 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to

support loads. The fundamental purpose of a structure

is to transmit loads from the point of application to the
point of support and, through the foundations to the
ground.
 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to
support loads. The fundamental purpose of a structure
is to transmit loads from the point of application to the
point of support and, through the foundations to the
ground.
 According to cartesian coordinate system, equations of
static equilibrium are written as
 ΣFx = ΣFy = ΣFz = 0 – Algebraic sums of components
of all external forces along x, y and z axes = 0
 ΣMx = ΣMy = ΣMz = 0 – Algebraic sums of
components of all moments along x, y and z axes = 0
 External forces can be divided in to two groups: 1.
Applied loads, 2. Reactive forces
 For the static equilibrium of plane structures three
equations of equilibrium are enough to be satisfied.
They are, ΣFx = 0, ΣFy= 0 and ΣMz = 0.
 For the static equilibrium of space structures all the
above mentioned six equations of equilibrium are to be
satisfied.
 Statically indeterminate structures are those structures
which cannot be analyzed with the help of equations of
static equilibrium alone.
 A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses
more members or is supported by more reactive
restraints than are strictly necessary for stability and
equilibrium.
 In analysis of statically indeterminate structures, the
number of unknowns is greater than the number of
independent equations derived from the conditions of
static equilibrium.
 Additional equations based on the compatibility of
deformation must be written in order to obtain
sufficient number of equations for the determination of
all the unknowns.
 The number of such additional equations required for
the determination of all the unknowns is known as the
degree of static indeterminacy or degree of redundancy
of the structure.
 External indeterminacy is related to how stably the
support system exerts reaction components.
 It can be calculated as the number of external reaction
components in excess of the number of equilibrium
equations required for the static determinacy or
minimum number of reaction components required for
stability.
 A structure is usually externally indeterminate or
redundant if the reactions at the supports cannot be
determined by using the available equations of
equilibrium.
 The external indeterminacy (E) can thus be said as
 Total number of reaction components (R) – minimum
number of reaction components required for stability
(r)
i.e. E = R – r
 The degree of external indeterminacy is E = (R – 6) for
space structures and E = (R – 3) for plane structures
 Internal indeterminacy is related to the members that are
more in number than that is required for stability. When
there is more number of members in the structure, there
could be more numbers of stress resultants that are
unknowns to be found for the complete analysis.
 For pin jointed plane structures to be internally determinate,
the equation to be satisfied is m = 2j – 3; where m = number
of members and j = number of joints.
 The degree of internal indeterminacy in case of pin jointed
structures can then be written as

I = m – (2j – 3) for plane trusses &

I = m – (3j – 6) for space trusses
 Total degree of indeterminacy or redundancy is equal to
the number by which the unknowns (ie. Reaction
components as well as stress resultants) exceed the
condition equations of equilibrium. The excess
restraints are called as redundant.
 Unstable structure
 When more equations are available than the number of
forces that constrain the body in space, then the
structure is unstable
 To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members,
it is not only necessary to satisfy the equations of
equilibrium, but the members must also be properly
held or, constrained by their supports.
 In structural analysis a structure is said to be stable
when it can support any possible system of applied
loads.
 Stability can be divided into two as external and
internal.
 A structure in which there are insufficient numbers of
reactions to prevent motion from taking place is called
an unstable structure. This is external instability.
 Structures for which the numbers of reaction
components are greater than or equal to the number of
available equilibrium equations but that are unstable
due to arrangement of these reaction components are
said to be geometrically unstable.
 The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a
triangular arrangement of three members.
 A truss may have internal instability if four members
are used to form an element.
 The stability of structures depends on the number and
geometric arrangement of reactions and structural
members rather than on the strength of individual
member or supports.
 Despite the possibility that an unstable structure could
become stable under a particular system of applied
loads, the structure is classified as an unstable structure.
 When all forces in a structure can be determined
strictly from equilibrium equations, the structure is
referred to as statically determinate.
 Structures having more unknown forces than available
equilibrium equations are called statically
indeterminate.
 A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot
be analysed by the equations of static equilibrium
alone.
 Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of
functional requirements, limitations on types of
framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of
inherent continuity introduced by the type of material
used like reinforced concrete.
 In the analysis of indeterminate structures, therefore,
ways of establishing additional equations must be
sought. These additional equations may be derived
from compatibility of deformation or from conditions
of symmetry.
S. No. Determinate Structures Indeterminate Structures
Equilibrium conditions are fully adequate Conditions of equilibrium are not
1
to analyze the structure. adequate to fully analyze the structure.
Bending moment or shear force at any Bending moment or shear force at any
2 section is independent of the material section depends upon the material
property of the structure. property.
The bending moment or shear force at The bending moment or shear force at
3 any section is independent of the cross- any section depends upon the cross-
section or moment of inertia. section or moment of inertia.
Temperature variations do not cause
4 Temperature variations cause stresses.
stresses.
5 No stresses are caused due to lack of fit. Stresses are caused due to lack of fit.
Extra conditions like compatibility of
Extra conditions like compatibility of
displacements are required to analyze
6 displacements are not required to analyze
the structure along with the
the structure.
equilibrium equations.
 Internal stability of structures and determining which
conditions exist in a given case need experience,
especially for trusses. In some cases the structure is
different from what our mathematical criteria tell us.
Therefore, stability of trusses is most easily settled by
inspection.
 A beam is a structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as
a result of the external loads, own weight and external
reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
 Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but
can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads
due to an earthquake or wind).
 Stability depends on external supports
 Determinacy relates on the number of available and
conditional equations.
ra<r; structure is statically unstable
ra= r; structure is statically determinate
ra>r; structure is statically indeterminate
Where ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for
stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
Remark: r = 3 is not a sufficient conditions for stability
 A simple truss can be made by combining three bars to
form a triangle. Stability depends partly on external
supports and partly on the arrangement of members or
bars. Three reaction components are required for
external stability and determinacy of a plane truss
without condition equations.
 External classification
 The external statically classification of the structure
depends on the total number of reaction components, ra
and their arrangement.
 Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
ra <r; structure is statically unstable externally
ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
ra >r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
 where ra is the available number of reaction
components
 r is the minimum number of reaction components
required for external stability, usually 3+n
 n is the number of special/ conditional equation
 The condition for ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient
conditions for statical classification because the
arrangement of the reaction components may render the
truss unstable.
 Internal classification
 For internal classification, in addition to the above
definition for r; let m be the total number of bars and j
the total number of joints. Then
2j = m + r
 The above equation can be rewritten as: m = 2j – r
 In this form, m is the number of members required to
form an internally statically determinate truss that
connects j joints and has r reaction components
required for external stability.
 If ma is the actual number of bar forces in the truss,
then the following criteria hold true for internal
classification

 ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally

 ma = m; truss is statically determinate internally
 ma >m; truss is statically indeterminate internally
 Consider the trusses shown below. The truss shown in
fig (a) is stable where as the truss shown in fig (b) is
unstable since the geometric arrangement of the
members is not maintained.
 Frames are composed of continuous members and
rigidly connected joints, The degree of indeterminacy
(DI) is determined as the difference of the total number
of unknown reaction components and the number of
static equilibrium equations available. Note that the
frame with the hinge has a fourth condition equation,
since the bending moment at the hinge must be zero.
 Stability depends partly on external supports and partly
on moment resisting joints.
 External classification
 The external statical classification of the structure
depends on the total number of reaction components, ra
and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria
hold true:
 ra<r; structure is statically unstable externally
 ra= r; structure is statically determinate externally
 ra>r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
 Where ra is the available number of reaction
components
 r is the minimum number of reaction components
required for external stability, usually 3+n
 n is the number of special/ conditional equation ra ≥ r
is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical
classification because the arrangement of the reaction
components may render the frame unstable.
 Internal classification
(3ma+ r) <(3j + n);
Let ma=the actual number of members
r = the minimum number of independent reaction
components required for external stability
j= the total number joints
n= number of special/condition equations
 Therefore, 3 ma + r = the number of unknowns
 3j+n=the number of available equations
 Then the following criteria hold true for internal
classification of frames
 (3ma + r) <(3j + n); structure is statically unstable
 (3ma + r) = (3j + n);structure is statically determinate
 (3ma + r) >(3j + n);structure is statically indeterminate
 The criterion already established for both trusses and
frames hold also for investigation of overall effect. To
determine the overall classification of a frame, in the
above expressions replace r by ra.
 Note. The number of conditional equation introduced
by a hinge joint is equal to the number of members at
the joint minus one.