomic structure.

7. Historical Significance: The concept of atomic number was crucial in the development of
modern atomic theory. It helped scientists understand the organization of elements and their
properties, leading to the construction of the periodic table.

Sample Calculation: Let's take an example with the element oxygen (O), which has an atomic number of
8.

 Oxygen's atomic number (Z) is 8, which means it has 8 protons in its nucleus.

 In a neutral oxygen atom, the number of electrons is also 8 because the number of electrons
equals the number of protons in a neutral atom.

 The atomic mass of oxygen (typically around 16 amu) is not the same as its atomic number. This
is because oxygen has several isotopes with different numbers of neutrons, resulting in
variations in atomic mass.

ATOMIC MASS

Atomic mass, also known as atomic weight or relative atomic mass, is a property of an element that
represents the average mass of its atoms. It is typically expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified
atomic mass units (u).

Here are some key details about atomic mass:

1. Definition: Atomic mass is the weighted average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of
an element. Isotopes are variants of an element that have the same number of protons (and
hence the same atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Atomic mass
takes into account the abundance of each isotope in nature.

2. Units: Atomic mass is usually expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass units
(u). One atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. This definition
provides a convenient and consistent reference point for measuring atomic masses.

3. Calculation: Atomic mass is calculated by summing the products of each isotope's mass and its
relative abundance (expressed as a decimal). Mathematically, it can be represented as:

Atomic Mass = (Mass of Isotope₁ * Abundance of Isotope₁) + (Mass of Isotope₂ * Abundance of Isotope₂)
+ ...
 4. On the Periodic Table: On the periodic table, the atomic mass of an element is usually listed
below its symbol. It is a decimal number because it reflects the weighted average of the masses
of all the element's isotopes.

5. Variation: Atomic mass varies among elements because different elements have different
isotopic compositions. Some elements have only one stable isotope, while others have multiple
stable isotopes with varying abundances.

Sample Calculation: Let's take the element chlorine (Cl) as an example to calculate its atomic mass.

 Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: chlorine-35 (approximately 75% abundance) and
chlorine-37 (approximately 25% abundance).

 The atomic mass is calculated as follows:

Atomic Mass of Chlorine = (Mass of Cl-35 * Abundance of Cl-35) + (Mass of Cl-37 * Abundance of Cl-37)

Atomic Mass of Chlorine = (34.96885 u * 0.75) + (36.96590 u * 0.25) ≈ 35.453 u

 Therefore, the atomic mass of chlorine is approximately 35.453 atomic mass units.

It's important to note that atomic mass is not a whole number because it is an average of the masses of
the different isotopes. This value is crucial in chemical calculations, such as determining the molar mass
of compounds and stoichiometry in chemical reactions.

ATOMIC WEIGHT

Atomic weight, also known as atomic mass or relative atomic mass, is a measure of the average mass of
the atoms of an element. It's expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass units (u).
Atomic weight considers the natural abundance of all isotopes of an element and provides a useful
reference for chemical calculations.

Here are some key details about atomic weight:

1. Definition: Atomic weight is the weighted average of the masses of all naturally occurring
isotopes of an element. This average accounts for both the mass and the relative abundance of
each isotope.

2. Units: Atomic weight is typically expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass
units (u). One atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

3. Calculation: Atomic weight is calculated using the following formula:

Atomic Weight = (Mass of Isotope₁ * Abundance of Isotope₁) + (Mass of Isotope₂ * Abundance of

Isotope₂) + ...

The result is expressed in atomic mass units (u).

4. On the Periodic Table: On the periodic table, the atomic weight of an element is often listed
beneath the element's symbol. This value is typically a decimal number because it reflects the
weighted average of the masses of all the element's isotopes.
 5. Variation: Atomic weight varies from one element to another due to differences in isotopic
compositions. Elements with a single stable isotope will have an atomic weight close to the mass
of that isotope. Elements with multiple stable isotopes will have atomic weights that are closer
to the masses of the more abundant isotopes.

Examples:

1. Carbon (C):

 Carbon has two stable isotopes: carbon-12 (approximately 98.89% abundance) and
carbon-13 (approximately 1.11% abundance).

 To calculate the atomic weight of carbon:

Atomic Weight of Carbon = (Mass of C-12 * Abundance of C-12) + (Mass of C-13 * Abundance of C-13)

Atomic Weight of Carbon = (12.00000 u * 0.9889) + (13.00335 u * 0.0111) ≈ 12.011 u

2. Therefore, the atomic weight of carbon is approximately 12.011 atomic mass units.

3. Oxygen (O):

 Oxygen has three naturally occurring isotopes: oxygen-16 (approximately 99.76%

abundance), oxygen-17 (approximately 0.04% abundance), and oxygen-18
(approximately 0.20% abundance).

 To calculate the atomic weight of oxygen:

Atomic Weight of Oxygen = (Mass of O-16 * Abundance of O-16) + (Mass of O-17 * Abundance of O-17) +
(Mass of O-18 * Abundance of O-18)

Atomic Weight of Oxygen = (15.99491 u * 0.9976) + (16.99913 u * 0.0004) + (17.99916 u * 0.0020) ≈

15.999 u

4. Therefore, the atomic weight of oxygen is approximately 15.999 atomic mass units.

Atomic weight is a fundamental concept in chemistry, and it is used extensively in chemical calculations,
such as determining the molar mass of compounds and stoichiometry in chemical reactions.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a
chemical bond. It's a fundamental concept in chemistry and is used to predict the polarity of chemical
bonds and the distribution of charge within molecules. Electronegativity values are typically expressed
on the Pauling scale, named after Linus Pauling, who developed the concept.

Here are some key details about electronegativity:

1. Definition: Electronegativity is a measure of the relative ability of an atom to attract and hold
electrons in a chemical bond. It indicates how strongly an atom "pulls" on the electrons shared
in a covalent bond.
2. Scale: The Pauling scale is commonly used to express electronegativity values. The scale ranges
from 0.7 (for cesium, which is the least electronegative) to 4.0 (for fluorine, which is the most
electronegative). Hydrogen is often assigned a value of approximately 2.2.

3. Trends on the Periodic Table:

 Electronegativity generally increases from left to right across a period (from alkali metals
to noble gases) on the periodic table.

 Electronegativity generally decreases from top to bottom within a group (from alkali
metals to alkaline earth metals, for example).

4. Application:

 Predicting Bond Type: Electronegativity differences between two atoms in a bond can
help predict the type of bond formed. Large differences (e.g., metal and nonmetal)
typically result in ionic bonds, while small differences (e.g., nonmetal and nonmetal)
often lead to covalent bonds.

 Polarity: Electronegativity differences also determine the polarity of covalent molecules.

If there is an unequal sharing of electrons due to differing electronegativities, the
molecule can have a polar covalent bond, resulting in regions of partial positive and
negative charge.

5. Examples:

 Example 1: Hydrogen and Chlorine (HCl):

 Chlorine (Cl) is more electronegative than hydrogen (H).

 Electronegativity difference = Electronegativity of Cl - Electronegativity of H =

3.16 - 2.20 = 0.96 (approximately)

 Because the electronegativity difference is relatively small, the H-Cl bond is

considered polar covalent, with chlorine being partially negative (δ-) and
hydrogen being partially positive (δ+).

 Example 2: Sodium Chloride (NaCl):

 Sodium (Na) is a metal with a low electronegativity (approximately 0.93 on the

Pauling scale), and chlorine (Cl) is a nonmetal with a higher electronegativity
(approximately 3.16).

 Electronegativity difference = Electronegativity of Cl - Electronegativity of Na =

3.16 - 0.93 = 2.23 (approximately)

 The large electronegativity difference indicates that the Na-Cl bond is primarily
ionic, with sodium losing an electron to chlorine to form ions with opposite
charges (Na+ and Cl-).
- Electronegativity is a property of atoms that influences their behavior in chemical bonding. It helps us
understand the nature of chemical bonds, the polarity of molecules, and the distribution of charge
within compounds.

ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity is a chemical property that represents the energy change that occurs when an atom
gains an electron to form a negatively charged ion (anion). It is a measure of an element's tendency to
attract and accept an additional electron.

Here are some key details about electron affinity:

1. Definition: Electron affinity is defined as the energy change when an atom in the gaseous phase
gains an electron to form a negatively charged ion. It is typically expressed as a negative value
because energy is released when an electron is added to an atom.

2. Units: Electron affinity is usually expressed in units of energy, such as electronvolts (eV) or
kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).

3. Trends on the Periodic Table:

 Electron affinity generally becomes more negative (i.e., more exothermic or favorable)
from left to right across a period on the periodic table. This means that elements on the
right side of the periodic table have a stronger tendency to gain electrons.

 Electron affinity generally becomes less negative (i.e., less favorable) from top to bottom
within a group on the periodic table.

4. Application:

 Predicting Ionic Behavior: Electron affinity is one of the factors that influence whether an
element is likely to form an anion (negatively charged ion) by gaining electrons.
Elements with higher electron affinities are more likely to form anions.

 Understanding Chemical Reactivity: Electron affinity is related to an element's reactivity

in chemical reactions, particularly in processes involving the exchange of electrons.

5. Examples:

 Example 1: Chlorine (Cl):

 Chlorine has a high electron affinity, indicating its strong tendency to gain an
electron and form a chloride ion (Cl-).

 The electron affinity of chlorine is approximately -349 kJ/mol. The negative sign
indicates that energy is released when chlorine gains an electron.

 Example 2: Noble Gases:

 Noble gases, such as helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar), have very low or
even positive electron affinities.
  For example, the electron affinity of helium is approximately 0 kJ/mol. This
means that helium is unlikely to gain an electron and form an anion because it
requires an input of energy to do so.

 Example 3: Oxygen (O):

 Oxygen has a moderate electron affinity, indicating its ability to accept an

additional electron to form an oxide ion (O2-).

 The electron affinity of oxygen is approximately -141 kJ/mol.

It's important to note that while electron affinity provides insights into an element's reactivity, it is not
the sole determinant of an element's chemical behavior. Other factors, such as atomic structure,
electronegativity, and the presence of unpaired electrons in the electron configuration, also play roles in
determining an element's chemical reactivity.

IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy, also known as ionization potential, is the energy required to remove an electron
from an atom or a positive ion, resulting in the formation of a positively charged ion. It is a fundamental
property of elements and is measured in units such as electronvolts (eV) or kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).

Here are some key details about the periodic trend of ionization energy:

1. Definition: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of atoms or ions in the gaseous state.

2. Units: Ionization energy is typically expressed in electronvolts (eV) or kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol).

3. Trends on the Periodic Table:

 Ionization energy generally increases from left to right across a period (from alkali metals
to noble gases) on the periodic table. This means that it becomes harder to remove an
electron as you move from left to right within a period.

 Ionization energy generally decreases from top to bottom within a group (from alkali
metals to alkaline earth metals, for example). This means that it becomes easier to
remove an electron as you move down a group.

4. Factors Affecting Ionization Energy:

 Nuclear Charge: Ionization energy tends to increase with an increase in the effective
nuclear charge, which results from an increase in the number of protons in the nucleus.

 Electron Shielding: Ionization energy tends to decrease with increased electron shielding
or the presence of inner electron shells that partially shield the outermost electrons
from the nucleus.
  Electron-Electron Repulsion: Electron-electron repulsion plays a role; when multiple
electrons occupy the same energy level, they repel each other, making it easier to
remove an electron.

5. Application:

 Ionization energy is an important factor in understanding chemical reactivity. Elements

with low ionization energies are more likely to form positive ions (cations) by losing
electrons, while elements with high ionization energies tend to form negative ions
(anions) by gaining electrons.

6. Examples:

 Example 1: Sodium (Na):

 Sodium is in Group 1 (the alkali metals) of the periodic table.

 The first ionization energy of sodium is relatively low, approximately 495.8

kJ/mol.

 This low ionization energy indicates that sodium readily loses its outermost
electron to form a sodium cation (Na+).

 Example 2: Oxygen (O):

 Oxygen is in Group 16 (the chalcogens) of the periodic table.

 The first ionization energy of oxygen is relatively high, approximately 1313.9

kJ/mol.

 This high ionization energy indicates that oxygen is less likely to lose an electron
and more likely to gain electrons to form an oxide ion (O2-).

 Example 3: Lithium (Li) vs. Beryllium (Be):

 Lithium is in Group 1, Period 2, and beryllium is in Group 2, Period 2.

 The first ionization energy of lithium is lower than that of beryllium because
lithium has one electron in its outermost energy level (2s) while beryllium has
two.

 The first ionization energy of lithium is approximately 520.2 kJ/mol, while that of
beryllium is approximately 899.5 kJ/mol.

- Ionization energy is a property of elements that reflects their tendency to lose or gain electrons in
chemical reactions. It follows clear trends on the periodic table and is a useful tool for understanding
chemical reactivity and bonding behavior.
 FORMULA’S OF EACH PROPERTIES OF TRENDS
The formulas for atomic number, atomic mass, atomic weight, electronegativity, electron affinity, and
ionization energy are as follows:

1. Atomic Number (Z):

 There is no specific formula for atomic number. It is simply the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom. Each element on the periodic table has a unique atomic number.

2. Atomic Mass (M):

 Atomic mass is typically expressed as a weighted average of the masses of an element's

naturally occurring isotopes. The formula is:

Atomic Mass (M) = (Mass₁ * Abundance₁) + (Mass₂ * Abundance₂) + ...

3. Where:

 Mass₁, Mass₂, etc., are the masses of each isotope of the element.

 Abundance₁, Abundance₂, etc., are the relative abundances of each isotope.

4. Atomic Weight (also known as Atomic Mass or Relative Atomic Mass):

 Atomic weight is the same as atomic mass, and the formula is as described above.

5. Electronegativity (χ):

 There is no single formula for electronegativity, but it is commonly expressed on the

Pauling scale. Electronegativity values are determined experimentally or estimated
based on various factors. They are typically tabulated in chemistry references.

6. Electron Affinity (EA):

 Electron affinity represents the energy change when an atom gains an electron to form a
negatively charged ion. It can be expressed as:

Electron Affinity (EA) = E(final state) - E(initial state)

7. Where:

 E(final state) is the energy of the atom with an added electron (anion).

 E(initial state) is the energy of the neutral atom.

8. Ionization Energy (IE):

 Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion. It
can be expressed as:
Ionization Energy (IE) = E(final state) - E(initial state)

Where:

 E(final state) is the energy of the ion after the electron is removed.

 E(initial state) is the energy of the neutral atom or ion before the electron is removed.