Chapter 11

USING INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the student is expected to:
1. “Decide the most appropriate use and design of interviews and/or focus groups on a
particular research project;”
2. “Apply the interviews and/or focus group in their own research and develop appropriate
schedule for their own research;”
3. “Determine when to use interview and focus group;
4. “Learn to avoid bias in research”; and
5. “Design an interview schedule and a focus group schedule for a sample project.

Overview:”
1. Introduction
2. Interviews and Focus Groups
3. Interviews
4. Bias In Research
5. Focus Group

1. INTRODUCTION:
The qualitative research interview seeks to describe and the meanings of central themes
in the life world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of
what the interviewees say. A qualitative research interview seeks to cover both a factual and a
meaning level, though it is usually more difficult to interview on a meaning level. Interviews are
particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The interviewer can
pursue in-depth information around the topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain
respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. A focus group is a
small, but demographically diverse group of people and whose reactions are studied especially in
market research or political analysis in guided or open discussions about a new product or
something else to determine the reactions that can be expected from a larger population. It is a
form of qualitative research consisting of interviews in which a group of people are asked about
their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept,
advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where
participants are free to talk with other group members. During this process, the researcher either
takes notes or records the vital points he or she is getting from the group. Researchers should
select members of the focus group carefully for effective and authoritative responses.”

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 Data gathering techniques are under the methodological framework and is a key to
develop a systematic, logical and integrated research project. Focus groups and interviews are
often used to produce a qualitative research. Qualitative research is inductive and subjective and
is more focused on words than on numbers. Once the researcher has chosen a methodology,
he/she starts to devise data collection methods. And the two most common methods in gathering
data for a research project are focus groups and interviews.”

2. INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS

“Interviews are used when the researcher can identify the respondents in connection to
the phenomenon he/she is undertaking and can gather these respondents in an interview
procedure.”
“Focus groups, on the other hand, are utilized when the research opted the participants to
focus on a particular event and through that, come up with insights or ideas with regards to that
phenomenon. Focus groups are useful when group dynamic is needed for the research. Group
dynamic is defined as the energy within the group, whether negative or positive, and is brought
by strong personalities.”

3. INTERVIEWS
According to Silva, D.L. (2016), there are five (5) types of interviews and these are:
1. “The one-to-one interview – an in-depth and one is to one interrogation of the researcher
to an interviewee about a certain phenomenon. A face-to-face interview (F2F) so the
researcher can develop a comfortable communicative relationship with the interviewee.
The researcher also has the opportunity to observe the interviewee in the way he/she acts
and responds.”
2. “The group interview – In this type of interview, the researcher can’t build a rapport with
each respondents but has unique advantages. In these practice, “meeting of minds”
happen because the group of respondents can share and justify their opinions, some can
negate, while some may affirm. But nonetheless, at the end of the process, a general idea
is produced.”
3. “The telephone interview – the interview of a researcher to an interviewee is over the
telephone. This is often done one-on-one. The researcher cannot observe the interviewee
but it offers convenience for both parties. It also offers some level of privacy. This is
advantageous when the respondents of a certain research are scattered over a large area,
or if there’s some sensitivity in the questions.”
4. “The online interview – the interview is done using the internet or an intranet. This
interview has two types: Synchronous and asynchronous . Synchronous interviews are
interviews undertaken real-time. Asynchronous interviews are interviews that are
conducted out of real-time and can be carried out over extended periods of time.”

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 5. “In a photo-elicitation interview – the interview of the researcher to an interviewee
involves discussion and interpretation of a photograph or a series of photographs. This is
also known as photo-interview.”
(p. 160-162 of RESEARCH METHODS: Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Investigations)

HOW TO CONDUCT INTERVIEWS

Figure 11.1. Steps in Conducting Interviews. (Silva, 2016)

“Step 1: Decide on interview method.”

“Identify which among the interview methods is applicable and appropriate to the nature
of the research. Determine what it is you hope to learn from interviewing and identify the people
that will provide you the richest data and information possible.”

“Step 2: Devise interview schedule.”

“It should be highly structured because interviews are meant for quantitative research.
Scope of interviewing can vary widely, so determine an effective number of people to interview
in advance.”

“Step 3: Select interviewees.”

“Decide who will be interviewed based on the population of the study and the need of the
research.”

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“Step 4: Contact and invite the interviewees to participate.”
“Contact each of the interviewees and ask if they can be part of your research. Remember
that they can refuse to participate and accept it wholeheartedly and try to contact another
possible qualified interviewees.”

“Step 5: Provide interviewees with formal information of the research.”

“This will serve as their basis whether they will pursue participating in your interview.
The information sheet should include your identification, your school, purpose of your interview
and justification of your research. Include also on the information sheet the benefits that the
participants can get. Guarantee also the confidentiality of the interview and the safety of the
participants. Don’t forget to note on your information sheet that their participation is voluntary.”

“Step 6: Set up interviews.”

“It is dependent on the method, the location and the time of interview. The method must
be appropriate to the nature of the research. The location must be conducive for ideas and
brainstorming. Ensure that you have two power supplies- electricity and batteries. Provide also
the review schedule for the interviewees.”

“Step 7: Conduct the interview.”

“Whether you are using the one-to-one, the telephone, the group or the online interview,
always keep in mind to behave properly and dress accordingly. Interviews can be recorded in a
number of ways. Commonly, interviewers will record using a phone app or other audio recording
device. You may also wish to vide o record the interview, or simply take copious notes.
Regardless of method, be sure that you obtain permission from each interviewee—in written
format—before conducting the interview. Determine whether it is best to conduct a structured
interview or an unstructured interview (see explanations at the far right.) Develop questions that
will provide rich and useful information. Avoid closed, yes/no questions. Rather, ask questions
that will provide opportunity for interviewees to express feelings, attitudes, behaviors, opinions,
perceptions, and so forth. Avoid leading questions (questions that make people feel or think a
certain way before they have a chance to answer). Sit down with interviewees in a safe space
where they feel comfortable and relaxed. Start with small talk to get them comfortable with you
and talking out loud. If you are doing unstructured interviews, have your topics ready, but be
prepared to have an open dialog with interviewee and ask follow-up questions when responses
create interesting insights. When conducting structured interviews, be sure to stick to the
questions and ask exactly the same questions to all interviewees.”

“Step 8: Conclude the interview.”

“Before concluding the interview, ask the interviewees if they have anything more to add.
Often times, the interviewees summarized their thought and idea about the phenomenon under

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investigation at the end of the interview proper and express it in a clearer and substantial point of
view. Express your utmost gratitude for their participation and give them the guarantee of
confidentiality and safety. And before you leave the venue, make sure that the data are secured
and that all of your materials and equipments are all packed up.”

“Step 9: Manage data.”

“The safety and security of the data gathered from the interview is your main concern. Be
mindful of the management, transport and storage of these data.”
(p. 163-166 of RESEARCH METHODS: Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Investigations)

HOW TO CONDUCT ONE-TO-ONE INTERVIEW

Figure 11.2. How to conduct one-to-one interview. (Silva, 2016)

Note: “Give a copy of interview schedule to the interviewee. During the interview process,
allow time for the interviewee to answer your questions. Gather as much data as you can but it
should be useful for your research.”

Table 11.1. The advantages and disadvantages of one-to-one interview. (Silva, 2016)

Advantages Disadvantages
“The interviewee is the sole “One-on-one interviews are
focus of the interviewer. The time-consuming.”
interviewee has the space and
the time to express their
individual perspective on, or
experience of, the phenomenon

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 under investigation.”
“The researcher has the
“There is a potential for the
opportunity to develop a
interviewer to influence or lead
rapport, or comfortable
the responses of the interviewee
communicative relationship,
in some way.”
with the interviewee.”

HOW TO CONDUCT TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

Figure 11.3. Steps in conducting telephone interviews. (Silva, 2016)

HOW TO CONDUCT GROUP INTERVIEWS

Figure 11.4. Steps in

conducting group interviews. (Silva, 2016)

HOW TO CONDUCT ONLINE INTERVIEWS

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 Figure 11.5. Steps in conducting online interviews. (Silva, 2016)
Note: Avoid showing too much control over the participants as this could raise ethical issues.

“Researchers choose the interview technology and setting for a variety of reasons,
including personal preferences, skills, or access by participants. Some researchers are looking at
use or function of an Information and Communication Technology (ICT), so in essence the
technology is itself the research phenomenon. The interview style and level of structure influence
the choice of ICT for the interview. Key questions for understanding researchers’ ICT choices
relate to the alignment of research purpose with availability of visual, verbal, or text forms of
exchange, the degree of immediacy possible between question and response, and/or the potential
for visual communication or collaboration.”
“The terms synchronous and asynchronous have until recently seemed mutually
exclusive. Either the technology allowed communication partners to converse in real time, or it
did not. Now, many ICTs and patterns of usage allow for what we will call near-synchronous
conversations. One party may post, text, or send a comment, update, or question and the
receiving party may respond immediately, or soon. The message is typically brief and
conversational. The sender expects the recipient to respond quickly, and engage in an extended
kind of interchange. On the other hand, technologies that are seemingly synchronous may indeed
offer real-time exchange but not result in a focused dialogue. When we can see the other person
face-to-face, it is obvious whether the other person is pondering the question, gathering his or her
thoughts, or is distracted by household chores, children, mail, or other conversations. Online, we
may not be able to see the other person, so we do not know whether he or she is contemplating
an answer to our question, or is off doing other things and will return to the conversation at some
point. Media Richness Theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) prioritized the rich exchange across
multiple channels with immediate back-and-forth responses between communication partners.
Media Synchronicity Theory (MST) refined that concept by offering a definition for
synchronicity that distinguishes high-quality, real-time communications from those exchanges
that, while ostensibly synchronous, do not entail attentive participation in an in-depth, focused
exchange or productive dialogue (Carlson & George, 2004; Dennis, Fuller, & Valacich, 2008).
Dennis et al. observed that it is not simply the choice of ICT, but the manner in which
individuals use media influences their communication performance (the development of shared
understanding). Generally speaking, convergence processes benefit from the use of media that

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facilitate synchronicity, the ability to support individuals working together at the same time with
a shared pattern of coordinated behavior.”
“Synchronicity refers to the successful convergence that, it can be argued, is beneficial to
an interview process.”
“Researchers who select asynchronous methods (such as e-mail or posts to a discussion
forum) report high-quality exchanges that result when participants have a chance to think about
the response, or gain new experiences with the topic of the research, between questions.”

WHAT TO DO IF THINGS GO WRONG

Figure 11.6. Things to do if things go wrong during the interview. (Silva, 2016)

4. BIAS IN RESEARCH
“Bias in research is anything that contaminates or compromises the research. The three types of
bias in research are:”
a) “Researcher bias – Researcher can be biased in favor of a particular result or finding in
the research. They can have a particular view and want that to be confirmed. They can
influence the findings of the research through the design of the study.”
b) “Sampling bias – occurs when the sampling procedure used in the research is flawed or
compromised in some way.”

c) Respondent bias:
i. “Response set – respondents answer questions in a patterned way.”
ii. “Acquiescence bias – happens when a respondent agrees with everything the
researcher says.”
iii. “Social desirability bias – occurs when a respondent gives the socially desirable
or the politically correct response, instead of an honest response.”
iv. “Prestige bias – occurs when the respondent is influenced in responding through
their perception of the prestige of a group or individual.”

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“Figure 11.7. Three types of bias in research.” (Silva, 2016)

“Figure 11.8. Researcher bias.” (Silva, 2016)

“Figure 11.9. Sampling bias.” (Silva, 2016)

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 “Figure 11.10. Respondent bias.” (Silva, 2016)

5. FOCUS GROUP
“A focus group is a data collection method where a researcher uses a group of participants in a
focused discussion on the issue under investigation, designed to produce new knowledge and new
insights. It differs from group interview in a way that the researcher facilitates the group in focusing on
the phenomenon under investigation in the hope of developing from that focus new information and new
insights into that phenomenon.”
“A focus group is a small, but demographically diverse group of people and whose
reactions are studied especially in market research or political analysis in guided or open
discussions about a new product or something else to determine the reactions that can be
expected from a larger population. It is a form of qualitative research consisting of interviews in
which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes
towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an
interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. During
this process, the researcher either takes notes or records the vital points he or she is getting from
the group. Researchers should select members of the focus group carefully for effective and
authoritative responses.”

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 FOCUS GROUP

“Figure 11.11. Focus group.” (Silva, 2016)

TWO TYPES OF FOCUS GROUP

“Figure 11.12. Two types of focus group. (Silva, 2016)

”
“An online focus group is one type of focus group, and is a sub-set of online research
methods. They are typically an appropriate research method for consumer research, business-to-
business research and political research. Face-to-face focus group is a qualitative method of
data collection wherein a skilled moderator facilitates discussion on a selected topic among 6 to
10 respondents, allowing them to respond spontaneously to the issues raised. Focus groups held
in person usually last for 90 to 120 minutes per session. For focus group research to be most
valuable, the moderator must go over the research topics, establish an environment in which all
points of view are welcome, and follow up on unexpected but potentially valuable topics that are
raised.”

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 Table 11.2. “Advantages and disadvantages of online interviews and focus groups.” (Silva,
2016)
Advantages Disadvantages
“No access issues if the population can go “Potential participants must have access
online, which makes it very convenient.” to the technologies and capability to use
them.”
“Very large number can participate.” “Recruitment can be difficult.”
“No time limits.” “The connection may be lost.”
“The participants may engage more openly, “Without video link, participants can’t
if without video link.” be observed.”
“It can provide a lot of data quickly.” “Quality of data may not be adequate.”
“It can be structured to guarantee the “Participants may be easily distracted.”
anonymity and privacy of the participants.”
“Participants are less likely to be “Participant engagement may be
intimidated/controlled/controlling.” problematic.”
“Participants in asynchronous interviews “Lack of depth in data gathered may be
and focus groups have more time to a problem.”
respond.”
“No recording necessary.” “Asynchronous interviews and focus
groups can take a long time to complete
errors.”
“Accurate transcript provided.” “The facilitator will have a hard time to
ensure cooperation and focus.”
“Safe and secure environments for both
parties.”

HOW TO CONDUCT A F2F FOCUS GROUP

“This tool is a qualitative method of data collection wherein a skilled moderator

facilitates discussion on a selected topic among 6 to 10 respondents, allowing them to respond
spontaneously to the issues raised. Focus groups held in person usually last for 90 to 120 minutes
per session. For focus group research to be most valuable, the moderator must go over the
research topics, establish an environment in which all points of view are welcome, and follow up
on unexpected but potentially valuable topics that are raised. The step-by-step procedure in
conducting a F2F focus group is shown in Figure 11.13.”

“When focus groups are conducted in person, participants and the moderator gather,
usually around a table. Observers (members of the strategy team) sit behind a one-way mirror or
unobtrusively back from the table and take notes. Groups may also be recorded by audio or
videotape.”

“Focus groups create an atmosphere for synergistic discussion among members of the
target audience. Researchers commonly use them to develop market or communication strategy,
explore reactions to message concepts (concept testing), develop hypotheses (broad study issues)

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for quantitative studies, and identify the range of responses that should be included in closed-
ended questionnaires, provide insights into the results of quantitative studies, and brainstorm for
possible program improvements.”

Figure 11.13. Steps in conducting F2F focus group. (Silva, 2016)

Pros

1. “Interaction in the group can help elicit in-depth thought and discussion.”
2. “Group interaction can help with brainstorming, because participants can build on
each others’ ideas.”
3. “Considerable opportunity to probe answers.”
4. “Can yield richer data than surveys about the complexities of thoughts and
behavior.”
5. “Groups can provide feedback from a number of individuals in a relatively short
amount of time.”
6. “In-person groups give moderator more opportunity to read nonverbal cues and
use nonverbal cues to control the flow of discussion than in telephone focus
groups.”
7. “Rapport can be fostered more easily among in-person groups than telephone
groups.”

Cons

 “Findings not generalizable to the whole target audience.”

 “Respondents may be concerned about lack of anonymity.”
 “Can be labor intensive and expensive, especially if groups are conducted in
multiple locations.”
 “Group responses don’t necessarily reflect individuals’ opinions because some
participants may dominate the discussion or influence others’ opinions.”
 “Cannot get everyone’s opinion on every question; each person is limited to about
10 to 15 minutes of talk time.”
 “An inexperienced moderator can lead the group in one direction or neglect to
probe for critical insights.”

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 (p. 169-170 of RESEARCH METHODS: Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Investigations)
End of Chapter Questions:
 “Enumerate and define extensively the five types of interview.”
 “Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using one-to-one interview.”
 “Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using group interview.”
 “Differentiate focus group and group interview.”
 “Define online focus group in the context of research.”
 “Define face-to-face focus group in the context of research.”
 “Explain the advantages and disadvantages of online interviews and focus
groups.”
 “If you are to conduct a research, which will you prefer, online focus group or
face-to-face focus group? Why?”
 “Define bias in research and its three types.”
 “In your own opinion, how can a researcher avoid bias in research? Give an
example to expound your answer.”

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and Negotiation, 13(2), 191–210.
Carter, S. M., & Little, M. (2007). Justifying knowledge, justifying method, taking action:
Epistemologies, methodologies, and methods in qualitative research. Qualitative Health
Research, 17(10), 1316–1328.
Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1986). Organizational information requirements, media richness
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Dennis, A. R., Fuller, R. M., & Valacich, J. S. (2008). Media, tasks, and communication
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575–600.
Edwards, R. (2004). Social capital in the field: Researchers’ tales. Retrieved from
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/families/workingpapers/familieswp10.pdf
Silva, D.L. (2016). Research Methods Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Invetigations,
Philippine Edition, JO-ES Publishing House, Inc., Dalandanan, Valenzuela: pp.51-64.

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