Derivative by First Principle

Derivative by first principle refers to using algebra to find a general expression for the slope of a curve. It is also know
delta method. The derivative is a measure of the instantaneous rate of change, which is equal to

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim ​ . ​

h→0 h
This expression is the foundation for the rest of differential calculus: every rule, identity, and fact follows from this.

Contents
Derivative by First Principle
One-sided Derivative

Problem Solving

Derivative by First Principle

A derivative is simply a measure of the rate of change. It can be the rate of change of distance with respect to time o
temperature with respect to distance. We want to measure the rate of change of a function y = f (x) with respect to
x.

The general notion of rate of change of a quantity y with respect to x is the change in y divided by the change in x, a
point a. This describes the average rate of change and can be expressed as

f (x) − f (a)
.
x−a
​

To find the instantaneous rate of change, we take the limiting value as x approaches a. To simplify this, we set x =a
we want to take the limiting value as h approaches 0. Thus, we have

f (a + h) − f (a)
lim ​ . ​

h→0 h
(Review Two-sided Limits.) If this limit exists and is finite, then we say that

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim ​ .
​

h→0 h
 EXAMPLE

Evaluate the derivative of x2 at x = 1 using first principle.

ANSWER

EXAMPLE

Evaluate the derivative of xn at x = 2 using first principle, where n ∈ N.

ANSWER

EXAMPLE

Evaluate the derivative of sin x at x = a using first principle, where a ∈ R.

ANSWER

The above examples demonstrate the method by which the derivative is computed. If you know some standard deriv
those of xn and sin x, you could just realize that the above-obtained values are just the values of the derivatives at x
x = a, respectively. In fact, all the standard derivatives and rules are derived using first principle. You can try deriving
using the principle for further exercise to get acquainted with evaluating the derivative via the limit.

One-sided Derivative

Consider a function f : [a, b] → R, where a, b ∈ R. In general, derivative is only defined for values in the interval (a
c ∈ (a, b) be the number at which the rate of change is to be measured.

Firstly consider the interval (c, c + ϵ), where ϵ is number arbitrarily close to zero. Let 0 < δ < ϵ.
f (x2 )−f (x1 )
Rate of change (m) is given by . So for a given value of δ the rate of change from c to c + δ can be given
​ ​

x2 −x1
​

​ ​

f (c + δ) − f (c)
m= .
(c + δ) − c
​

As ϵ gets closer to 0, so does δ and it can be expressed as the right-hand limit:

f (c + h) − f (c)
m+ = lim+
​ .
​

h→0 h
This limit, if existent, is called the right-hand derivative at c. Similarly we can define the left-hand derivative as follow

f (c + h) − f (c)
m− = lim− .
h
​ ​

h→0

The function f is said to be derivable at c if m+ ​ = m− . The equal value is called the derivative of f at c.
f (c+h)−f (c)
The limit limh→0 ​

h ​ , if it exists (by conforming to the conditions above), is the derivative of f at c and the m
finding the derivative by such a limit is called derivative by first principle.

d f (x)−f (c)
Often, the limit is also expressed as dx f (x) ​ = limx→c ​

x−c ​.

Problem Solving
Derivative by first principle is often used in cases where limits involving an unknown function are to be determined a
sometimes the function itself is to be determined.

EXAMPLE

A function satisfies the following equation:

f (4h) + f (2h) + f (h) + f ( h2 ) + f ( h4 ) + f ( h8 ) + ⋯

lim = 64.
​ ​ ​

​ ​

h→0 h
Given that f (0) = 0 and that f ′ (0) exists, determine f ′ (0).

At first glance, the question does not seem to involve first principle at all and is merely about properties of limits.

Well, in reality, it does involve a simple property of limits but the crux is the application of first principle. Maybe it is
clear now, but just let us write the derivative of f at 0 using first principle:

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim ​ ​

h→0 h
f (h) − (0)
= lim ​ ​

h
​ ​

h→0
f (h)
= lim ​ . ​

h→0 h

This is somewhat the general pattern of the terms in the given limit. This hints that there might be some connectio
f (nh)
each of the terms in the given equation with f ′ (0). Let us consider the limit limh→0 h , where n ∈ R. This is qu ​ ​

= nh. Then as h → 0, t →
simple. Let t 0, and therefore the given limit becomes limt→0 nft(t) = n limt→0 f (t)
t
,w ​ ​ ​ ​

nothing but nf ′ (0). Now this probably makes the next steps not only obvious but also easy:

f (4h) + f (2h) + f (h) + f ( h2 ) + f ( h4 ) + f ( h8 ) + ⋯ f (4h) f (2h) f (h) f ( h2 )

lim = lim + + + +
​ ​ ​ ​

h h h h h
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

h→0 h→0
1
=4f ′ (0) + 2f ′ (0) + f ′ (0) + f ′ (0) + ⋯
2
​

1 1
=f ′ (0) (4 + 2 + 1 + + + ⋯ )
2 4
​ ​

′
=f (0) × 8
=64.

Therefore, the value of f ′ (0) is 8. □ ​

TRY IT YOURSELF

Suppose f (x) = x4 + ax2 + bx satisfies the following two conditions: 55

f (x) − f (2) f (x) − f (1)

lim = 4, lim = 9.  66
x−2 x2 − 1
​ ​ ​ ​

x→2 x→1

What is the value of b − a? 77

88

EXAMPLE

A function f satisfies the following relation:

 f (mn) = f (m) + f (n) ∀m, n ∈ R+ .

Given that f ′ (1) = c (exists and is finite), find a non-trivial solution for f (x).

ANSWER

Note: If we were not given that the function is differentiable at 0, then we cannot conclude that f (x) = cx. (See Fun
Equations.)

EXAMPLE

Consider the piecewise function

⎧
⎪−x
2 x<0
f (x) = ⎨0 x=0
⎪
⎩
​ ​ ​ ​

sin x x > 0.

Evaluate f ′ (0).

ANSWER

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Derivative by First Principle.
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