RC-I Module

Arba Minch University Department of Civil Engineering
Arba Minch University

Arba Minch Institute of Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
Module
On
Reinforced Concrete Design (RC-I)
Compiled By:
Getu Zewdie
March 2011
Arba Minch University
Module: Reinforced Concrete Design-I (RC-I) Compiled by Getu Z. March 2011 Page 1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1:- Properties of Concrete and Reinforcement
CHAPTER 2:- Working Stress Design (WSD) Method
2.1 Basic Concepts of Working Stress Design Method
2.2 Design of Beams for Flexure
2.2.1 Singly Reinforced Sections
2.2.2 Doubly Reinforced Sections
2.2.3 T- or Inverted L- Sections
CHAPTER 3:- Limit State Design (LSD) Method
3.1 Basic Concepts of Limit State Design Method
3.2 Design of Beams for Flexure
3.2.1 Singly Reinforced Sections
3.2. 2 Doubly Reinforced Sections
3.2.3 T- or Inverted L- Sections
3.3 Design of Beams For Shear
CHAPTER 4:- One-Way Slabs
CHAPTER 5:- Bond, Anchorage, and Development Length
CHAPTER 6:- Serviceability Limit State Design
CHAPTER 7:- Inelastic Moment Redistribution
CHAPTER 1
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCEMENT
1.1 Material Properties
Concrete is the most commonly used building material. It has the advantage of being
formed into any desired shape most conveniently. It is an artificial stone obtained by mixing
aggregates, cement and water and allowing the product to cure for hardening. Its essential
ingredients are cement and water, which react with each other chemically, to form another
material having useful strength. The strength of concrete depends upon the quality of its
ingredients, their relative quantities and the manner in which they are mixed, compacted and
cured. It is possible to produce concrete of different specifications for various purposes by
suitably adjusting the proportions of cement, aggregate and water.
Reinforced concrete is a composite material made of concrete and steel. Plain concrete
possesses high compressive strength but little tensile strength, which makes it weak in bending,
shear and torsion. Reinforcing steel possesses high strength both in tension and compression. In
reinforced concrete, steel provides the tensile strength and the concrete provides the compressive
strength. So, by combining these features of concrete and steel, it attains high utility and
versatility.
Advantages of RC
- It is moldable into any desired shape
- It does not deteriorate with time
- It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant
- It is monolithic
Disadvantages of RC
- Difficult to dismantle
- Formwork is expensive
- Difficult to supervise after pouring
- Due to crack, large portions of section not effectively used
1.2 Important Features of Concrete
Characteristic Strength of Materials
For both concrete end reinforcement the Code uses the term ‘characteristic strength’
instead of 28-day works cube strength and yield stress, although it is related to these. The
characteristic strength for all materials has the notation fk and is defined as the value of the cube
strength of concrete (fcu), the yield or proof stress of reinforcement (fy), below which 5% of all
possible test results would be expected to fall. The value therefore is
fk = fm – 1.64s
Where fm is the mean strength of actual test results determined in accordance with a standard
procedure, s is the standard deviation, and 1.64 is the value of the constant required to comply
with 5% of the test results falling below the characteristic strength, as indicated in Fig. 1.2.1.
Fig. 1.2.1 Characteristic strength
Compressive Strength
The strength of concrete for design purposes will be based on compressive tests made on cubes
at an age of 28 days unless there is satisfactory evidence that a particular testing regime is
capable of predicting the 28-day strength at an earlier age.
These 28-day characteristic strengths determine the grade of the concrete and it is
important to select the correct grade appropriate for use. The concrete has to provide the
durability for the environmental conditions as well as adequate strength for the loading
requirements.
Table 1.2.1 Grades of Concrete

Class Permissible Grades of Concrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II C5 C15 C20
In accordance with Ethiopian Standards, compressive strength of concrete is determined from

tests on 150mm cubes at the age of 28 days. Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may
also be used with conversion factors determined from a comprehensive series of tests. In the
absence of such tests, the conversion factors given in Table 1.2.2 may be applied to obtain the
equivalent characteristic strength on the basis of 150mm cubes.
Table 1.2.2 Conversion Factors for strength

Size and Type of Test Specimen Conversion Factor
Cube (200 mm) 1.05
Cylinder (150mm diameter 300mm height) 1.25
The characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck are given for different grades of concrete in
Table 1.2.3.
Table 1.2.3 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder Compressive Strength fck.
Grades of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

Concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48
In selecting an appropriate grade of concrete, the designer has to determine the environment and
exposure conditions to which the members of the structure will be subjected.
Stress – Strain Curve

Tan - Secant Modulus

Tan - Tangent Modulus



As there is no fixed ratio of fck/ to define the term modulus of elasticity, whenever E is used
without further designation, it is usually meant the secant modulus Ec in MPa.
The modulus of elasticity depends not only on the concrete grade but also on the actual
properties of the aggregates used. In the absence of more accurate data,
1
Ec  9.5 f ck  8 3
Where, Ec is the secant modulus.
Creep
Another important factor to be considered in stress-strain of concrete is creep: a property where
increase in strain under constant load with time is observed. Factors attributing: - loading at an
early stage, high water – cement ratio, exposing the concrete to drying condition.
Tensile Strength
- Important in design to resist shear, torsion & control crack width.
- Difficult to obtain from test because of handling problems. Based on tests for other
property empirical relations are used to obtain tensile strength. For instance, in Ethiopian
standards f ctk  0.21 f ck2 3 , where fctk = tensile strength of concrete in MPa and fck =
characteristic cylindrical compressive strength in MPa.
1.3 Reinforcing Steel
 It is high strength and high costing material.
 The two materials – concrete and steel are best used in combination if the concrete is made
to resist the compression stresses and the steel, the tensile stresses.
 When RC elements are used, sufficient bond between the two materials must be developed
to ensure that there no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete.
This bond may be developed by
- chemical adhesion
- natural roughness
- Closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforcements.
 Reinforcing bars varying in size 6 to 35mm in size are available in which most are surface
deformed except  6. Some bar size and design areas for design purpose are given below.
Diameter ( mm) Area (mm2) Diameter ( mm) Area (mm2)

6 28 16 200
8 50 18 254
10 78.5 20 314
12 113 22 380
14 154 24 450
Characteristic properties of reinforcement bars is expressed using its yield strength fy(fyk) and
modulus of elasticity E s. fy is varying between 220 to 550 MPa, with 300MPa common in our
country. Es ranges between 200 to 210 MPa.
1.4 Behavior under Load
Loads
Loads that act on structures can be divided into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and
environmental loads.
Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime
of the structure. Usually the major part of the dead load is the weight of the structure itself. This
can be calculated with good accuracy from the design configuration, dimensions of the structure,
and density of the material. For buildings, floor fill, finish floors, and plastered ceilings are
usually included as dead loads, and an allowance is made for suspended loads such as piping and
lighting fixtures. For bridges, dead loads may include wearing surfaces, sidewalks, and curbing,
and an allowance is made for piping and other suspended loads.
Live loads consist chiefly of occupancy loads in buildings and traffic loads on bridges. They may
be either fully or partially in place or not present at all, and may also change in location. Their
magnitude and distribution at any given time are uncertain, and even their maximum intensities
throughout the lifetime of the structure are not known with precision. The minimum live loads
for which the floors and roof of a building should be designed are usually specified in the
building code that governs at the site of construction. Representative values of minimum live
loads to be used in a wide variety of buildings are found in Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and other structures.
Live loads in codes are usually approximated by uniformly distributed load. In addition to
these uniformly distributed loads, it is recommended that, as an alternative to the uniform load,
floors be designed to support safely certain concentrated loads if these produce a greater stress.
Certain reductions are often permitted in live loads for members supporting large areas, on the
premise that it is not likely that the entire area would be fully loaded at one time.
Service live loads for highway bridges are specified by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in its Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges. For railway bridges, the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) has
published the Manual of Railway Engineering, which specifies traffic loads.
Environmental loads consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake loads
(i.e., inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), soil pressures on subsurface portions of
structures, loads from possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces, and forces caused by
temperature differentials. Like live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain
both in magnitude and distribution.
Much progress has been made in recent years in developing rational methods for predicting
horizontal forces on structures due to wind and seismic action. Most building codes specify
design wind pressure per square foot of vertical wall surface. Depending upon locality, these
equivalent static forces vary from about 0.48 KPa up to 2.4KPa. Factors considered in more up
to date standards include probable wind velocity exposure (urban vs. open terrain, for example),
and height of the structure, the importance of the structure (i.e. consequences of failure), and the
guest response factors to account for the fluctuating nature of the wind and its interaction with
the structure.
Seismic forces may be found for a particular structure by elastic or inelastic dynamic analysis,
considering the expected ground accelerations and the mass, stiffness, and damping
characteristic of the construction. However, often the design is based on equivalent static forces
calculated from provisions. The base shear is found by considering such factors as location, type
of structure and its occupancy, total dead load, and the particular soil condition. The total lateral
force is distributed to floors over the entire height of the structure in such a way as to
approximate the distribution of forces from a dynamic analysis.
Characteristic loads
For loading we use the ‘characteristic’ load (Fk) as the basis. Ideally this should be determined
from the mean load and its standard deviation from the mean, and using the same probability as
for the materials we should say that Fk = Fm + 1.64s. The characteristic load would be that value
of loading such that not more than 5% of the spectrum of loading throughout the life of structure
will lie above the value of the characteristic load (Figure 1.4.1).
Mean Characteristic
Frequency of results
Load Load
1.64s
5% of results
to right of this
line
Fm Fk = Fm + 1.64s Load
Figure 1.4.1 Characteristic load
The characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads have the notation Gk, Qk, Wk respectively,
where the upper-case letters denote the total load on a span. Lower-case letters denote uniform
load per square meter, although in design examples for beams the lower-case letters have been
used for a uniformly distributed load, so that Gk = gkl.
Behavior
In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted
by the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the
corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two materials is assumed if the relative slip
is prevented which is achieved by using deformed bars, with their high bond strength at the steel
concrete interface.
To illustrate the stress strain development for increased loading consider the following.
Increasing load
Very low load
Tension cracks
c fc c fc c fc
NA
D d
As s fs s fs s fs
 ct f ct
b Strain Stress Strain Stress Strain Stress
(a) Very low loading (b) Increased loading (c) loading nearly at failure
Figure 1.4.2 Behavior of RC beam under load

 At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equals to fctk stress-strain relation shown in
figure 1.4.2a results.
 At increased load tensile stress produced is larger than fctk (figure 1.4.2b)  crack develops
below neutral axis, the steel alone carries all tensile force and hence the compressive stress
at extreme fiber is less than fc (linear stress distribution).
 For further increment of load, the stress distribution is longer linear as shown in fig. 1.4.2c.
If the structure, say the beam, has reached its maximum carrying capacity, one may conclude the
following on the cause of failure.
(i). When the amount of steel is small – at some value of the load, the steel reaches it yield
point. In such circumstances, the steel stretches a large amount and tension cracks in the
concrete widen visibly resulting significant deflection of the beam. Compression zone of
concrete increases ending up with crushing of concrete (secondary compression failure).
Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible signs, widening and lengthening of
cracks, marked increase in deflection.
(ii). When a large amount of steel is used, compressive strength of concrete would be exhausted
before the steel starts yielding, thus, concrete fails by crushing. Compression failure
through crushing of concrete is sudden and occurs without warning.
Thus it is a good practice to dimension sections in such a way that should they be overloaded,
yielding of steel rather than crushing of concrete would initiate failure.
Illustrative Design Examples on the Working Stress Design (WSD) Method

Example #1 (Singly Reinforced Section)
Design a single reinforced rectangular section with width of250mm to carry a service load of
bending moment of 135KNm. The allowable concrete and steel stresses fc = 0.45 fck and fs =
0.5fcy are to be developed simultaneously. fck = 20MPa and fcy = 300MPa : n = 8
Solution
Given:- b = 250mm fc = 0.45 fck = 0.45*20 = 20MPa
M = 135KNm fs = 0.5 fcy = 0.5*300 = 150MPa
n = 8
Required:- Section dimensions and are of steel reinforcement
Since a requirement has been specified that the allowable concrete and steel stresses are to be
developed simultaneously, it follows that a balanced steel ratio is to be used. In this case,
= ÷
∗
= = .0324
∗
.
=1− =1− = 0.892
∗ . ∗ .
= = = 1.3
∗
Thus, = √ = = 644.5
. ∗
Assuming Ø20 bars and 25mm cover,

D = 644.5 +25 +20/2 += 679.5mm
Use, D = 680mm
Now, to determine the area of steel reinforcement, it may be obtained as in the following two
cases,
= ; =
∗
= = 1567.7
∗ . ∗ .
And, = in this case, = and is given by
= ( )
= = 0.00973
∗ . ( . )
= = 0.00973 ∗ 250 ∗ 644.5 = 1567.74

of Ø20 bars required are determined from:-
.
# Ø20 = = = 4.99
Ø ∗
Hence, provide 5 Ø20 bars!

To determine the no of rows required for the 5 Ø20 bars, we apply a relation for a single row,
(nb + 1)*cover + Ø* nb = b
(nb + 1)*25 + 20* nb = 250
nb = 5
Thus, provide 5 Ø20 bars in a single row !
Detailing of the section designed is as shown below:-

Design the overhang beam shown below by using b = 250mm; fck = 25MPa; fs = 150MPa; and
n = 8 at sections A, B, & C. Imposed dead load is 10KN/m and live load of 7KN/m, in
addition to its own self-weight.
Solution
Given:- b = 250mm fck = 25MPa fc = 0.45*25 = 11.25MPa
n = 8 fs = 140MPa DL = 10KN/m LL = 7KN/m
Required:- Section dimensions and areas of steel reinforcements @ section A, B, & C
To simplify the analysis process, we may represent the given overhang beam with its equivalent
two cantilever beams and one fixed beam as shown below. The design process can be done at the
three sections subsequently.
1. Design @ Section A
Design @ Section A wii be governed by either of the maximum end moment.

To determine the total load for Fig(1), first we specify an initial depth D by using the ACI
code, in this case, for beam type with one end continuous, is estimated by:-
2000
= = = 108 ( ℎ)
18.5 = 18.5
Similarly, for Fig(2)
5000
= = = 270 ( ℎ)
18.5 = 18.5
Self-weights are,
w1 = .108*0.25 * 25= 0.675KN/m
w2 = 0.270*25 * 25 = 1.6875KN/m
Total Design Loads are,
W1 = 0.675 + 10 + 7 = 17.675KN/m
W2 = 1.6875 + 10 + 7 = 18.6875KN/m
Design Moments are,
. ∗
M1 = = = 35.35 /
. ∗
M2 = = = 38.93 /
Hence, design is governed by, Md = 38.93KN/m

Now, by assuming the condition that both concrete and steel reach their allowable stresses
simultaneously, a balanced steel ratio ,i.e, = In this case,
= ÷
∗ .
= = .0391
∗ .
.
=1− =1− = 0.870
. ∗ . ∗ .
= = = 1.913
. ∗
Thus, = √ = = 285.3
. ∗
D = d + cover + Ø20/2 = 285.3 + 25 + 10 = 320.3mm

Since, Dcal. > Dused, i.e. 320.3mm > 270mm, hence, section revision is required!
Use D = 320mm ( 2nd trial)
Self-weight w = 0.32*0.25 * 25 = 2KN/m
Total design load W = 2+ 10 + 7 = 19KN/m
∗
M = = = 39.58
. ∗
= √ = = 287.7
. ∗
D = 287.7 + 35 = 322.7mm
Now again, Dcal. > Dused, i.e. 322.7mm > 320mm, hence, section revision is again required!
Use, D = 325mm (3rd trial)
Self-weight w = 0.325 * 0.25 * 25 = 2.03KN/m

Total Design Load W = 2.03 + 17 = 19.03Kn/m
. ∗
M = = = 39.65
. ∗
= √ = = 287.9
. ∗
D = 287.9 + 35 = 322.9mm
Since, Dcal. < Dused, i.e. 322.9mm < 325mm, thus, Dused is adequate to sustain in the applied load
(ok!) Therefore, use, D = 325mm
To determine the area of steel reinforcement, we use:-
. ∗
= = = 1130.7 2
∗ . ∗ .
. ∗
# Ø20 = = = 3.6
Ø ∗
Or, we may Ø25 In this case,

. ∗
# Ø25 = = = 2.3
Ø ∗ .
To check the adequacy of 3 Ø25 bars for the applied moment, we use:-
= = 140 ∗ (3 ∗ ∗ 12.5 ∗ 0.87 ∗ 287.5 ∗ 10 = 51.57 > .
, 3 Ø25 bars are adequate enogh to sustain the load (Ok!)

ℎ ℎ ℎ 3 Ø25 bars, we use:-
(nb + 1)*cover + Ø* nb = b
(nb + 1)*25 + 25* nb = 250; nb = 4.5
Therefore, the 3 Ø25 bars will be placed in a single row!!
The design @ section A is shown below with its detailing
N.B The bending moment at section A is negative (Support) moment, hence, the corresponding
reinforcement should be top reinforcement, not bottom reinforcement!
2. Design @ Section C ( @ Mid span of Beam AB)
With reference to Fig (2) above, assuming the fixed end beam as a beam with both ends
continuous, the initial depth D may be estimated by, as per the ACI code:-
= = = 238 ( ℎ)
Self-weight w = 0.238 * 0.0.25 * 25 = 1.488KN/m

Total design load W = 1.488 + 10 + 7 = 18.488KN/m
Design moment, i.e, maximum positive moment at mid span for fixed beam is given by:-
. ∗
= = = 19.25
. ∗
= √ = = 200.66
. ∗
D = 200.66 + 35 = 235.66mm < Dused = 238mm, hence, section is adequate to sustain in the
applied load!
Thus use, D = 240mm ; d = 205mm
. ∗
= = = 770.96 2
∗ . ∗
. ∗
# Ø20 = = = 2.45
Ø ∗
ℎ , , 3 Ø20 bars in a single row!

The design @ section C is shown below with its detailing
N.B The bending moment at section C is positive (span) moment, hence, the corresponding
reinforcement should be bottom reinforcement, in this case!
3. Design @ Section B
With reference to Figs(2) & (3) above, we first determine the governing moment.
= = = 238 ( ℎ)
= = = 162 ( ℎ)
. .
Self weights are,

w2 = 0.238 * 0.25 * 25 = 1.488KN/m
w3 = 0.162 * 0.25* 25 = 1KN/m
Total design loads are,
W2 = 1 + 17 = 18KN/m
W3= 1.488 + 17 = 18.488KN/m
. ∗
= = = 38.5
∗
= = = 81
Hence, Mmax = M3 = 81 / governs design @ section B!

In this case,
∗
= √ = = 411.5
. ∗
D = 411.5 + 35 = 446.5mm
Dcal.= 446.5mm > Dused = 162mm, hence, section revision is required!
Use, D = 450mm (2nd trial)

w = 0.45 * 0.25 * 25 = 2.81KN/m
W = 2.81 + 17 = 19.81KN/m
. ∗
= = = 89.15
. ∗
= √ = = 431.6
. ∗
D = 431.6 + 35 = 466.6mm
Dcal.= 466.6mm > Dused = 450mm, hence, again section revision is required!
Use, D = 470mm (3rd trial)
W = (0.47 * 0.25 * 25) + 17 = 19.94KN/m
. ∗
= = = 89.73
. ∗
= √ = = 433.15
. ∗
D = 433.15 + 35 = 468.15mm
Now, since, Dcal.= 468.15mm < Dused = 470mm, section is safe to sustain in the applied load(ok!)
Area of steel reinforcement required is:-
. ∗
= = = 1700.8 2
∗ . ∗ .
Or alternatively, we may also determine from:-

= = 0.0157 ∗ 250 ∗ 433.15 = 1700.11
.
# Ø25 = = = 5.4
Ø ∗ .
ℎ , Provide either 6 Ø or 4 Ø bars!

, ℎ ℎ @ ℎ
N.B:- The bending moment at section B is also a negative (Support) moment, hence, the
corresponding reinforcement should be top reinforcement, not bottom reinforcement!

A rectangular beam 250 X 500 cross section has to resist a working moment of 70KN/m. If fs =
140MPa, fck = 25MPa and n = 8. What area of steel reinforcement is required for flexure design?
Solution
Given:- b = 250mm fs = 140MPa n=8
D = 500mm fck = 25MPa
M = 70KN/m fc = 0.45 fck = 0.45 * 25 = 11.25MPa
IN this problem, we should consider 3 cases:-
i. Design is governed by fc
ii. Design is governed fs
iii. Balanced steel ration is to be used
We know that, if K < Ksd, steel governs design, and

If K > Ksd, concrete governs design,
Or, alternatively, it may also be easier to compare ℎ , in this case,
= = < ,
= = > ,
∗ .
Thus, = = = 0.391
÷ ∗ .
.
=1− =1− = 0.870
.
= = 0.391 ∗ 0.87 ∗ = 1.913
∗
Now, = = = 1.295
∗ ∗
Since, = 1.295 < = 1.913, ℎ , !

∗
Thus, = = = 1235.94
∗ . ∗ .
.
# Ø = = = 3.934
Ø ∗
ℎ , ,Ø !

Design a cantilever beam of length 6m that carry an imposed dead load of 8KN/m. It is subjected
to a live load of 10KN/m. B= 280mm; fck = 25MPa; fs = 160MPa and n =8
Solution
Given:- DL = 8KN/m fc = 0.45fck = 11.25MPa b = 280mm
LL = 10KN/m fs = 160MPa n=8
L = 6.0m
As in the previous problem, in this case we also need to determine as to which governs design,
steel or concrete ? Hence, we follow the same procedure:-
∗ .
= = = 0.36
÷ ∗ .
.
=1− =1− = 0.88
.
= = 0.36 ∗ 0.88 ∗ = 1.782
= =
Tto determine R, we first need to determine the applied moment M from analysis process.
Assuming D = 600mm as an initial depth,
Self weight:- w = 0.28 * 0.6 * 25 = 4.2
Total design load:- W = 4.2 + 8 + 10 = 22.2KN/m
For a cantilever beam, maximum moment occurs at the fixed support and equals to:-
. ∗
= = = 399.6
Now, = = , where d = 600 -3 5 = 565mm

. ∗
= = = 4.47
∗
Since, = = = 4.47 > = = 1.782 , hence, concrete governs
design!
In this case, the depth d for flexure requirement is given by:-
. ∗
= √ = = 894.9
. ∗
D = 894.9 + 35 = 929.9 > = 600 ,ℎ , !

Use, D = 985mm (2nd trial)
W = (0.985 * 0.28 *25) + 18 = 24.9KN/m
. ∗
= = = 448.2
. .∗
= √ = = 947.8
. ∗
= 947.8 + 35 = 982.8 < D = 985mm, hence, section is safe against flexure!

. ∗
= = = 3358. 6
∗ . ∗ .
.
# Ø = = = 10.7
Ø ∗
, , 7Ø .
, 4Ø ℎ 3Ø . ℎ !
Remark:- As it may be observed from the detailing of the section designed above, this does
seem to be practical beam design practice with about 1m thick. This happened so because of
the length of the cantilever beam of length 6m. Hence, as it is discussed in the following
section, for such kinds of design problems, double reinforcement may more likely and
practical design practice.
Example #5 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

A rectangular beam is limited to a width of 230mm and a total depth of 500mm. It must resist a
total moment of 133KNm. If fs = 140MPa; fc = 11.25MPa and n = 9, determine the area of steel
reinforcement required for flexure.
Solution
Given:- b = 230 fs = 140MPa
D = 500mm fc = 11.25MPa
M = 133KNm n=9
In this problem, since there is limitation on both width and depth, there seem to exist a chance
that the beam may be designed as singly reinforced section. But, first we see whether the
concrete, under ordinary condition, can or cannot develop the required compression force to
resist the given loading condition.
In this case, = ÷
∗ .
= = .420
∗ .
.
=1− =1− = 0.860
. ∗ . ∗ .
= = = 2.032
Assuming two rows of Ø ,

d = 500 – 25 – 20 - 25/2 = 442.5mm
= = 2.032 ∗ 230 ∗ 442.5 ∗ 10 = 91.5 < =
133 ,ℎ , !
Thus, we apply the method for double reinforcement.

M1 = 91.5KNm
M2 = M – M1 = 133 – 91.5 = 41.5KNm
. ∗
= = = 1717.44
∗ . ∗ .
. ∗
= = = 710
∗( ) ∗( . )
Thus, As = + = 1717.44 + 710 = 2427.44

To determine the compression reinforcement, first, we determine, f’s by applying the formula,
∗( ) ∗ ∗( . ∗ . )
f’s = = = 175.5
. . ∗ .
. ∗
Thus, ′ = = = 566.4
∗( ) . ∗( . )
No. of bars required are:-

.
i. Tension reinforcement:- # Ø = = = 7.73
Ø ∗
.
ii. Compression reinforcement:- # Ø = = = 1.77
Ø ∗
Therefore, provide 8 Ø
And, provide 2Ø !
The detailing of the doubly reinforced section designed is shown below:-
Example #6 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

A rectangular beam has an overall cross section of 250mm X 500mm. The reinforcement
consists of 4Ø bars for tension and 3Ø for compression. If fc = 7MPa; 160MPa; & n = 8,
determine the moment capacity of the section.
Solution
Given:- b = 250mm As = 4 * 10 ∗ = 1256.6
D = 500mm A’s = 3 * 10 ∗ = 942.5
fc = 7MPa fs = 160MPa; n = 8
M = M1 + M2
M1 = = , where d = 500 – 35 = 465

∗
= = = 0.259
÷ ∗
.
=1− =1− = 0.914
M1 = ∗ 0.259 ∗ 0.914 ∗ 250 ∗ 465 = 44.79

. ∗
= = = 658.66
∗ . ∗
As = As1 + As2
As2 = As - As1 = 1256.6 – 658.66 = 597.94
M2 = As2 fs(d- d’’) = 597.94 *160 *( 465 -35) = 41.14KNm
Therefore, the required moment capacity of the section is:-
M = M1 + M2 = 44.79 + 41.14 = 85.93KNm (Ans.)
Exemple#7 (T-Section)
An 80mm thick slab is cast with 6m span continuous beam spaced @ 1.6m center to centers. The
web of the beam is 200mm X 640mm. Determine the amount of reinforcement required for an
intermediate beam at a span for Mmax = 100KNm. Use fc = 9MPa; fs = 140MPa; n =8
Solution
Given:- hf = 80mm Mmax = 70KNm fc = 9MPa
L = 6m C/C = 1.6mm fs = 140MPa
bw = 200mm n=
First, we determine the effective width from,
=+ = 200 + 0.5 ∗ 6000 = 1400
be ≤
⁄ = 1600
be = 1400mm
Before proceeding to the design process, we should check whether the section is T-Section or
Rectangular Section as followa:-
From the approximate formula, an initial area of reinforcement may be calculate from:-
∗
= = )
= 1107.4 ℎ , = (640 + 80) − 35 = 685
∗( ) ∗(
.
= = = 0.00115
∗
= 0.00115 ∗ 8 = 0.0092
( )
= = 0.127 , ℎ .
Now, since, K =0.127 > = 0.1168, ℎ , ℎ − !
Or, alternatively, if a =kd = depth to the N. A > hf , then the N.A is in the web, which means the
beam is designed as T-Section. To this end,
Kd = 0.127 * 685 = 87mm > hf = 80mm, hence the section is T-Section!
In this case,
∗ . ∗ ∗
Jd = d – Z = d - = 685 − = 656.35
∗ . ∗
Now, the revised value of As is obtained from,

∗
= = = 1088.3
∗ .
.
. Ø = = 3.46
∗
Thus, provide 4Ø !
The detailing of the T-Section designed is shown below
CHAPTER 3
Limit State Design (LSD) Method
2.1 Basic Concepts of Limit State Design Method

2.1 Introduction
The design of a structure for a specific function is usually a two-stage process, involving first the
selection of an appropriate type or form of structure and secondly the detailed design of the
various parts of the chosen structure. In selecting the type or form of structure the question of the
relative costs of different types of structures and of different methods of construction of the same
structure will be of great importance. In this selection the designer must rely to a large extent on
his experience judgment and intuition. A preliminary study of several types of structure may be
necessary.
Having selected the type of structure the designer then has to proceed with the detailed design of
the chosen one, always bearing in mind the factors of safety considerations and cost. In most
cases the aesthetic requirements will have been substantially met in the selection of the type of
structure and will now be completely satisfied by the specification of surface finishes, color, etc.
Fundamentally, then, the design process consists of finding and detailing the most economical
structure consistent with the safety and serviceability requirements.
In design the following points have to be taken into consideration:
(i). variations in materials in the structure and in test specimens
(ii). variations in loading
(iii). constructional inaccuracies
(iv). accuracy of design calculations
(v). safety and serviceability
For (I) we know that the cube test is a reliable guide as regards quality of concrete from the
mixer but does not guarantee that the concrete in the structure is the same. This is why we took a
higher proportion of the cube strength as a permissible stress when we have quality control. I.e. a
design mix. The same applies to reinforcement, as tests are carried out on small samples which
may or may not be truly representative of the whole. For (ii) we must enquire how true the
loading is. Constructional inaccuracies (iii) are probably accidental. For (IV) designers can and
do make mistakes in calculations but very often in analysis they assume a structure will behave
in a certain way or that certain conditions exist. Item (v) is dealt with quite arbitrarily in previous
codes -if the structure does not collapse it is deemed to be satisfactory.
2.2 Design Methods

Based on design load determination and the corresponding design strength of materials, different
methods of design have been introduced.
 Permissible stress method (working stress method): The ultimate strength of the material is
divided by a factor of safety to give safe design stresses, which are usually within the
elastic range. Stresses caused by the working loads must not exceed the permissible
stresses.
 Load factor method (ultimate strength method): The working loads are multiplied by a
factor of safety to obtain design loads. Stresses caused by the design load must not exceed
the ultimate strength of the material.
 Limit state method: The working loads are multiplied by partial factors of safety to obtain
design loads and ultimate strengths of materials are divided by further partial factors of
safety to obtain design strengths. Stresses caused by the design loads must not exceed the
design strength of the material.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method. However, there
are certain shortcomings: Because it is based on an elastic stress distribution, it is not entirely
applicable to concrete which is a semi-plastic material. Neither is it suitable when deformations
are not proportional to the load, as in the case of slender columns.
In the load factor method, the ultimate strengths of the materials are used in the calculations.
Because this method does not apply factors of safety to the materials, the variability of the
materials cannot directly be taken into account. Furthermore, it cannot be used to calculate
deflections and cracking under working loads.
The limit state method overcomes most of the shortcomings of the previous two methods. This is
achieved by applying partial factors of safety to both the material strengths and the working
loads, and also by varying the magnitude of the factors, depending on whether plastic conditions
at the ultimate limit state are being considered, or whether elastic conditions under working loads
are being considered.
2.3 Limit State Principles

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability
requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and the construction process
itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria required to
define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.
The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure can be
described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead to the structure being
considered 'unfit for use'.
(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.

(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely affects
The appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(iii). Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance or
efficiency of the structure.
(iv). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort or
alarm, damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to be
considered.
(vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.
When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or more of the
above causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the limit states as:
(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire
resistance and lightning.
The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not become unfit
for the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state. The essential basis for
the design method, therefore, is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable margin of
safety. To obtain values for this margin of safety it was proposed that probability considerations
should be used and the design process should aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that
the structure would not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.
Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on the
structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is designated
m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will vary for the various limit states and
different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or loading becomes available the
factors can be amended quit easily without the complicated procedures to amend one overall
factor used in previous Codes.
The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the other limit
states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the ultimate
limit state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed concrete is usually designed at
the serviceability limit state with checks on the ultimate limit state.
The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

(Design load effects Qd)  (Design resistance Rd)
fk
 f Qn 
m
Where Qd = design load effects = f Qn

Qn = nominal load
f = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/m
fk = characteristic material strength
m = partial safety factor for materials
Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.
Safety Factors
Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS.
Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10
Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS.

Design Situation Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable
Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00
2.4 Combination of Loads at Ultimate Limit States
Table 2.4.1 Classification of loads

Examples
Class Action
Direct Indirect
Settlement,
Soil pressure, self-weight
shrinkage, creep
Permanent of structure and fixed
(results from direct
equipment
permanent actions)
Time variation People, wind, furniture,
Variable snow, traffic, construction Temperature effects
loads
Explosion, vehicular Temperature rise
Accidental
impact during fire
Self-weight (generally),
Fixed trains (fixed in direction -
Spatial variation normal to rails)
Persons, office furniture
Free -
vehicles
Static All gravity loads -
Static/dynamic Engines, turbines, wind on
Dynamic -
slender structures
Closely bounded Water pressure, self weight -
Others Not closely
Snow, people -
bounded
Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS.
Permanent Accidental Variable actions
Design Situation
actions actions Principal action All other actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk
Combination values: Qr = 0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk
Where, Qr = representative value
Qk = characteristic value
Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2.

Action 0 1 2
Imposed loads
Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8
*
Wind 0.6 0.5* 0*
Snow 0.6* 0.2* 0*
* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.
Category A – Domestic, Residential.

Category B – Offices.
Category C – Congregation areas
Category D – Shopping areas.
Category E – Storage areas
Design Strength for Concrete
0.85 f ck
(a) In compression: f cd 
c
f ctk
(b) In tension: f ctd 
c
Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd 
s
3.3 Design of Beams For Shear
Shear force is present in beams where there is a change in bending moment along the span. Shear force is
equal to the rate of change of bending moment.
dM
i.e V 
dx
Shear force in beam generally develop in combination with bending moment.
Expressions of Shear Stress in Beam Sections
i) Homogeneous Elastic Beams: - At any section of a homogeneous elastic beam, the shear stress
distribution is expressed as
V.Q
v
I.b
where Q   ( A . y ) --first moment of area of section above or below the fiber about neutral axis
i i
where shear stress is obtained

V --vertical shear force develop in the beam section due to service design load
I --area moment of inertia of section about the centroid of section in the direction of bending
b --width of section at fiber where shear stress is obtained
The variation of shear stress is parabolic, maximum at the neutral axis and zero at extreme fibers.
ii) Reinforced Concrete Beams: - Expression of shear stress for homogeneous elastic beam given
above applies very closely to plain concrete beam without longitudinal tension reinforcement if beam
subjected to smaller loading. As the load is increased in such beam, flexure-tension cracks will form
where the tension stresses due to flexure are the largest in the beam and, the formation of these cracks will
immediately cause the beam to fail. Therefore, in plain concrete beam, shear has little influence on the
strength of beam. However, when longitudinal tension reinforcement is provided in concrete beam, the
situation is quite different. Even though tension cracks form in the concrete beam, the required flexural
tension strength is furnished by the longitudinal steel, and much higher loads can be supported by
concrete beam.
An exact analysis of shear in reinforced concrete beam is quite complex. However, it is possible to derive
the following expression of shear stress for reinforced concrete beam subjected to a uniform service load
in elastic design method.
2
V   y  
v  1     ---in compression zone
b. j .d   k . d  
 
V
v ---in tension zone
b. j .d
where V---vertical shear force develop in the beam section due to service design load
k---neutral axis depth ratio in working stress block
j---lever arm ratio between internal resultant forces working stress block
The variation of shear stress is parabolic, maximum at neutral axis (y=0) and in the tension zone.
Thus, the maximum shear stress under working load is given by
V
v
b. j .d
Codes simplify the expression for shear stress replacing the lever-arm, ' j . d ' in the above equation of
maximum shear by the effective depth, 'd ' as,
V
v
b.d
The corresponding expression of shear stress for flanged section (T- or L-forms) given as
V
v
bw . d
where bw --width of web of flanged section
The same expression is applied for strength limit state for shear where design shear force, 'V ' caused by
factored design load.
In case of beams of varying depths, shear stress is given by
V  M . tan(  ) / d
v 
bw . d
where M---bending moment develop in the beam section
---angle between the top and bottom edges of the beam
The negative sign in the formula applies when moment increases numerically in the same direction as that
of increasing depth, and the positive sign when moment decreases numerically in the direction of
increasing depth.
Behavior of Reinforced-concrete Beam without Shear Reinforcements
In reinforced-concrete beam elements, shear force and moment may develop in combination. The
combined action of shear force and moment gives rises to principal tensile and compressive stresses on
principal planes of the elements of beam. When the principal tensile stress exceeds tensile strength of
concrete, formation of cracks takes place along the principal plane.
In the vicinity of maximum span moment of simple and continuous beams, where shear force is small and
moment is large, the direction of the principal tensile stress is nearly horizontal and is nearly equal to the
flexural tensile stress. For such case of a section of the beam subjected to moment only, the state of
stresses for an element of beam near to extreme tension fiber is as shown below. When the principal
tensile stress in such case exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, flexure tension cracks develop along
vertical principal plane. Vertical flexure tension crack can be controlled by the provision of longitudinal
tension reinforcement.
principal plane
fb fb fb t p  fb
Near to the support of simple beams, where the shear force is large and moment is small, the principal
tensile stress is nearly equal to the shear stress and is inclined at approximately 450 to the axis of the
beam. It is referred to as the diagonal tension and is responsible for the development of inclined cracks.
At the level of the neutral axis, longitudinal flexural stress is absent and shear stresses give rise to a
diagonal tension which causes inclined cracks. For such case of a section of the beam subjected to
maximum shear force and small moment, the state of stresses for an element of beam at the level of the
neutral axis is as shown below. When the principal tensile stress in such case exceeds the tensile strength
of concrete, diagonal tension cracks develop along principal plane inclined at angle approximately 450 to
the axis of the beam. But for a case of a section of continuous beam subjected to both maximum shear
force and maximum moment, diagonal tension cracks develop an extension of vertical flexure crack and it
is known as flexure-shear crack. Diagonal tension crack can be controlled by the provision of shear
reinforcement.
v cp   v
v principal plane
v v
v
v 450
tp  v
tp  v
450
Shear Strengths of RC beams and Shear Reinforcements

Inclined (diagonal) tension cracks in the web of reinforced concrete beams may develop:
--Either in absence of flexural tension cracks in the vicinity of location of maximum shear force and zero
moment. Such crack is known as web-shear crack.
--Or as an extension of previously developed flexural tension crack at vicinity of the location the
maximum support moment. Such crack is known as flexure-shear crack.
i) Web-shear cracks: -It is an inclined (diagonal) tension crack occurs near to supports of deep thin-
webbed flanged beams; and it may also occurs near to the inflection points or bar-cutoff points on
continuous beam subjected to axial tension.
ii) Flexure-shear cracks: -It is an inclined (diagonal) tension crack develop at the end of the initial
vertical tension crack at section where critical combination of flexural and shear stresses develop in the
beam.
The transfer of shear in reinforced concrete members occurs by the combination of the following
mechanisms.
1) Shear resistance of the un-cracked concrete in compression
2) Aggregate interlock (or interface shear transfer) force: -that develop tangentially along tension crack,
and similar to a frictional force due to irregular interlocking of aggregates along the rough concrete
surface on each side of the crack.
3) Dowel action: - the resistance of the longitudinal reinforcement to a transverse force.
4) Arch action on relatively deep beams. For such beam, enhanced shear strength shall be taken as shear
strength of section.
5) Shear reinforcement resistance from vertical or inclined stirrups (not available in beams without shear
reinforcement)
Code’s empirical relation for shear strength of concrete preventing diagonal tension failure considers the
first four shear transfer mechanisms listed above.
Common types of shear reinforcement are:

1) Vertical stirrups
2) Inclined stirrups at angle 450 or more from longitudinal axis of beam
3) Bent-up bars of longitudinal reinforcement bent at angle of 300 or more from longitudinal axis of beam
4) Combination of 1 or 2 with 3
The structural action of shear reinforcement may be described by the analogous steel truss action as
shown below.
C C C C C
C T C C C C C
T T T T T
a) Simple steel truss
T T T T T T
concrete strut inclined stirrups

comp. concrete (un-cracked concrete)
b) Analogous truss action in RC

beam with inclined stirrups
concrete strut vertical stirrups comp. concrete
c) Analogous truss action in RC

beam with vertical stirrups
In a simple steel truss, the upper and lower chords are in compression and tension, respectively; and the
diagonal members, usually called web members, are alternatively in compression and tension. The same
analogy applied to reinforced concrete beam reinforced with shear reinforcement: vertical and inclined
stirrups are similar in action to the tensile web-members, un-cracked compression concrete is similar in
action to the upper chord compression member, concrete struts between inclined tension crack are similar
in action to the compressive web members, and the longitudinal tension steel is similar in action to the
lower chord member of steel truss.
The shear reinforcement must be anchored in the compression zone of the concrete and is usually hopped
around the longitudinal tension reinforcement. The provision of shear reinforcement increases the shear
strength of a member, but such reinforcement contributes little to the shear resistance prior to the
formation of inclined tension cracks. Shear strength of a member increases due to the presence shear
reinforcement allowing a redistribution of internal forces across any inclined tension crack forms in the
member. When the load is not acting at top of the beam or when the support is not at the bottom of the
beam, vertical suspension-reinforcement shall be provided in addition to shear reinforcement to transfer
the load to the top of the beam.
The primary functions of shear reinforcement are:

1) to carry part of the shear develop in the member
2) to restrict the growth of the inclined crack and reduce their penetration into compression zone, thus
helps to maintain aggregate interlock (or interface shear transfer)
3) to tie the longitudinal bars in place and thereby increase their dowel capacity.
In addition to these, the provision of stirrups helps to improve member ductility.
Critical Section for Shear-force
The critical section for shear in experimental work was found at the location of the first inclined crack.
Since most testing was made on simply supported beams under simple loading arrangements, it was
difficult to extend such results to generalized loading on continuous structures. Therefore, the critical
inclined crack is expected to develop in the member may be based on shear-span to depth ratio ( av d )
as:
1) If av d >2, critical inclined crack is expected at 'd ' distance from the section of maximum shear force.
2) If av d ≤2, critical inclined crack is expected at the center of shear-span (at av 2 from the support).
where av --distance from the applied concentrated load to the center of support of beam
Thus, for members subjected to uniform loading, ACI code permits taking the critical section for shear at
a distance, ‘d’ from the face of support, in recognition of the fact that the support reaction being in the
direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member. This
compression in the end region would occur when the beam is gravity loaded and supported by columns or
walls. Other wise, the critical section for shear must be taken at face of support when one of the following
occurs.
1) When the member is subjected to uniform loading but the support of member is itself a beam or girder
and therefore does not introduce compression into the end region the member.
2) When a concentrated load occurs between the face of support and the distance, 'd ' from the face of
support.
3) When any loading may cause a potential inclined crack to occur at the face of the support or extend into
instead of away from the support (see figure shown below).
Rxn
loading
Inclined crack
Fig: The reaction at support induces tension in the member
Design Shear Strength of Concrete (EBCS-2/95)-Limit State Method
-In order to prevent diagonal compression failure in concrete, the shear resistance of a section, VRD shall
not be less than the design shear force developed in a member due to factored design load. VRD is given
by
VRD  0.25 f cd .bw . d
0.68 f cu
where f cd 
c
-Design shear strength of concrete flexural member (beams & slabs) without significant axial force
preventing diagonal tension failure is given by:
Vc  0.25 f ctd . k1 . k 2 . bw . d
0.21(0.8 f cu )2 3
where f ctd 
c
k1  (1 50 )  2.0
k2  (1.6  d )  1.0 (d in meters). For members where more than 50% of the bottom
reinforcement is curtailed, k2  1.0
As

bw . d
As --flexural tension reinforcement at critical section for shear
-For members subjected to axial compression in addition to flexure and shear, section may be designed
for the additional shear strength of concrete given by,
0.1(bw . d ) . N d
Vcn 
Ac
where N d --design axial force
Ac --gross concrete cross section

-For members subjected to axial tension in addition to flexure and shear, shear reinforcement shall be
provided to carry total design shear neglecting contribution of un-cracked concrete.
Design Shear Strength of Concrete (ESCP-2/83)-Limit State Method
-In order to prevent diagonal compression failure in concrete, the shear resistance of a section, VRD shall
not be less than the design shear force developed in a member due to factored design load. VRD is given
by
VRD  0.3 f cd . bw . d
0.67 f cu
where f cd   20 MPa
c
-Design shear strength of concrete flexural member without axial force preventing diagonal tension
failure is given by:
a) For beams: Vc  0.3 f ctd . (1  50  ) . bw . d
0.35 f cu
where f ctd 
c
As
  0.02
bw . d
As --flexural tension reinforcement at critical section for shear
b) For slabs: Vc  0.4 f ctd . (1 50  ) . b . d
As
where   0.01
bw . d
-For members subjected to axial compression in addition to flexure and shear, section may be designed
for the additional shear strength of concrete given by,
 Nd 
Vcn    . Vc

 Ac . f cd 
where N d --design axial force
Ac --gross concrete cross section

-For members subjected to axial tension in addition to flexure and shear, section may be designed for the
reduced shear strength of concrete may be reduced by,
 Nd 
Vcn    . Vc

 Ac . f ctd 
Allowable Shear Strength of Concrete (ACI-code)-WSD method
-For the simplified method:- conservative estimate of allowable shear strength of concrete without
axial force preventing diagonal tension failure is given by
1
Vc , allow  k . 0.8 f cu . bw . d  0.17 k . 0.8 f cu . bw . d
6
or for member reinforced by longitudinal steel ratio,  w  0.012 , the following expression of
allowable shear strength of section is suggested.
Vc, allow  k . 0.07  8.3 w . 0.8 f cu . bw . d
-With axial compression:-Addition of axial compression tends to delay the opening of the shear crack
and prevent its extending as far into the beam. Therefore, allowable shear strength of concrete with axial
compression preventing diagonal tension failure is given by
 N   0.8 f cu  0. 3 N
Vc , allow  k . 1  . . b . d  0.3k 0.8 f cu . 1  . bw . d
 14 A   6  w Ag
 g   
-With axial tension:-When a flexural member is subjected to axial tension, ACI code simplifies
allowable shear strength of concrete to zero. In more detailed method, allowable shear strength of
concrete preventing diagonal tension failure is given by
 0.3T   0.8 f cu 
Vc, allow  k . 1 . .b . d
 Ag   6  w
   
 k  0.55 for beams, joists, walls & one  way slab
where 
k  0.50 for two  way slab & footing
Large shear force in beam may also cause crushing of the concrete along the directions of compressive
stresses, and therefore at the face of the support, the average shear stress should never to exceed the shear
strength of concrete for diagonal compression failure. Therefore, allowable shear strength of concrete for
diagonal compression failure according to ACI code is given by
Vmax  0.251 0.8 f cu . bw . d
If the above is not satisfied, redesign the beam by increasing depth.
Allowable Shear Strength of Concrete (ESCP-2/83)-WSD method
-Allowable shear strength of concrete for diagonal compression failure,

Vmax  0.0893 f cu . bw . d
If the above is not satisfied, redesign the beam by increasing depth.
-Allowable shear strength of concrete flexural member without axial force preventing diagonal tension
failure is given by:
a) For beams: Vc , allow  0.0467 f cu . (1  50  ) . bw . d
As
where   0.02
bw . d
As --area of flexural reinforcement at critical section for shear
a) For slabs: Vc , allow  0.0622 f cu . (1 50  ) . bw . d
As
where   0.01
bw . d
Design Requirement for Shear Reinforcement
The design of section for shear may be made separately for the following categories.
Vc
1) When Vd  , no shear reinforcement is required.
2
Vc
2) When  Vd  Vc , theoretically no shear reinforcement is required. But code requires the
2
provision of at least minimum shear reinforcement except for thin slab-like flexural members which
experience has shown may perform well satisfactorily without shear reinforcement. The thin slab-like
member exceptions include:
a) floor and roof slabs
b) footing slabs
c) floor joist construction
d) beams where the total depth does not exceed 254mm, 2.5 times the flange thickness of T-shaped
section, or one-half of the web width
According to ACI code, minimum shear reinforcement for this category must provide the shear resistance
d
at least equal to k  0.333 MPa   b
w
. d and, maximum spacing is limited to, S v , max   600mm .
2
Therefore, minimum area of shear reinforcement based on the minimum shear resistance given by ACI
code as,
0.34bw . sv
Asv 
fy
where sv —longitudinal spacing of stirrups
f y --yield strength of steel used by stirrups
Asv --area of shear reinforcement assumed to be traversed by inclined crack with-in a

distance sv
The corresponding minimum area of shear reinforcement of beams (except joists of ribbed-slabs) given by
EBCS-2/95 code as,
0.4bw . sv
Asv 
fy
and, maximum spacing of stirrups in longitudinal direction shall be as given below
2
S max  0.5d  300mm if Vd  VRD
3
2
S max  0.3d  200mm if Vd  VRD
3
3) When Vd  Vc , there exists a requirement for shear reinforcement to withstand the excess shear. Shear
reinforcement are provided using vertical stirrups or inclined stirrups or bent-up bars or combination of
them. Shear reinforcement required by excess shear should not be less than the minimum shear
reinforcement given by code
Flexural Members with Shear Reinforcement

f the design shear force develop in flexural member exceeds the shear strength of concrete, Vc shear
reinforcement is required to increase the shear strength of the member. Shear reinforcement may be
provided in the forms of vertical-stirrups, or inclined- stirrups at angle 450 or more from longitudinal
axis of member, or bent-up longitudinal bars bent an angle 300 or more from longitudinal axis of
member, or combination of them.
Expression of strength of shear reinforcement may be developed from truss analogy. Consider analogous
trusses as shown below to obtain the shear strength of shear reinforcement. In analogous trusses, it is
assume that vertical stirrups are spaced at a distance equal to the effective depth, 'd ' of the beam so that
the diagonal compression members are at an angle of 450 , which is more or less agrees with experimental
observations of cracking of reinforced concrete beams close to their support. In analogous truss with
inclined stirrups, the corresponding spacing of stirrups is equal to ' d .1  cot   ' .
d . 1 cot   d . 1 cot  

d d d
x x
d d
45 0

450
x x
Vd Vd
Fig a: Reinforced by vertical stirrups
Fig b: Reinforced by inclined stirrups
In analogous trusses, let

Asv --cross sectional are of two-leg or four-leg stirrups
fv --tensile stress in steel stirrups
Vd --design shear force due to service or ultimate design load
a) If beams reinforced with vertical Stirrups:-Using the method of sections and applying
equilibrium of forces left of section x-x shown in Fig a, that the force in vertical stirrup member must
equal to the design shear force, Vd .
i.e Vd  f v . Asv
Since compression concrete is also capable of resisting a limited amount of shear, the equation of the
force in vertical stirrup member is rewritten as,
Vs  (Vd  Vc )  f v . Asv
where, Vc  vc . bw . d --shear strength of concrete beam for diagonal tension failure
When the stirrup spacing is less than the effective depth, a series of super-imposed equivalent trusses may
be considered, so that the force to be resisted by the stirrup is reduced proportionally. Thus, if number of
stirrups traversed by diagonal tension crack is,
d
n where, ' sv ' is spacing of vertical stirrups
sv
Therefore, equation of strength of shear reinforcement rewritten as,
Vs  (Vd  Vc )  n . f v . Asv
d
 Vs  Vd  Vc   . f v . Asv
sv
Rearranging the equation, the spacing of vertical stirrups required by excess shear is obtained as,
Asv . f v . d
sv 
Vd  Vc 
where f v  f s , allow --allowable stress of steel in WSD method
f v  f yd --design stress of steel in strength limit state method
b) If beams reinforced with inclined stirrups:-Using the method of sections and applying
equilibrium forces left of section x-x shown in Fig b, that the vertical component of force in inclined
stirrup member must equal to the design shear force, Vd .
i.e Vd  f v . Asv . sin 

where  --angle of inclination of inclined stirrups from longitudinal axis of beam
Since compression concrete is also capable of resisting a limited amount of shear, the equation of the
vertical component of force in inclined stirrup member is rewritten as,
Vs  (Vd  Vc )  f v . Asv . sin 
where, Vc  vc . bw . d --shear strength of concrete beam for diagonal tension failure
When the stirrup spacing is less than ' d .1  cot   ' , a series of super-imposed equivalent trusses may be
considered, so that the force to be resisted by the stirrup is reduced proportionally. Thus, if number of
stirrups traversed by diagonal tension crack is,
d . 1 cot  
n where, ' sv ' is spacing of vertical stirrups
sv
Therefore, equation of strength of shear reinforcement rewritten as,
Vs  (Vd Vc )  n . f v . Asv . sin 
d . 1 cot   f . A . d . sin   cos 
 Vs  Vd  Vc   . f v . Asv . sin   v sv
sv sv
Rearranging the equation, the spacing of inclined stirrups required by excess shear is obtained as,
Asv . f v . d . sin   cos 
s
Vd  Vc 
If beam reinforced by with inclined stirrups at angle 450 from the longitudinal axis of beam, the spacing
of inclined stirrups required by excess shear is obtained substituting   450 as,
2 Asv . f v . d 1.414 Asv . f v . d

s 
Vd  Vc  Vd  Vc 
c) If beams reinforced by bent-up of longitudinal bars with inclination of 

from longitudinal axis of member:-If shear reinforcement consist of a single bar or a single
group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same distance from the support, area of shear reinforcement
required is given as
Asv 
Vd Vc 
f v . sin 
But, BS:8110 code do not recommend that all the shear be taken by bent-up bars only. If bent-up bars to
be used, at least 50% of the shear should be provided by stirrups.
Illustrative Design Examples on Ultimate Limit State Design Method
Example#1(Singly Reinforced Section)

Design a simple beam spanning 6m having a width of 300 mm to carry a dead load of
10kn/m and a live load of 15kN/m, in addition to its own – weight.
The concrete is C – 25, S – 300 and class – I work.

Solution
First, we determine the design concrete stress, fcd, from equation (5), as in :-
0.85 f ck 0.85 * f ev / 1.25
f cd   where rc = 1.5
rc rc
0.85 * 25 / 1.25
 f cd   11.33 mfa
1. 5
Similarly, we determine the yielding stream of steel from equation (7) as in:-
fyk 300
f yd    260.87 MPa
rs 1.15
How, we determine the minimum effective depth for deflection requirement from the
relation,
 f y k  Le
d   0.4  0.6 * 
 400  a
Where, Ke = effective span of the beam = 6m 6000 mm

 a for simple beam from Table = 20
 300  600
 d   0. 4  0. 6 * 
 400  200
 d  255mm (minimum depth – effective for defection)
How, assuming  20 base reinforcement and 6 stirrups as per the EBCS) – 2/1995 for
minimum cover to be provided for stirrups.
Thus, D  d   20  Cover   6 stirrups 

2
 D  255  20 2  25  6  296 mm
 Use D  300mm  for trial ! 
Calculations for dead load (GK), Live load (

Qk) and design load (Pd)
G K  b * D * rcon  Iimpossed Dead Load DL 
 Qk  0.3 * 0.3 * 25  10  12.25 kN m
Q K  15 KN m  given 
Design load Pd is confuted from load combination formula for factored load as in:-
Pd  1.3 G K  1.6 Q K
 Pd  1.3 * 12.25  1.6 * 15  39.93 KN m
Analysis :- Design moment, Md due to the external design load, Pd, for simply
supported beam can be calculated @ the mid – span, as:-
Pd L2 39.93 * 6 2
Md  
8 8
 M d  179.68 KHm
How, we check the effective depth “d” for flexure requirement from equation (19), as:-
Md 179.68 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 b f cd 0.2952 * 300 * 11.33
 d  423.17 mm  d used  255 mm 
20
Dreq  423.17   25  6  464.17 mm
2
Since Dreq (= 464.17) > Dused (=300mm), hence, revision of section is required!
Take D = 470mm
GK = 0.3 * 0.47 * 25 + 10 = 13.525 KH/m
QK = 15 KH/m (given, as before!)
 Pd = 1.3 GK + 1.6 QK
 Pd = 1.3 * 13.525 + 1.6 * 1.5
 Pd = 41.583 KH/m
Analysis:-
Pd L2 41.583 * 6 2
Md  
8 8
 M d  187.124 KHm
Check “d” for flexure requirement!
Md 187.124 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 * b * f cd 0.2952 * 300 * 11.33
 d  431.85 mm
20
Dreq  431.85   25  6  472.85mm
2
Since Dreq  472.85mm   Dused  470mm  , hence again revision of section is required!
Take D = 475mm
GK = 0.3 * 0.475 * 25 + 10 = 13.563 KH/m
QK = 15 KH/m (given, as before!)

Pd = 1.3 GK + 1.6QK
 Pd = 1.3 * 13.563 + 1.6 * 1.5
 Pd = 41.631 KH/m
Analysis!
Pd L2 41.631 * 6 2
Md  
8 8
 M d  187.34 KHm
Check “d” for flexure requirement!
Md 187.34 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 * b * f cd 0.2952 * 300 * 11.33
 d  432.10 mm
20
Dreq  432.10   25  6  473.10 mm
2
Since Dreq  473.10mm   Dused  475mm  , then, Dused is adequate to sustain in the
external load (ok!)
Steel reinforcement required:-

As   b d , where  can be determined from equations (16), or (15), as in:-
First we determine  b and  max : 
0.8 *  cu f f yd
b  * cd , where  yd 
 cu   yd f yd Es
 yd  260.87 / 2 * 1011
 cu  0.0035
0.8 * 0.0035 11.33

 b  *

0.0035  260.87 / 2 *10 11
260.87
0.031724
 b  0.03475
0.913045
  max  0.75  b  0.75 * 0.03475
  max  0.026
 4M d  11
Now,   0.5 C12  C12     max 0.026
 bd 2 C 2 
2.5 f yd
Where, c1  , c 2  0.32m 2 f cd , m 
m 0.8 f cd
260.87
m  28.781
0.8 * 11.33
2. 5
 c1   0 0.0869
28.781
 c 2  0.32 * 28.7812 * 11.33  3003.25
Substituting these values in to the above equation
 2 4 * 187.34 * 10 6 
  0.5 0.0869  0.0869  
 300 * 432.12 * 3003.25 
   0.0156   max 0.026  ok!
Or, using equation (16):-
 2 M d   f cd 
  1  1    
 bd 2 f cd   f yd 
 2 * 187.34 * 10 6   11.33 
   1  1    
 300 * 432.12 *11.33   260.87 
   0.0156 (Same as above result!) (Ok)!)
How,
As  bd
 As  0.0156 * 300 * 432.10
 As  2022.23mm 2
2022.23
No of  20 bars required  = 6.44 bars so, provide 7 -  20 bars!
 
 10 2
To determine the no of rows required.
(nb + 1) cover +  20 nb + 2  6  b
 ( nb  1) 25  20nb  2 * 6  300
 nb  5.84 (bars in one raw)
Therefore, 5 -  20 bars will be placed in the first raw, and 2 -  20 bars in the second raw.
How, we check, as to we there the new effective depth “d” new, due to two rows
arrangement, to sustain the external load, we determine y :-
5 * 10  25  6   2 * 10  6  25  20  6  25

y 
7
5 * 41  2 * 92
 y   55.57mm
7
d new  475  55.57  419.43 mm
As   bd   0.0156 * 300 * 419.43
 As  1962.93 mm 2
1962.93
No of  20 bars required   6.25
 
 10 2
Since, reinforcement provided  7 * 10 2


 2199 mm 2  1962.93 mm2 , the
enforcement and the, no of rows arrangement made before is ok!
d = 419.43.mm
475mm = D
y  55.57 mm
b = 300 m
Fig :- Detailing of the section designed
Example#2 (Singly Reinforced Section)

Determine the depth and flexural area of reinforcement required @ mid – span of a
simply supported RC – Beam which spans to sustain a live load of 30 KN/m in addition
to it self – weight. Materials used are:-
f ck  250 mfa , f yk  300 M fa , E s  200 G Pa , E c  29G pa , B  250 mm .
Class – work – I
(By limit state design method)
Solution:-
Design Constants
f cu 25
f ck    20 M fa ( given)
1.25 1.25
0.85 f cr 0.85 * 20
f cd    11.33 M fa
rc 1.5
f yk 300
f yd    260.87 M fa
rs 1.15
f yd 260.87
m  28.78
0.8 f cd 0.8 * 11.33
2. 5 2.5
c1    0.0869
m 28.78
c 2  0.32m 2 f cd  0.32 * 28.78 2 * 11.33  3003 M fa
0.75 * 0.8 *  cu f cd
 max  0.75  b  *
 cu   yd f yd
f yd 260.87
Where,  yd    0.0013
Es 200,000
 cu  0.0035
0.6 * 0.0035 11.33

  max  *
0.0035  0.0013 260.87
  max  0.019
How, we first determine the minimum effective depth “d” for deflection requirement from
the relation.
 f yk  Le
d  0.4  0.6  , where  a  20 from table
 400   a
 300  8000
 d   0.4  0.6 * 
 400  20
 d  340 mm (Initial depth)
Assuming  20 bars of reinforcement and 6 stirrups:-
D  d   20  cov er   20
2
 D  340  10  25  6  381 mm
Take D = 400mm (for trial)

Calculation of head load (GK) and design load (Pd) :-
GK = 0.25 * 0.4 * 25 = 2.5 KH/m
QK = 30 KH/m (given)
Pd = 1.3 Gk + 1.6 QK
 Pd  1.3 * 2.5  1.6 * 30
 Pd  51.25 KH / m
Analysis: -
For simply supported beam the mid – span maximum design moment, Md is given by:-
Pd L2 51.25 * 8 2
M d  M max  
8 8
 M d  410 KHm
Now, we check the effective depth “d” for flexure requirement them the equation given
below,
Md 410 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 bf cd 0.2952 * 250 * 11.33
 d  700.24 mm
D = 700.24 + 20 + 25 + 6 = 714.24 mm
2
Since Dreq.  Dused  400 m  , Revision of the section is required.
Take, D = 745 mm
Dead Load:-
GK = 0.25 * 0.795 * 25 = 4.656 KH/m
QK = 30 KH/m (given, as before.)
Design Load
Pd = 1.3GK + 1.6 QK
 Pd  1.3 * 4.656  1.6 * 30  54 KH / m
Analysis:-
Pd L2 54 * 8 2
Md    432 KH / m
8 8
Check for effective depth “d” for flexure requirement.
Md 432 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 * b f cd 0.2952 * 250 * 11.33
 d  718.78 mm
D = 718.78 + 41 = 759.78 mm
Since Dreq  759.78  Dused  745 mm  , Revision of the section is again
required.
Take, D = 765 mm (for trial.)
Dead Load
GK = 0.25 * 0.765 * 25 = 4.78 KH/m
QK = 30 KH/m (given, as before.)
Design Load:-
Pd = 1.3 GK + 1.6 QK
 Pd  1.3 * 4.78  1.6 * 30  54.21 KH / m
Analysis:-
Pd L2 54.21 * 8 2
Md 
8 8
 M d  433.68 KH / m
Check for effective depth “d” for flexure
Md 433.68 * 10 6
d  
0.2952 b f cd 0.2952 * 250 * 11.33
 d  720.18 mm
d = 720.18 + 41 = 761.18 mm
Since Dreq  Dused , then, the used x – section can safely sustain the given external load
(ok!).
Reinforcement Required
 4M d 
  0.5 c1  c12    max  0.019
 bd 2 c 2 
 4 * 433.68 * 10 6 
   0.5 0.0869  0.0869 2     max  0.019
 250 * 720.10 2 * 3003 
   0.0156   max  0.019 (for ductility requirement ok!).
How, Area of reinforcement As, is

As =  bd  0.0156 * 250 * 720.18
 As  2808 .70 mm 2

No of  20 bars required = 2808.70  *10 2  8.9 
 Provide 9 -  20 bars in two rows (trial). How, we check the section capacity to
sustain the load, due to the deduction of the effective depth “d”new by employing two
rows arrangement, as:-
4 92   5 41
y   63.67 mm
9
d new  D  y  765  63.67  701.33
 2 4 * 433.68 * 10 6 
 new  0.5 0.0869  0.0869     max  0.019
 250 * 701.33 2 * 3003 
  new  0.0167   max  0.010 ok! (for ductility requirement!)
As   new * b d new
2
As = 0.0167 * 250 * 701.33 = 2928 mm
However, since As provided (= 9π * 102 = 2827.4) < As req . ( = 2928), therefore, provide
10Φ20 bars in two rows.
d = 698.5 mm
765mm = D
y  55.57 mm
b = 256 mm
Example#3 (Singly Reinforced Section)

An RC – Beam has a width of 250mm and effective depth of 500mm. Determine the
maximum design moment which the section and reinforcement provided can safely
sustain when the section is reinforced with 3  29 bars.
Use C – 30 , S – 300, Class – work – I
Solution
Design constants
f cu 30
f ck    24 MPa
1.25 1.25
0.85 f ck 0.8 * 29
f cd    13.6 MPa
rc 1 .5
f yk 300
f yd    260.87 MPa
rs 1.15
0.6  cu f 0.6 * 0.0035 13.6

 max  * cd  *
 cu   yd f yd 0.0035  0.0013 260.87
  max  0.0228
As 3 *  * 12 2
    0.0108   max  0.0228 (ok !)
bd 250 * 500
f yd 260.87
m   23.98
0.8 f cd 0.8 * 13.6
 m  0.0108 * 23.98  0.259

How, the required maximum design moment, Md can be determined from the following
formula, min:-
Md  0.8bd 2 f cd m 1  0 .4  m 
 Md  0.8 * 250 * 500 2 * 13.6 * 0.259 (1  0.4 * 0.259) * 10
 Md  157.87 KHm ( Ans )
NB:- In the limit state design method, steel is always the design governing
parameter.
d = 500 mm
543mm = D
 24
d 1  43mm
b = 250 mm
Fig. Detailing of the designed section given
Example#4(Singly Reinforced Section) (using design table)
Design a rectangular RC = beam to resist an ultimate moment of 227.07 KN – M. The

dimensions of the section are limited to be D = 550 mm, d = 503 mm, and b = 300 m
.use C – 25 , S – 300 , and class – I work , design table
Solution
f yd  0.8 f ck / rc  11.33 MPa
f yd  f yk / rs  260.87 MPa
Steps:-
Md 227.07
1. Evaluate, Km    54.695
bd 2 0.3 * 0.503 2
2. Enter the general design table no 1a using km and the given concrete grade (i.e,
c – 25), then, determine km* and compare it with km. Then, for km = 54.695 and
c – 25, from table no 1a for no – moment redistribution (0 %) , km* = 57.83 since
km = 54.695 < km* = 57.83, therefore, the beam in singly reinforced section.
3. Read ks from the same table corresponding the given steel grade (i.e, s – 300)
and km value.
C  25 S  300
54 4.56
54.695 K s  ?
 by int erpolation ,  K s  4.581
56 4.62 
Md 227.07
4. Evaluate, As = K s   4.581 *
d 0.503
As = 2068 mm2 (Area of reinforcement) (check that using equation method , As

= 2053 mm2 ) no of bars = 2068 /  * 12 2   4.57 so, provide 5   24 bars )
d = 503 mm
D = 550 mm
 24
y 
Detailing of the section designed – 26-
Example#5 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

Design a rectangular RC – section to resist an ultimate moment of 360 KNm. The
dimensions of the beam are limited to 350 / 500 mm (b/d) for architectural reasons. Use
C – 25 concrete , S – 400 steel and class – I work (d2 = 40 mm)
Use :
a) Equation method
b) Design aids / Tables
Solution
0.85 f ck 0.85 * f cu / 1.25 0.85 * 25 / 1.25
f cd   
rc rc 1 .5
 f cd  11.33 MPa
f yk 400
f yd    347.83 MPa
rs 1.15
First, we check as to whether the section requires single / double reinforcement, by

corrupting the section capacity of the singly reinforced section,
M1 = 0.2952 bd2 fcd = 0.2952 * 350 * 5002 * 11.33 * 10-6
 M 1  292.65 KNm
Since ultimate moment to be applied, Mu (= 360 KNM) > M, hence, double

reinforcement is required
From equation (4) M  M U  M 1  360  292.65
 M  67.35 KNM
How, for reinforcement determining purpose of the singly reinforced section, the steel
ratio, 1 is determined, as :-
1
 2M 1   f yd 
1  1  1       max  0.75  b
 bd 2 f cd   f cd 
(for ductility purpose)
0.75 * 0.8 *  cu f cd
Where in,  max  *
f yd 347.83
Where ,  yd 
E, 200.000
  yd  0.00174
0.75 * 0.8 * 0.0035 11.33

  max  *
0.0035  0.00174  347.83
  max  0.013
 2 * 292.65 * 10 6   347.83 
Thus, 1  1  1       max  0.013
 350 * 500 2 * 11.33   11.33 
 1  0.0117   max  0.013 ok !
Therefore, from equation (9)

AS 1  1 bd  0.0117 * 350 * 500
 AS 1  2047.5 mm 2
From equation (10) ,
M 67.35 * 10 6
AS 2  
yd d  d 2  347.83 * 500  40 
 AS 2  420.93 mm 2
How, from equation (7)

AS = AS1 + AS2 = 2047.5 + 420.93
 AS = 2468.43 mm2 ………………..(1)
How , we check as to whether the compression steel is yielding or not them equation (8)
0.45d  d 2
 sc  *  cu   yd  0.00174) ? 
0.45d
0.45 * 500
  sc  * 0.0035  0.0029
0.45 * 500
  sc  0.0029    yd  0.00174  ,
Hence, the compression steel is yielding. In this case.

From equation (11), the reinforcement of compression steel is :-
M M 67.35 * 10 6
Asc     As 2
f sc d  d 2  f yd d  d 2  347.83 * 500  40 
 Asc  420.93 mm 2 ................................. ( 2)
(b) Using design table no 1a
Md 360 * 10 6
Km    64.14
bd 2 0.35 * 0.5 2
K*m is read to equal 57.83 from the shaded row with C – 25 and no moment
distribution row.
How, since km (=64.14) > K*m (= 57.83), double reinforcement is required.

Km 64.14
  1.109  1.11
K *m 57.83
Km
 Entering table no 1a with this value of and the given grade of concrete, i.e, C –
K *m
25, the value of Ks is read with under the given grade, of steel, and found that:-
KS = 3.45 and Ks = 0.6
d2 40
  0.08
d 500
d2
 Entering table no 1a with this value of and Km / K*m (= 1.11), the correction
d
factor  is read, i.e,
  1 .0
 Similarly using all Km/ K*m values,  1 is read,
 1  1.01
Therefore, areas of reinforcement are:-
Md 3.45 360  * 1.0
1. As  As1  As 2  K s  
d 0 .5
3)  As = 2484 mm2 , comparing this value from that obtained using equation
method,, i.e, As = 2468.43 mm2 (equation 2) approximately equal.
1 Md 0.6 * 360 * 1.01

2. Asc  K s 1 
d 0 .5
4)  Asc = 436.32 mm2 , again the value of

Asc obtained using equation method, i.e,
Asc = 420.93 mm2 (equation 2) , is approximately equation
C) Using Design chart No 1

M s d, s Mu , s 360 * 10 6
 sd ,s  , u , s   
f cd bd 2 f cd bd 2 11.33 * 350 * 500 2
  u , s  0.363   * u,s  0.295

Thus, compression (double) reinforcement is required.
How, M*u, s =  * u,s f cd bd 2  0.295 * 11.33 * 350 * 500 2 * 10 6
 M* u,s  292.46 KNM
 To find z, we read the value of K2 for the corresponding value of  * u , s  0.295 

from the general design chart no 1. And was obtained, as:-
z
Kz   0.81
d
 Z  0.81 * d  0.81 * 500
 Z  405mm
 Tension reinforcement:-
Using the above respective values and the formula given on the design chart No 1.
The tension reinforcement is determined, as in
M * u,s M sd ,s  M * u,s N sd
As    ,
Zf yd d  d 2  f yd f yd
Where, Mu , s = Msd, s
As 
292.46 * 10 6

360  292.46  * 10 6
405 * 347.83 500  40  347.83
 As  2076.08  422.12
 As  2498.20 mm 2 …………………….(5)
 Compression reinforcement :-
First, we check as to whether the compression steel is yielding or not.
To do so, and determine fsc, we obtain the value of  s 2   sc  from the chart by
interpolation, as :-
 d 2 40  d2
   0.08   s2
 d 500  d
 *  2.7 * 10 3
 u , s  0.295  0.10
x ?
f yd 0.08
y   0 0.00174 3.1 * 10 3
Es 0.05
 x =  s 2   sc  2.86 * 10 3  0.00286
Since  sc  0.00286    y  0.00174  , thus, compression steel is yielding.
 f sc   sc * E s  0.00286 * 200,000  572 MPa
Since, f sc  572 MPa   f yd  347.83 MPa  , hence, in such a yielding case,
f sc  f yd  347.83 MPa
How, compression reinforcement is computed from the formula given on design

chart No 1.
M sd , s  M * u , s M u,s  M * u,s
Asc  
d  d 2   sc d  d 2  f yd
 Asc 
360  292.46  * 10 6
500  40  * 347.83
 Asc  422.12 mm 2 ……………………….. (6)

Summary of reinforcement values from the three cases:-
Method used Tension Reinforcement Compassion Reinforcement

Equation method 2468.43 mm2 420.93 mm2
Design table no 1a 2484 mm2 436.32 mm2
Design chart no 1 2498.20 mm2 422.12 mm2
N. B: - Comparing these values and taking the safest 9conservative) side, for
sketching purpose, values taken are
As = 2498.20 mm2 , Asc = 436.32 mm2
 
No of  20  2498 .2 / 10 2 *  , no of  20  436.32 / 10 2 *   
= 7.95 = 1.39
Thus, provide 8  20 bars for tension reinforcement
Provide 2  20 bars for compression reinforcement
 20 D = 500 mm
563.5mm = D
 20
y  63.5 mm
b = 350 mm
Fig :- Detailing the section designed.
Example#6 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

Calculate the ultimate moment capacity of the section if As= 645 mm2 and if C – 40
concrete and S – 300 steel, b = 280 mm. and d2 = 50 mm, d = 500 mm , and class – I
work are used.
Solution
0.85 f ck 0.85 * f cu / 1.25 0.85 * 40 * 1  25 1
f cd   
rc rc 1 .5
 f cd  18.13 MPa
f yk 300
f yd    260.87 MPa
rs 1.15
Since both tension and compression reinforcements are given, obviously the section is
doubly reinforced.
 To determine the depth to the neutral axis, i.e, “x” let us follow to cases:-
Case – I :- Assume all steel yielded:-

 As  Asc  f yd
x
0.8 b f cd
x 
1804  645 * 260.87
0.8 * 280 * 18.13
 x  74.45 mm
 sc   cu *
x  d2
 0.0035 *
74.45  50 
x 74.45
  sc  0.00115
f yd 260.87
y    0.0013
Es 200 * 10 3
Since,  sc   y , compression reinforcement is not yield and fsc < fyd
f sc   cu *
x  d2 
* E s  0.0035 *
74.45  50  * 200 * 10 3
x 74.45
f sc  229.88 MPa  f yd  260.87 MPa 
How, the ultimate moment capacity of the section is given by:-

Mu = Cc (d – 0.4x) + Cs (d – d2)
 M u  0.8 b f cd d  0.4 x   Asc f sc d  d 2 
M u  0.8 * 280 *18.13 * 500  0.4 * 74.45 *10 3
 645 * 229.88 * 500  50 * 10 6
 M u  1909.62  66.72
 M u  1976.34 KNm
Case – II Assuming the compression steel is not yielded

 In case – I , it was known that the compression steel was yielding. However, when
we assumed that steel was yielding, then, f sc  f yd
F x  0  Cc  C s  T
 0.8 x b f cd  Asc f yd  As f yd
 0.8 x xb f cd   As  Asc  f yd
 As  Asc  f yd As it was given before

x 
0.8 b f cd
 However, when the compression steel is not in the yielding case, then,
F x  0  Cc  C s  T
 0.8 x b f cd  Asc f sc  As f yd
 0.8 x b f cd  Asc  sc E s  As f yd
x  d2 
Where  sc   cu *
x

 0.8 x b f cd  Asc   cu *
x  d 2   E  A f
 s s yd
 x 
 0.8 x b f cd  x 2  Asc E s  cu x  Asc  cu d 2 E s  As f yd x
0.8 b f cd  x 2   Asc E s  cu  As f yd  x  Asc  cu E s d 2  0
By solving this equation for “x”, the above procedure is repeatedand the design process
continues in as usual.
Example#7 (T- Section)

A floor system is supported by beams spaced at 3m center lines are simply supported
at one end and fixed which the other. The beams are 8m span, web width bw = 250
mm, the overall depth limited to 500 mm and the slab thickness 100 mm. The floor is
subjected to super composed service load of 4 KH/m2. Design a typical interior beam for
flexure and shear requirements. Use concrete C – 30, steel S – 300, class – I work.
Assume column size to be 250 x 250 mm2.
Solution
The minimum depth for deflection (service ability requirement is:-
 f yk  Le
d   0 . 4  0 .6 
 400   a
 300  5000
 d   0 .4  0 .6  
 400  24
d  283
D  d  cov er   20 / 2   6  283  41  324 mm

Use , D = 500 mm ( given)
Take , be = 3000 mm = 3m
3000mm
hf = 100 mm
D 500 mm
250 mm = bw
Loading
GK = ( 3 * 0.1 + 0.4 * 0.25) * 25 self weight
+ ( 0.05 * 3 * 20) (finishing) = 10 + 3
 G K  13 KN / m
QK = 4 * 3 = 12 KN/m
36.1 KN/m
8m
Pd = 1.3 GK + 1.6 QK = 1.3 * 13 + 1.6 * 12
Pd = 36.1 KN/m
To determine support moment, we apply moment distribution method
wL 2 36.1 * 8 2
M ABF   M BAF   192.53
12 12
Thus , MBA = Msupp. = -289 KN/m
F y  0  R A  R B  36.1 * 8  289
M B  0  1  R A * 8  36.1 * 8 * 4  289  0
 R A  108 .4 , R B  180 .6
2
M 3 fa  0   108.4 * 9  36.1 * x  MP  0
 M sp   M  433.6  108.4 x  18.1 x 2
dM
 0  108.4  36.1x
dx
 x  3m
(a distance x from A . F r  0
RA - 36.1 x - v = 0
 V  108.4  36.1 x
X = 3m , v = 0
X = 0 , v = RA = 108.4
X = 8m, v = - 180.5
M  108.4  18.1 x 2 , M span  M max upan @ x  3m
 M span  108.4 * 3  18.1 * 3 2
M span  162.4 KN / m …………………………..(*)
Or equivalently, Mspan can be obtained from:-
9 9
M span  wL2  * 36.1 * 8 2
128 128
M span  162.4 KH / m (same as in (*)
Design Constants
f cd  0.85 * 30 * 1.25 * 1.5

1
 13.6 MPa
f yd  300 / 1.15  260.87 MPa
2
3
f
fc fd  0.21 * ck , where f c f d 
1 .5
Design tensile strength of concert

2
3
0.21  f cu 
 fc fd    f ck  f cu / 1.15
1.5  1.25 
2 2
3 3
 f   30 
 fc f d  0.14  cu   0.14    1.16
1.25  1.25 
0.6 *  cu f 260.07
 max  0.75  b  * cd , where  yd   0.0013
 cu   yd f yd 200,000
0.6 * 0.0035 13.6

 *
0.0035  0.0013 260.07
  max  0.0228
1
 2 Md   f yd 
 act  1  1      max  0.0228
 bd 2 f cd   f cd 
1
 2 * 289 * 10 6   260.07 
 act 1  1     0.0325
 250 * 445 2 13.6   13.6 
Since  act  0.0325   max   act   max  0.0228
f yd 260.87
m    23.98
0.8 f cd 0.8 f cd
m  0.0228 * 23.98  0.5467
Check minimum depth for flexure

M u  M max  0.8 bd 2 f cd m 1  0.4 m 
M max
 d min  , where Mmax = Msupp.
0.8 f cd  m 1  0.4 m 
289 * 10 6
 d min 
0.8 * 250 * 13.6 * 0.5467 1.04 * 0.5467 
d min  499 mm
But, assuming two rows of  20 bars , “d” used is :-
d = P - (cover + 2 2  20 / 2  10 (stirrup ) = 500 – 55
 d used  445 mm
Since, dmin (= 499) > dused (= 445), dused does not sustain to the applied maximum
(support) moment, hence, double reinforcement is required
i) Support reinforcement required

M 1  0.8 b f cd m d 2 1  0.4 * m 
 M 1  0.8 * 250 * 445 2 13.6 * 0.5467 * 1  0.4 * 0.5467  * 10 6
M 1  230 KHm
M 2  M  M u  M 1  289  230  59 KHm
How, we check whether the compression steel is yielding or not, as in:-

 cu  x  d 2 
f sc  E s , where x  md
x
 x  0.0228 * 23.98 * 445
 f sc  0.0035
243  35 * 200,000  x  243 mm
243
f sc  600 MPa  f yd  260.87 
Hence, compression steel is yielding

In that case, f sc  f yd  Asc  As 2
As1  bd  0.0228 * 250 * 445  2537 mm 2
M 59 * 10 6
As 2    552 mm 2
f yd d  d 2  260.87 445  35
Provide, 2 20 bars  Asc = As1 = 552 mm2 (congress reinforcement)
Provide, 10 20 bars  As = As1 + As2 = 3089 mm2 (Tension reinforcement)
ii) Span reinforcement required

 Le
bw 
be   5
c / c beam spacing  300 mm
 8
 250  * 100  1850 m
 be   5
3000 mm
 be  1850 mm
How, to determine whether the section is treated as a rectangular or T – section, we

know that:-
 fh f ,
If 0.8x section is rectangular
If 0.8 x > hf , section is T – section
To determine the value of “x” we may use either of ;

M u  M span  0.8 x be f cd d  0.4 x  , by solving the quadratic equation for
“x”
Or, equivalently from the expression:-
x  md
 4 m span 
Where ,   0.5 c1  c12     max  0.0228
 be d 2 c 2 
f yd
Where, m   23.98 , be  1850 mm , d  D  35  465 mm
0.8 f cd
2 .5
c1   0.1043 , c 2  0.32 * m 2 * f cd  2501.95
m
M span  162.4 KHm
 4 * 162.4 * 10 6 
  0.5 0.1043  0.1043 2  
 1850 * 465 2 * 2501.95 
   0.00158   max  0.0228 ok for ductility
Thus, x = md  0.00158 * 23.98 * 465  17.62 mm
 0.8 x  14 mm  hf  100 mm  , Section is treated a rectangular section.

In that case, span reinforcement required is:-
As =  be d  0.00158 * 1850 * 465
As  1360 mm 2 (span reinforcement)
So, provide 5  20 bars.
Example#8(Design for Shear)

Problem – 1 Determine the spacing of shear reinforcement for the beam for which SAP
output is given below. C – 25 concrete and S – 300 steel, class – I works are to be used
b = 250 mm, d, = 365 mm , d2 = 342.5 mm As1 = 1168 mm2 , and As2 = 2199.1 mm2.
Column Axial load Distance SF BM

0.00 0 168.64 -105
1 0.00 2.6 0.00 133.76
0.00 6.1 -194.44 -133.82
2 0.00 0 115.15 -38.89
0.00 2.6 0.00 109.68
0.00 6.1 -157.15 -166,94
3 0.00 0 137.8 -118.86
0.00 0 0.00 93.84
0.00 0 -134.5 -108.79
250
Solution:- at support – A
rc  0.25 f c f d k1 k 2 bw d1
Where, f c f d 
0.21 * 25 
1.25
3 2
 1.0315 MPa
 1168 
K 1  1  50   1  50    1476  2.0 (ok )
 250 * 490 
K 2  1 .6  d  1.6  0.49  1.11  1 .0 (ok )
Therefore, vc = 0.25 * 1.0315 * 1.476 * 1.11 * 0.25 * 365
 Vc  38.55 KN
Vs = vd - vc = 140.81 - 38.55
 Vs  102.26 KN
Check for diagonal compression failure

VRd  0.25 * bw d f cd
 V Rd  0.25 * 250 * 365 * 11.33 * 10 3  258.46 KN

Since VRd > Vd (total shear = 140.81) , no compression diagonal compression future is
expected
Ar f yd * d
S
Vs
, where Ar  2 6 2 2
 56.55  6 stirrups
56.55 * 260.87 * 365

 S   52.66
102.26 * 10 3
 S  52.66 , too close
Ar  2 4
2
Try , 8 stirrups,  100.53
100.53 * 260.87 * 365

 S 
102.26 * 10 3
S = 93.6 mm
2
Vd  140.81  VRd  172.3 KH ( ? )
3
S = 93.6 , smax = 0.5d = 182.5
S < smax ( ok)

So, use 8 c/c 90

A simply supported beam of 300 mm width is having an effective depth of 450 mm,
cavies a total factored uniform load at 55 KH/m as shown. It is reinforced with 2753mm2
of tensile steel which continues uninterrupted in to supports design the beam for shear.
Materials
f ck  20 H / mm 2  20 MPa , f yk  300 N / mm 2
55 KN/m
360 6.3
Solution
In order to draw the SFD, first, we need to determine the shear equation.
Since loaded with UDL, the election at supports are given by:-
wL 555 * 6.3
  173.25
2 2
Shear equation at a distance “x” from left is:-
f v  0  173.25  55 x
V  173.25  55 x
V=0 occurs at x = 3.15 m

@ x = 0 , v = 173.25 KN
@ x = 6.3, v = -173.25 KN
55 KN/m
d = 450 mm
173.25 Vmax
Vc=80.07
600(-) SFD
1.69
173.25
i) Critical section for shear @ a distance “d” them the force of support is given
by:-
(from similarity)
Vd 173.25

3.15  15  0.45 3.15
 Vd 
3.15  0 .6 
* 173.25
3.15
 v d  140.25 KN …………………..(1)
ii) The limiting value of ultimate shear force is:-

V Rd  0.25 bw d f cd  0.25 * 300 * 450 * 11.33 * 10 3
 VRd  382.39 KN
iii) The shear resistance Vc of concrete is given by:-

Vc  0.25 f c f d k1 k 2 bwd
2 2
f f 0.21 f ck  3 0.21 * 20  3
Where , f c f d  c k  
1 .5 1 .5 1 .5
 f c f d  1.0315 MPa
As
K 1  1  50  , where    0.02
bwd
K 1  1 50 * 0.02
2753
  0.00204  0.02
300 * 450
 K 1  2 .0
K 2  1.6  d  1.6  0.45
   0.02
K 2  1 .15
Thus, Vc  0.25 * 1.0315 * 2 * 1.15 * 300 * 450 * 10 3
Vc  80.07 KN
iv) The point @ which web reinforcement theoretically is no longer required is (

from similarity)
173.25 80.07
  x  1.69m
3.15 3.15  x
How, for part of which, vd (applied shear force) < vc , i.e

(For range between 1.69 – 3.15 m of the half part),
Provide Av, minimum use 8 Av  2 *  * 4 2  100.53 (two pairs)
0 .4 Ar
 min  
f yk sbw
Ar f yk 100.53 * 300
 S    251.3
0.4 bw 0.4 * 3000
use , 8 c / c 250 …………………….. ( *)
v) Determine the maximum spacing:-

a) Based on minimum shear reinforcement:-
Ar f yk Ar
S max    250
0.4 bw  min bw
b) Based on the beam depth:-

 0 .5 d 2
S max   , if v d  v Rd
300 mm 3
0.3d 2
S max   , if v d  v Rd
200 mm 3
2 2
Since v d  140.25k  v Rd  * 382.39  254.93
3 3
0.5d * 450  225  0.5

 S max  min   S max  225 ….(**)
300
Therefore, them (* ) and (**), the maximum spacing based on the beam depth govern).
 S max  220 mm
 use , 8 c / c 220 mm
vi) Shear carried by this (smax) stirrups is:-

Ard f yd 100.53 * 450 * 260.87 * 10 3
Vs , max  
S max 200
Vs , max  53.64 KN
vii) Total shear force.

V , max  V s , max  Vc 
 173 . 25 133 . 71
 53 . 64  80 . 07   
 3 . 25 3 . 15  x 1
 V , max  133 . 71 
 x 1  0 . 72 m
viii) For shear force “d” distance from face of support:-
Vd  140.25  V , max  133.71
Thus, the spacing between Vd and Vmax I,e. (between 0.6m - 0.72 m)
Av d f yd 100.53 * 450 * 260.87 * 10 3

S  
Vs 140.25  80.07 
300 mm S = 196.10
Use ,  8 c / c 190 mm
173.25 vd vmax
Vc
0.6 I II III II J
0.72
1.60 2.92 0.6
0.72
1.69
For region I :-
190
720   150  475 where 190  c / c s
2
475
  2.5  no of spaces  3
190
 38 c / c 190
For region II :-
970
1690 - 720 =  4.4  no of spaces = 4
220
 4 8 c / c 220
For region III :-
3150 – 1690 = 1460  2 * 1460 = 2920
2920
  11.68  no of spaces = 12
250
 12 8 c / c 250
ix) Arrangement of shear reinforcement
I II III
3@190 4@220 6@250
570 880 1500
3.15 m

A floor system shown in figure support a service live load of 5 KN/m2 and dead – load
from partition and floor finish 1.5 KN/m2. The beam web, bw, is 250 mm, the overall
depth is limited to 400 mm and slab thickness 130mm. Design the beam on axis B for
flexure and shear requirements. Use concrete c – 25 and steel s – 460, assume the
beam is fixed @ the two ends.
6m
4m 3m
Solution
Design constants
0.85 * 25 / 1.25
f cd   11.33 MPa
1 .5
400
f yd   400 MPa
1.15
f yd
m   44.13
0.8 f cd
i) Minimum depth for +0.6 deflection (serviceability)
 f yk  Le
d  0.4  0.6  where Le = 6000 mm  a = 20
 400   a
 460  6000
 d   0 .4  0 .6 * 
 400  20
 d  327 mm
Assuming two layers of reinforcement

d c1  25  8  20  10  63
D  d  d c1  327  63  390  400 (Given) okay
ii) Loading
 Load transferred them, lab:-
DL = self – wf of slab = 0.13 * 25 = 3.25 KN/m2
DL = partition finish = 1.5 KN/m2 (given)
LL = 5 KN/m2 Total = 4.75 KN/m2
 Load on beam
DL = from slab = 4.75 KN/m2 * (2 + 1.5 )m = 16.625 KN/m
DL = beam self – wt = 0.25 * (0.4 - 0.13 ) * 25 = 1.687 KN/m
LL = QK = 5 * (2 + 1.5 ) = 17.5 KN/m GK = 18.31 KN/m
Thus, GK = 18.31 KN/m , GK = 17.5 KN/m
Pd = 1.3 GK + 1.6 QK
= 1.3 * 18.31 + 1.6 * 17.5
 Pd = 51.8 KH/m (design load)
iii) Analysis
51.8 KH/m
6m
WL2 51.8 * 6 2
 Negative moment , M = Msupp. =   155.4 KN / m
12 12
WL2 51.8 * 6 2
 Positive moment, M = Mspan =   77.7 KN / m
24 24
iv) Design for flexure

a) Design @ support
Md = 155.4 KH/m
Check depth for flexure
Md 155.4 * 10 6
d    431.10mm
0.2952 b f cd 0.2952 * 250 * 11.33
D = 431 .10 + 63 = 494.10 mm > Dused (= 400 mm)
Hence, double reinforcement is required

 cu * 0.6 f cd 0.6 * 0.0035 11.33
 max   *
 cu   yd f yd 0.0035  0.002 400
  max  0.01024
 Section capacity for singly reinforced section:-

M 1  0.8 bd 2 f cd  max m 1  0.4  max m 
 M 1  0.8 * 250 * 337 2 * 11.33 * 0.01024 * 44.13

(1 – 0.4 * 10-6 * 0.01024 * 44.13)
 M 1 95 .27 KHm
As1 = bd  0.01024 * 250 * 337
 As1  863 mm 2
 Moment carried by compression reinforcement:-

M 2  M  155 .4  95.27
  M  60.13 KNm
M 60.13
As 2   * 511.3 mm 2
f yd d  d 2  400 337  43
Check whether compression steel is yielding or not

0.0035 0.45 d  d 2 
f sc   s c E s  * 200 , 000
0.45 d
0.0035 0.45 * 377  43

 f sc  * 200 , 000
0.45 * 337
 f sc  501.5  f yd  400 MPa 
 Compression steel is yielding

Thus, As1 = 863, As2 = 511.3 = Asc
 As = 1374.3 mm2 (tension reinforcement)

Asc = 511.3 mm2 (compression reinforcement)
5  20 = 1571 mm2
But, take 4  20 and 116  1458 mm 2 (one layer average) revising using
 20 
d c1  400   25  8    357 mm
 2 
M 1  106.92 KNm  As  As1  As 2  914  386
 M  48.48 KHm  As  1300  1458 mm 2 (provided)
As1  914 mm 2
As 2  Asc  386 and yet , As  114  4  20  1410 mm 2
So, provide 4  20 and 119 base for tension reinforcement
Provide 2 16 base for compression reinforcement
N. B:- These all for negative support moment
b) @ Mid – span :-
M span  77.7 KHm (positive moment)
 Le 6000
bw  5  250  5
 1450
be  
c / c beam spacing  4000  3000  3500
 2 2
be
0.8x
250
be  1450
d  D  cov er   20 / 2  8 stirrups 
d  400  25  10  8   357 mm
Check T – beam , assuming a rectangular section,
1
 2 Mu   f yd 
  1  1       max  0.0108
 be d 2 f cd   f cd 
 2 * 77.7 * 10 6   400  1
  1  1      0.00107   max
 1450 * 357 2 * 11.33  11.33 
   0.00107   max  0.0108  , okay !for ductility
Thus, x = md  0.001  7 * 44.13 * 357
 x = 16.88 mm
 0.8 x = 0.8 * 16.88 = 13.5 mm < hf ( = 130 mm),
Hence, section is rectangular as assumed
Therefore, As =  bed  0.00107 * 1450 * 357
 As = 554 mm2 (span reinforcement)

So, provide 316
2 20
114 and 4 20 114 and 4 20
116
216
v) Design for shear

To draw the SFD show
F y  0  R A  51.8 x  y  0
 V  R A  51 .8 x
wL 51.8 * 6
Where R A    155.4 KN
2 2
51.8 KN/m
A B
 (shear equation)
V  155.4  51.8 x
155.4 Vd
155.4
3m
V = 0  x = 3m
@ x = 6m , v = -155.4 KN
Critical shear section , Vd from similarity,

155.4 Vd
 , assuming column width, 300 mm
3  300 
3  d  
 2 
130
d   357  150  597  0.507 m
2
2.493
 Vd  * 155.4
3
 Vd  129.14 KN (critical shear force)

3. Limiting value of shear force VRd :-
Rd  0.25 f cd bwd
= 0.25 * 11.33 * 250 * 357 * 10-3
 VRd = 252.80 KN (Limiting shear force)
4. Shear resistance of concrete Vc

Vc  0.25 f cd f d K1 K 2 bwd
Where,  
As

 
4 10 2 *  1 7 2 *   
, where As , reinforcement provided for
bwd 250 * 357
tension @ support
   0.016  0.02 (okay )
 K 1  1  50   1  50 * 0.016  1.8  2 (okay)
K2 = 1.6 - d = 1.6 - 0.357 = 1.243
fc f d 
0.21 25  1.25
 3
 1.0315
1 .5
Bw = 250 mm , d = 357 mm
 Vc  0.25 * 1.0315 * 1.8 * 1.243 * 250 * 357 * 10 3
 Vc  51.50 KH
5. Maximum spacing
i) Based on minimum we reinforcement
Av f yk
S max  ,
0.4 bw
where using 8 stirrups Av  2 * 4 2 100.53 f yk  460
100.53 * 460
 S max 
0.4 * 250
 S max  462.44
 use , 8 c / c 460 mm
ii) Based on depth “d”

2 2
Vd  129.14  V Rd  * 252.80  168.53
3 3
0.5d  0.5 * 357  178.5

 S max  min 
300
 S max  178.5
 use, 8 c / c 170 , i.e, spacing based on beam depth governs design.
6. Shear carried by 8 c/c 170 stirrups
Av d f yd 100.53 * 357 * 400

V s , max   * 10 3
s 170
 Vs , max  84.44 KN
Vmax = Vs , max + Vv = 84.44 + 51.5 = 136 KN

Since Vmax > Vd , (= 129.14) , only minimum web reinforcement is required.
So, provide 8 c/c 170 , i.e 33 @ 170 (AM)

The beam shown in figure, supports a dead of 13 KN/m including self weight and live
load of 15 KN/m. the beam is 250 mm wide by 400 mm deep. Materials are, C – 25
concrete and S – 460 steel, Assume column dimension as 300 x 300 mm
a) Design the beam for flexure
b) Design the beam for shear
c) Show reinforcement detailing
6m 6m
Solution
Design constants
f cd  11.3 MPa f yd  400 MPa m  44.13
Factored load :-
DL = 1.3 GK = 1.3 * 13 = 16.9 KN/m
24 KN / m
LL = 1.6 Qk  1.6 * 15 
 40.9 KN / m
Analysis
Case (a) maximum span moment
140.9 KN/m
16.9 KN/m
1 0.5 0.5 1 D,F

122.7 -122.7 50.7 -50.7 FEN1
-122.7 36 36 50.7 bal.all
-61.35 25.35 c.0
- 18 18 - Bal.
-130.05 130.05 final end moments
101.025 72.375
+ +
- - SFD
29.025
2.47
14.375 1.717
__
Case (a) maximum span moment

40.9
130.05
RA Vb
 MB  0   6 R A  130.05  40.9 * 6 * 3  0
 R A  101 .025
 Vb  144.375
16.9 KN/m
130.05
Rc
Vb
 6 Rc + 130.05 - 16.9 * 6 * 3 = 0
 Rc = 29.025
 Vb1 = 72.375
Thus, Rb  Vb  Vb1  216.75
Shear equation :-
i) 0   6 , " x" from end A,
RA - 40.9x - V = 0
 V  101.025  40.9 x
ii) 0  x  6 , " x" from end c,

Rc - 16.9x - V = 0
 V  29.025  16.9 x
@ x  0 , V  101.025 KN

For section (i) ,  V  0 ,  x  2.47 m ( from end A)
@ x  6m , v   144.375 KN

For section (ii)

@ x = 0 , v = - 29.025
@ v = 0 ,  x = 1.717m
@ x = 6m , v = 72.375 KN
Section i
0  x  6 (x from end A)
x2
 R A x  40.9  m  0
2
 M  R A x  20.45 x 2
 M  101.025 x  20.45 x 2
dM
 0  x  2.47
dx
M span  101.025 * 2.47  20.45 * 2.47 

2
 M span  AB   124.77 KNm
Section ii
0  x  6 (x from and c
M = 29.025 x - 8.45 x2
dM
 0  1.717
dx
M span ( BC )  29.025 * 1.717  8.45 * 1.717 2
 M span BC   24.92 KNm
Therefore, for case – I loading

Msupp. = 130.05 KNm (negative moment )
Mspan 1 = 124.77 KNm (positive moment)
Mspan 2 = 29.92 KNm (positive moment)
Case – B maximum support moment

Mspan = 184.05 KNm (-)
Mspan = 103.52 KNm (+)
40.9 KN/m
92.025 153.37
+ + SFD
- -
153.37 92.025
184.05
BMU
+ +
103.52 103.52
a) Design for flexure @ support

Md = 184.05 KNm
d = D - (25 + 10 + 6 ) = 400 - 41 = 359 mm
check depth for flexure them
Md * 10 6
d  , where Md = 180.05 KNm
0.2952 * 250 * 11.33
d  464 mm  d used  359 mm  ,

hence, double reinforcement is required
Section capacity for simply reinforced section :-
M 1  0.8 bd 2 f cd  1 m 1  0.4  1 m 
1
 2M 1   f yd 
Where , 1  1  1       max
 bd 2 f cd   f cd 
1
 2 * M1   f yd 
1  1  1       max
 bd 2 f cd   f cd 
0.6  cu f cd
Take , 1   max  *  0.01024
f yd 400
m    44.13
0 .8 / cd 0.8 * 11.33
1 m  0.0024 * 44 .13  0.452
 M 1  0.8 * 250 * 359 2 * 11.33 * 0.452 1  0.4 * 0.452  * 10 6
 M 1  108 .14 KNm

As1  bd  0.01024 * 250 * 359
 As1  919 mm 2
Moment carried by compression reinforced:-
M 2  M  186 .05  108 .14
 M  71.91 KNm
M 71.91 * 10 6
As 2    563.56 mm 2
f yd d  d 2  400 359  40 
Thus , As  As1  As 2  919  563.56  1482 .56 mm 2
This is tension reinforcement.
Example#12(T-Section)
A 100mm concrete floor slab is monolithically coast with continuous beams of span 5m
spaced @ 1.2m center to center. Bw = 250 mm the total depth D = 500 mm. Determine
the area of reinforcement @ mid – span to resist an ultimate moment of Md = 250 KNm.
C – 25 concrete, S – 300 steel and class – I works are to be used.
Solution :-
 Le
bw 
be   5
c / c spacing of beam
 5
250  * 1000  1250 mm
 be   5
1200 mm
 be = 1200 mm
Assuming ,  20  bars ,  6 stirrups
d  D  cov er   20 / 2   6 
 d = 500 - (25 + 10 + 6 ) = 459 mm
Md = Cc (d - 0.4x ) = 0.8x be fcd (d – 0.4x)
 250 * 106 = 0.8 * 1200 * 11.33 * x (459 - 0.4x)
 250 * 106 = 4992451.2x - 4350.72 x2
 4350.72 x 2  4992451.2 x  250 * 106  0
This is a quadratic equation in “x” and solving for x:-
 x = 1095.02 or x = 52.50 mm
Take, x = 52.50 mm  0.8x = 42 < hf (= 100 m)

Or equivalently, x = md = 52.50 mm
 the section is rectangular
0.8 x be f cd 0.8 * 52.5 * 1200 * 11.33
As  
f yd 260.87
 (AM)
As  2188.96 mm 2  be d
No of  20 bars = -2188.96  * 100   6.97
So, provide Z = 10 bars
Example#13(T-Section)
Design T – beam of, width be = 1000 mm, hf = 100 mm, bw = 250 mm, d = 450 mm,
use C – 25 concrete and S – 460 steel, class – I works are to be use, and Mu = 470
KNm.
Solution :-
Design constants
f cd  11.33, f yd  400 MPa
f yd 400
m    44.131
0.8 f cd 0.8 * 11.33
2 .5
C1   0.05665
m
C 2  0.32 m 2 f cd  7060 .9
 4 Md 
  0.5 C1  C12  
 bed 2 c 2 
   0.00656
x  md  0.00656 * 44.131 * 450 (Assuming NA lies in the flange)
 x  130.33 mm
Or equivalently, x can be obtained from:-
Md  0.8 x be d f cd d  0 .4 x 
 470 * 10 6  0.8 * 10 3 * 11.33 450  0.4 x 
 470 * 10 6  4078800 x  3625.6 x 2
 3625.6 x 2  4078800 x  470 * 10 6  0
Solving this equation for x:-
X = 994.67 mm or x = 130.33 mm
Take, x = 130.33 mm
 0 .8 * 130.33  104.26 mm  hf 100 mm 
 section is T – section
i) Area of reinforcement for the flange partition:-
f cd be  bw  hf 11.33 1000  250  * 100
Asf  
f yd 400
 Asf  2124.38 mm 2 …………………………… (1)
ii) Area of reinforcement for the web portion

0.8 x f cd bw 0.8 * 130.33 * 11.33 * 250
Asw  
f yd 400
 Asw  738.32 mm 2 ........ (2) M uf  Asf f yd d  hf / 2   339.9
Or , M u  M uw  M uf  M uw  M u  M uf  130.10 KNm
 M uw  Asw f yd d  0.4 x 
M uw 130.10 * 10 6
 Asw  
f yd d  0.4 x  400 450  0.4 * 130.33
 Asw  817.48mm 2  Asw (1)
Therefore, As (1)  Asf  Asw (1)  2124 .38  817.48
 As (1)  2941.86 mm 2
Or, As ( 2)  Asf  Asw ( 2)  2124 .38  738.32
 As ( 2)  2862.7 mm 2 ,
Take, As  2941 .86 mm 2 ( Ans.)
No of  24 base = 2941.86 /
 
* 12 2  6.5
So, provide 7   24 bars
CHAPTER 4
One-Way Slabs
4.1 Introduction to Slabs
RC slabs are one of structural elements used as floors, roofs and stairs of buildings, and deck of brides
etc. It is a broad, flat plate usually horizontal some times inclined surface which may be supported by
monolithically caste reinforced concrete beams, walls and columns, or simply supported by masonry
walls, structural steel beams and columns, or continuously supported on the ground.
If slab is supported on two opposite sides only, the structural action of the slab is essentially one-way; and
the loads being carried by the slab in the direction perpendicular to the supporting beams or walls.
Therefore, all the main reinforcing steel should be placed at right angles to those beams or walls, except
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement which may be placed in other direction.
Beam
Beam
Fig 1: One-way slabs supported by parallel beams with main reinforcement
On other hand, there may be supporting beams or wall on all four sides of slab, the structural action of
slab is two-way. For such slab, the main reinforcing steel should be applied in two directions. If the ratio
of the longest to shortest span of the two-way slab panel is greater than two (ll ls  2) , most of the load
is carried in short direction to the supporting beams or walls; and one-way action is more effective even if
the supports provided on all sides of slab. But, minimum reinforcement is required over girder support.
Girder
Beam
Beam
ll
Beam
ls
Girder
ll
Fig 2: One-way slabs if  2
ls
4.2 Analysis and Design of One-way Solid Slabs
One-way slab may be considered as a wide shallow beam spanning between slab supports. But for design
purpose, a strip of unit width spanning between the slab supports is considered. This strip is analyzed in
the same way as continuous beam. It is assumed that the stiffness of the supporting beams is larger than
the stiffness of the slab so that the resulting deflection of beams is smaller compared to deflection of slab.
Elastic plate theory shows that a strip of unit width has a higher flexural rigidity than the corresponding
isolated beam. In simplified analysis that assumes poisson’s ratio to be zero, which will gives slightly
conservative proportions of one-way slab.
In analysis of continuous slab, the effective span length is taken as center-to-center spacing between the
slab supports. But in design of slab, design moment at support is taken at faces of the support and design
shear force at support is taken at effective depth distance from the face of the support provided the slab is
monolithic with the supporting beams or walls. If continuous slab is not monolithic with the supporting
beams or walls, design moment and shear force at support used for design are taken at center of the
support.
Slabs are usually designed as singly reinforced section without shear reinforcement. Flexural
reinforcement of slab being applied in the same way as singly reinforced rectangular beam with clear
cover about 15mm for mild exposure condition or 20mm for moderate exposure condition. If thickness of
slab exceeds 300mm, special shear reinforcement may be required near to the slab support. Slab design
start with determination of slab-thickness from deflection requirement given by code. EBCS-2 provide
minimum effective depth of slab, ‘d’ to be used to control deflection is given as,
fy le
d  ( 0.4  0.6 ).
400 a
where f y --characteristic yield strength of steel in MPa
le --effective span length for one-way slabs; and shorter span length for two-way edge supported
slabs
 a --constant as given in table below; and for slabs carrying partition walls likely to crack, shall
be taken as  a  150 l0
l0 --distance in meter between points of zero moment (for continuous span, may be taken
approximately as 0.7 times length of span), and, for a cantilever span, twice the length to the face of
the support
Table 1: Values of  a
Simply End Interior Cantilever
Member supported spans spans Spans
-Beams 20 24 28 10
-Edge supported Slabs
a) span ratio, ll ls  2 (includes one-way slabs) 25 30 35 12
35 40 45 10
b) span ratio, ll ls  1
-Flat slabs (based on longer span) 24

Note: For slabs with intermediate span ratio interpolate linearly.
Then, check for adequacy of thickness of slab is made for both flexure and shear. Thickness of slab is
adequate for shear if the design shear stress developed in slab is less than or equal to the shear strength
provided by the slab.
Vd
i.e vd   vc
b.d
where Vd –design shear force developed at critical section of slab (at support)
-Design shear strength of concrete slab in the ultimate limit state method that prevents diagonal tension
failure according to EBCS-2/95 shall be taken as:
vc  0.25 f ctd . k1 . k 2
23
0.21 0.8 f cu 
where f ctd 
1.5
k1   1 50   2.0
k2   1.6  d   1.0 d in m
For members where more than 50% of bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2 = 1.0
  As b . d --longitudinal reinforcement ratio at location of critical shear force
-Design shear strength of concrete slab in the ultimate limit state method that prevents diagonal tension
failure according to ESCP-2/83 shall be taken as:
vc  0.4 f ctd . (1  50  )
0.35 f cu
where f ctd 
1.5
As
  0.01 --longitudinal reinforcement ratio at location of critical shear force
b.d
If thickness of slab is adequate for flexure as singly reinforced and also for shear without shear
reinforcement, then required flexural reinforcement are determined using ultimate limit state for flexure.
Therefore, the required area of tension steel in ultimate limit state for flexure is determined using:
Md
As 
f yd . z
where M d --design moment developed at critical section of slab
fy
f yd  (Class-I concrete)
1.15
z
d
2

 1  (1  2  )  --lever arm between internal forces of section
Md
 --required relative moment of section
f cd . b . d 2
0.67 f cu
f cd  (Class-I concrete)
1.5
Limitation of Flexural Reinforcement of slabs (EBCS-2/95)
-The ratio of secondary to the main reinforcement shall be at least equal to 0.2.
0.5
-Main reinforcement ratio in a slab shall not be less than,  min 
f y ( MPa)
-Spacing between bars for main reinforcement of slab shall not exceed,
S max  2tslab  350mm
 b (used )

-Minimum spacing of bars, S min   agg  5mm

20mm
-Secondary reinforcement is the area of steel corresponding to the minimum reinforcement ratio of main
reinforcement.
-Spacing between bars for secondary reinforcement of slab shall not exceed 400mm.
-Thickness of slab according to EBCS shall not be less than the minimum given as follow,
t min  60mm  for inaccessible roof slabs
t min  80 mm  for slabs exposed mainly to distributed loads
t min  100 mm  for slabs exposed to light moving concentrated loads
Limitation of Flexural Reinforcement of slabs (ACI-code)
-Main reinforcement:
 3t  (used )
S max   slab & S min   b
 450mm  25mm
-Secondary (shrinkage and temperature) reinforcement:

As , min  0.002 (b . tslab ) for S  300MPa
or As , min  0.0018 (b . tslab ) for S  400 MPa
 5t
and S max   slab
 450mm
4.3 One-way Ribbed slabs
One-way ribbed slab is a floor or roof system supported by closely spaced small beams called ribs or
joists framing into girders, which in turn frame into the supporting columns. To reduce cost of formwork,
supporting girders may be proportioned with the same depth of ribs. Typical plan of one-way ribbed slab
is as shown below.
Girder
Rib
Rib
Rib
Girder
topping
slab
Fig 3: Ribbed floor-slab supported by system of beams and girders
Since concrete is weak in tension and its tensile strength is neglected in design, the use of ribbed slab
eliminate much of tension concrete in a slab that results in a saving of weight with little alteration in the
structural behavior of the slab. Ribbed floor slabs are economical for buildings such as apartment houses,
hotels and hospitals where live loads are fairly small and the spans are comparatively long. Ribbed floors
are not suitable for heavy construction, such as in ware houses and heavy manufacturing buildings.
Minimum thickness of concrete flange or topping slab according to ACI code is about 50mm but not less
than 1/12 of clear distance between the ribs; the corresponding in EBCS-2/83 is about 40mm but not less
than 1/10 of the clear distance between ribs. Topping slab is reinforced, primarily for temperature and
shrinkage stresses using small bars placed at right angles to the joists; the area of this reinforcement is
usually about 0.18% of the cross-sectional area of topping slab. Alternatively, to provide mesh
reinforcement about 0.1% of the cross-sectional area of topping slab in each direction. If the spacing
between ribs exceeds 1m, the topping slab shall be designed as slab resting on ribs.
Generally, ribs (joists) are designed as regular T-beam sections supported by girders. Ribs shall be not
less than 65mm wide. Their spacing shall not exceed 1.5m; and depth of ribs excluding any topping slab
shall be not more than four times their width. The reinforcement of the ribs usually consists of two bars,
one straight bar and one bent bar.
4.4 Design of One-way Ribbed slabs

The general design of ribbed slab involves the following:
-Thickness of topping slab, width, depth and spacing of ribs are assumed based on code’s
recommendations.
-Determine design loads supported by each ribs.
-Analyze the ribs as regular simply supported or continuous T-beams supported by the supporting girders.
-Check adequacy of depth of ribs for both flexure and shear. If the shear stress developed in the rib
section exceeds the shear strength of T-beam, shear reinforcement is provided for excess shear.
-Determine the required area of reinforcement for flexure.
Support Reinforcement Span Reinforcement
4.5 Analysis of One-way Slab Carrying Concentrated Load (IS: 456 & IRC)
The analysis of a slab carrying concentrated loads is highly statically indeterminate problem. The use of
theory of elasticity leads to higher order differential equations which are difficult to solve for various
positions of loads and boundary conditions of slab. However, it is possible to carryout a simplified
analysis by modifying the available results of elastic analysis of slabs. It is referred to as effective width
method of analysis for slab supported on two opposite edges only.
One-way slab carrying concentrated load shall be analyzed to carry concentrated load over effective width
of slab as follows:
a) For Single Concentrated load: the effective width of slab shall be determined using the following
equation provided that it shall not exceed the actual width of the slab.
x
be  k . x . (1  )  a0
le
where k –constant depending upon the ratio width of slab to effective span B le
x –distance of concentrated load to the nearest support

a0 –width of contact area of conc. load parallel to the supported edge
Table 2: Value of k depending on B le
B le Simply supp. Continuous B le Simply supp. Continuous

Slab Slab slab Slab
0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.96 1.84
0.2 0.8 0.8 0.7 2.12 1.96
0.3 1.16 1.16 0.8 2.24 2.08
0.4 1.48 1.44 0.9 2.36 2.16
0.5 1.72 1.68 1.0 & above 2.48 2.24
b) For Two or More Concentrated Load (placed in the direction of span): the slab shall be
analyzed separately for each load using the effective width of slab as given in (a).
c) For Two or More Concentrated Load (not in a line in the direction of span) : If the
effective width of slab for one load does not overlap for another load, the slab for each load can be
analyzed separately. If the effective width of slab for one load over-laps with an adjacent load, the
overlapping portion of slab shall be analyzed for combined effect of the two loads.
d) For Cantilever slabs: the effective width of slab shall be determined using,
be  1.2a1  a0
where a1 --distance of concentrated load from the face of cantilever support
CHAPTER 5
Bond, Anchorage, and Development Length
5.1 Bond
In order for reinforced concrete to behave as intended, it is essential that bond forces be
developed on the interface between concrete and steel, such as to prevent significant slip from
occurring at that interface. If the bar is smooth enough to slip, the assumption that the strain in an
embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that in the surrounding concrete, would not be valid.
Consequently, the beam would be very little stronger than if it were built of plain concrete,
without reinforcement.
Figure 4.3.1 Bond stresses due to flexure (a) beam before loading; (b) unrestrained slip between
concrete and steel; (c) bond forces acting on concrete; (d) bond forces acting on steel.
Formerly plain bars were used with provision of end anchorage in the form of hooks. Such beam
forms a broken bond over the entire length between anchorages and acts as a tied arch (Fig.
4.3.2).
Figure 4.3.2 Tied arch action in a beam with little or no bond
To avoid development of wide cracks and dispense with special anchorage devices, deformed
bars are now universally used. With such bars, the shoulders of the projecting ribs bear on the
surrounding concrete and result in greatly increased bond strength.
5.1.1 Bond Stress
Figure 4.3.3 shows forces in an isolated piece of a beam of length dx. The moment at one end
will generally differ from that at the other end by a small amount dM.
Figure 4.3.3 Forces and stresses acting on elemental length of beam: (a) Free body sketch of
Reinforced concrete element; (b) free body sketch of steel element.
Assuming that concrete does not resist any tension stresses, the change in bar force becomes,
dM dM
dT   (Z – Moment arm)
d  0. 4 x Z
As shown in figure 4.3.1b, this force is resisted by the bond at the contact surface between bar
and concrete.
Summing horizontal forces,
udx  p  dT
Where: u = local average bond stress per unit of bar surface area.
p = sum of perimeters of all the bars.
dT dM dM dx V
 u   
dx  p dxZ  p Z p Z p
Hence, the unit bond stress is proportional to the shear at a particular section, i.e., to the rate of
change of bending moment. The above equation applies to the tension bars in a concrete zone
that is assumed to be fully cracked. It does not apply to compression reinforcement, for which it
can be shown that the flexural bond stresses are very low.
Actual distribution of flexural bond stress:
Figure 4.3.5 Effect of flexural cracks on

bond stresses in beam (a) beam with flexural
cracks; (c) variation of tensile force T in
steel along span; (d) variation of bond stress
Figure 4.3.4 variation of steel force and
bond stress in reinforced concrete member u along span.
subjected to pure bending: (a) cracked
concrete segment; (b) bond stresses acting on
reinforcing bar; (c) variation of tensile force
in steel; (d) variation of bond stress along
steel.
5.2 Development Length
Ultimate bond failures for bars in tension are of two types: the first is direct pullout of the bar,
which occurs when ample confinement is provided by the surrounding concrete. The second type
of failure is splitting of the concrete along the bar when cover, confinement or bar spacing is
insufficient to resist the lateral concrete tension resulting from the wedging effect of the bar
deformations. The latter if more common than the former
Figure 4.3.6 Splitting of concrete along reinforcement
The development length is defined as that length of embedment necessary to develop the full
tensile strength of the bar, controlled by either pullout or splitting. Referring to figure 4.3.7, the
moment, and hence the tensile stress, is evidentially maximum at point a and zero at supports.
The total tension force Abfs must be transferred from the bar to the concrete in the distance l by
bond stress on the surface.
Figure 4.3.7 Development length
The safety against bond failure is that the length of the bar, from any point of given steel stress
(fs or at most fy) to its nearby free end must be at least equal to its development length.
The basic anchorage length, lb, is the straight length of bar required to anchor the force Asfyd. For
a bar of diameter-, this force must equal the shear force developed between the bar surface and
the surrounding concrete:
As f yd  l b  f bd
 2
But As 
4
 2
 f yd  lb f bd
4
f yd
 lb 
4 f bd
Where, fyd = design bond strength.
The required anchorage length lb,net depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in the
reinforcement and can be calculated as:
As ,cal
lb ,net  alb  lb , min
As ,ef
Where, As,cal = theoretical area of reinforcement required by the design.

As,ef = area of reinforcement actually provided.
a = 1.0 for straight bar anchorage in tension or compression.
0.7 for anchorage in tension with standard hooks.
For bars in tension, lb,min = 0.3lb  10 or  200mm

For bars in compression, lb,min = 0.6lb  10 or  200mm
Figure 4.3.8 Standard Hooks
Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist tension for
a length given by:
(a) lb
(b) lb,net  d provided that in this case, the continuing bars are capable of resisting twice the
applied moment at the section.
5.3 Bar Cut off and Bend points
It is a common practice either to cut off bars where they are no longer required to resist stress or
in case of continuous beams, to bend up bottom steel so that it provides tensile reinforcement at
the top of the beam over the support. To determine bend points, or bar cutting points, the
moment diagram resulting from loading for maximum span moment and maximum support
moment is shown below.
Figure 4.3.9 Tensile force diagram
Recognizing the various uncertainties, for bars with no special end anchorage the full
development length lb,net [d or 12] whichever is larger, must be provided beyond the peak stress
location. The critical section may be the point of max moment or a point where adjacent
terminated reinforcement is no longer needed to resist bending.
In the absence of explicit calculation, the sketch shown may serve this purpose.
(Taken from South African Building Standards (SABS))
Figure 4.3.10 Curtailment of reinforcement – simply supported

end
Figure 4.3.11 Simplified curtailment rules for beams
5.4 Bar splices
Reinforcing bars are as by fabrication limited in length, say 12 m. Thus it is normal to splice
bars in the field. To do this, one has to notice the following regarding splicing.
 Splicing of bars must be avoided at points of max-moment.

 Bars which are spliced should be staggered.
 Splices are made simply by lapping the bars a sufficient distance to transfer stress
by bond from one bar to the other.
 The required length of lap for tension is approximately 1.3lb and that for compression is
lb .
CHAPTER 6
Serviceability Limit State
6.1 Introduction
It is important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when
Loads are those actually expected to act i.e. when load factors are 1.0. This is not guaranteed
simply by providing adequate strengths. Service load deflections under full load may be
excessively large or long-term deflections due to sustained loads may cause damage .Tension
cracks in beams may be wide enough to be visually disturbing or may even permit serious
corrosion of reinforcing bars. These and other questions such as vibration or fatigue, require
consideration
Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic theory, with stresses in both concrete and
steel assumed to be proportional to strain. The concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis
may be assumed uncracked, partially cracked, or fully cracked depending on the loads and
material strengths.
Reinforced concrete members carrying lateral loads respond to these loads by bending. The
moment curvature relationship for a segment of the simply supported reinforced concrete
member of fig.5.1 (a) is illustrated in fig.5.1(c). It can be seen that the segment remains
uncracked and has a large stiffness EIu, , until the moment reaches the cracking moment, Mcr,
(Point A) .When this happens, the member cracks and the stiffness at the cracked section reduces
to EIc.
As the load (and hence the moment) is increased further, more cracks occur and existing cracks
increase in size .Eventually ,the reinforcement yields at the point of maximum moment
corresponding to point C on the diagram. Above this point the member displays large increases
in deflection for small increases in moment .The service load range is between the origin and
point C on the diagram and it is in this range that deflections are checked and stresses
calculated.
Consider a point B within the service load range. This curvature represents the instantaneous
(short term) curvature under an applied moment, M. If the moment is sustained, however, the
curvature increases with time to point D owing to the creep of the concrete. The curvature at this
point is known as the long term or sustained curvature. As deflection results, from curvature,
there are both instantaneous and sustained deflections which must be considered in the design of
members with bending.
part(b)
P R
M
a) deflected shape M N.A M

b) Curvature of segment of beam
Curvature (K)=1/R
Moment(M)
C Yield point of reinforcement

slope EIc
B D
Mcr A
slope EIu
Instantaneous Sustained
Curvature(K)
c) Moment/ curvature plot for segment of part (b)

Fig.5.1.1Moment / Curvature relationship for beam segment
6.2 Limits on Deflections

The deflections which result from bending must be limited such that they do not adversely affect
the function and appearance of the member or the entire structure.
The final deflection (including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage) of all horizontal
members shall not, in general, exceed the value.
Le
  Where: Le effective span
200
For roof or floor construction supporting or attached to nonstructural elements (e.g. partitions
and finishes) likely to be damaged by large deflections, that part of the deflection which occurs
after the attachment of the non-structural elements shall not exceed the value .
Le
   20mm
350
6.3 Calculation of Deflections

Effect of creep and shrinkage strains on the curvature, and there by on the deflection shall be
considered.
Immediate deflections shall be computed by the usual elastic methods as the sum of the two parts
 i and  ii given by eq. 5.2.1 and eq. 5.2.2 but not more than given by eq. 5.2.3
M cr
 i  L2 ------ (5.2.1)
Ecm I c
M k  M cr
 ii  L2 --------------- (5.2.2)
0.75E s As Z (d  X )
Mk
 max  L2 ---------------------- (5.2.3)
E s As Z (d  X )
M cr  1.70 f ctk S ------------------------------------ (5.2.4)
 i = deflection due to the theoretical cracking moment (Mcr) acting on the

uncracked transformed section
 ii =deflection due to the balance of the applied moment over and above the
cracking value and acting on a section with an equivalent stiffness of 75% of the cracked
value.  max = deflection of fully cracked section
As = area of the tension reinforcement
Ecm = short term elastic modulus (secant modulus) of the concrete

1
3
Ecm = 9.5 ( f ck  8) fck-mpa, Ecm-Gpa
Grade of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

concrete
Ecm 26 27 29 32 35 37 39
Es-modulus of elasticity of steel,

Iu-moment of inertia of the uncraked transformed section
Mk-Maximum applied, moment at mid span due to sustained characteristic loads; for
cantilevers it is the moment at the face of the support
S- Section modulus,
d-effective depth of the section,
X-neutral axis depth at the section of max. moment,
Z-internal lever arm at the section of max moment.
 -deflection coefficient depending on the loading and support conditions.
(e.g.  =5/48 for simply supported span subjected to uniformly distributed load)
Note: The value of X & Z may be determined for the service load condition using a modular
ratio of 10, or for the ultimate load condition.
Long term deflection of flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate
deflection caused by the sustained load considered, by the factor,
(2-1.2As’/As) 0.6--------------- (5.2.5)
Where: As’-area of compression reinforcement,
As-area of tension reinforcement.
6.4 Limits on cracking

Flexural cracks are inevitably formed in reinforced concrete members. For structures in
aggressive environments, corrosion is a problem and stringent limits are imposed on the width of
cracks that are allowed to develop. Environment in the interior of the building is usually non-
sever, corrosion does not generally pose a problem and limits on crack widths will be governed
by their appearance.
a) Crack Formation
 The max. tensile stresses in the concrete are calculated under the action of design loads
appropriate to a serviceability limit state and on the basis of the geometrical properties
of the transformed uncracked concrete X-section.
 The calculated stresses shall not exceed the following values:
a) Flexure, (  ct  1.70 f ctk )
b) direct(axial) tension (  ct  f ctk )
 Minimum flexural reinforcement in beams for the control of cracking is given by:
0.6
 min 
f yk
b) Crack widths
Crack widths are calculated using the quasi permanent service load combination. Specifically
crack widths can be assumed not to exceed the limiting values if the limits on the bar spacing or
bar diameter (Table 5.3.1)are satisfied, and if min. areas of reinforcement, also specified are
provided.
Table 5.3.1:-Maximum size and spacing of high bond bars for control of cracking.
Steel stress* Max. bar spacing (mm) Max. bar diameter(mm)

160 300 32
200 250 25
240 200 20
280 150 16
320 100 12
360 50 10
400 - 8
450 - 6
*steel stresses are determined using quasi –permanent loads.
Table5.3.2 Characteristic crack widths for concrete Members

Type of Dry environment: Humid environment: Sea water and/or
exposure Interior of buildings Interior aggressive chemicals
of normal components(e.g. environments
habitation or office laundries), exterior completely or partially
components; submergeed in seawater
components in non- ,components in saturated
aggressive soil and salt air ,aggressive
/or water industrial atmospheres
(sever)
(mild) (Moderate)
Characteristic 0.4 0.2 0.1
crack
width,wk(mm)
In specific cases where a crack width Calculation is considered necessary

Wk=  s rm  sm Where: wk=characteristic crack width, s rm =average final crack width
 sm =mean strain in the tension steel allowing for tension stiffening and time
dependent effects
 =coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value
  1.7 for sections in bending under applied loads.
The mean strain is simply the strain in the steel adjusted by the distribution factor, 
fs
 sm   , Where: fs-stress in the tension reinforcement, Es-elastic modulus of
Es
f sr
steel.   1  1  2 ( )
fs
 1 =coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the reinforcement

 1 =1.0 for high bond bars (normally used or deformed) and 0.5 for plain bars
 2 = coefficient which accounts for the duration of loading or of repeated loading

 2 =1.0 for single short term loading & 0.5 for sustained loading or repeated loading
fs= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section
fsr= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section due to loading which causes
initial cracking
The average final crack spacing in (mm) is calculated using the equation

Srm = 50 + 0.25 K 1 K 2 - 176 -
r
Where: k1 = coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the
reinforcement: k1=0.8 for high bond bars:k1=1.6 for plain bars.
K2= coefficient which takes account of the form of strain distribution for
bending it is 0.5
  Bar diameter,  r = effective reinforcement ratio As/Ac,eff.
Where: Ac,eff= effective tension area of he concrete , as illustrated below
X X
d
h
C
h
2.5(h-d)
lesser of 2.5(C+Ø/2) Effective tension

And (h-x)/3 Area
effective tension area b) slabs
a) beams
Fig 5.3.1 Effective tension area of concrete
Example #1 (Serviceability Limit State)

A simply supported beam shown below carries a dead load of 7Kn/m including self weight and
live load of 10KN/m. Calculate the Immediate, the Long term, and the total deflection of the
beam; and comment on the total deflection. Use, C-25, S-300, Es = 200GPa and Ec = 28GPa.
Solution
Design load of serviceability limit state for the load combination is,
w = Gk + Qk = 7 + 10 = 17KN/m
As = 2* ∗ 10 + 3* ∗ 8 = 1231.5
A’s = 2* ∗ 16 = 226.2
n= = = 7.143
∗ ∗
d = 350 - , where, = = 39.8
d = 350 - 39.8 = 310mm

d2 = 25 + 6 + 6 = 37mm
i. For Transformed Uncracked Section
a. Determine the Neutral Axis (N.A)
Taking moment about the N.A,
Ac( − ) + (n-1)A’s(x-d2) = (n-1) As(d-x)
(350*250)*(0.5*350 – x) + (7.143 -1)*(226.2)(x – 37) = (7.143-1)*(1231.5)*(310-x)

x = xu = 164.4mm (depth to the neutral axis)
b. Calculate the untracked moment of inertia (Iu) about the N.A
= + ℎ( − ) + ( − 1) ( − ) + ( − 1) ( − )
∗
( ∗ )∗ . ( . )∗ . ∗( . ) ( . )∗ . ∗( . )
1085.98944*10
ii. For Transformed Cracked Section
a. Determine the Neutral Axis (N.A)
Taking moment about the N.A,
+ ( − 1) ′ ∗ ( − )= ∗( − )
(250* )( ) + (7.143 − 1) ∗ ( − 37) = 7.143 ∗ 1231.51 ∗ (310 − )
= = 113.8
b. Calculate the untracked moment of inertia ( ) about the N.A
= + ( − 1) ∗ ′ ∗ ( − ) ∗ ∗( − )
∗ .
= + (7.143 − 1) ∗ 226.2 ∗ (113.8 − 37) ∗ 7.143 ∗ 1231.51 ∗
(310−113.8)2
= 469.63233 ∗ 10
iii. Calculate the moment that can cause the first crack on the tensioned concrete fibers
= 1.7 , where
( . ∗
= 1.7 ∗ (0.21 ∗ (20) ∗ ,
.
= 15.39
iv. Calculate the elastic deflection
According to EBCS-2/1995,
+
Elastic Deflection =
a. Calculate +
∗ . ∗
= = ∗ = 1.32 , where = =
∗ . ∗
( )
= , where
. ∗ ( )
∗
= = = = 53.125 ( )
.
= − = (310 − = 272.1
( ) ∗( . . )∗
= = ∗ )∗
= 9.96
. ∗ ∗ ∗( . . ∗( .∗)
Thus, + = 1.32 + 9.96 = 11.28
b. Calculate
= ∗( )
∗ . ∗
= ∗( )∗( )∗(
= 10.52mm
∗ . . )∗( . )
, =10.52mm < ( + = 11.28 ), ℎ ,

Deflection = . = 10.52mm (Ans.)
According to EBCS-2/1995,
Long Term Deflection:-
. . ∗ .
. = − ∗ . = − ∗ . = . ( .)
.
Total Deflection:-
. = .+ . = 10.52 + 18.72 = .
We check now whether the total deflection is below the permissible limit set by the EBCS-
2/1995, which is given by:
. = = = 25
. = . > . = 25 (Not Ok!)
Therefore, re-design of the process should be required!!
Example #2 (Serviceability Limit State)

Check the beam given in Example#1 for crack width if it is exposed to dry environment.
Solution
Considering the cracked transformed section,
= 113.8
i. Calculate the stress in the tension steel, ,by taking moment about center of the
compressive force. In this case,
= ∗( − )
. ∗
= . = 158.56
. ∗( )
ii. Calculate the stress in the tension reinforcement cased due to the cracking moment
. ∗
= . = 45.933
. ∗( )
iii. Calculate the mean strain which allow for the effects of tension stiffening of the
concrete , shrinkage, etc
= (1 − ≥ 0.4 ∗ , ℎ ,
= 1.0 ℎ ℎ
= 0.5
= 1.0 ℎ
In this case, = 1.0 = 0.5
= 0.5
. .
= (1 − 0.1 ∗ 0.5 = 7.6 ∗ 10 > 0.4 ∗ = 3.17 ∗ 10
∗ .
= 7.6 ∗ 10 (mean strain)

iv. Calculate the average crack spacing
According to EBCS-2/1995, Average Crack Spacing is:
∅
= 50 + 0.25 , where,
=
( .)
where,
( .) = ; ℎ which will
crack due to the tension developed in the bending.
( .) = 2.5 ∗ (ℎ − ) ∗
.
= )∗
= 0.04926
. ∗(
∗ ∗
∅= ∅ = = 17.6 (average bar size)
= 0.8
= 0.5
= 0.5
In this case, = 0.8 = 0.5
= 1.0
∅ .
Thus, = 50 + 0.25 = 50 + 0.25 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 0.5 ∗ = 85.73
.
v. Calculate the design crack width,

= , where = = 1.7
= 1.7 ∗ 85.73 * 7.6 ∗ 10 = 0.11

Whereas the maximum limit for crack width for dry environment, as per EBCS-2/1995,is:
. = 0.40
since = 0.11 < . = 0.40 , therfore, crack width is Ok!!
Example #1(Moment Redistribution)

Consider the 3 span contineous beam shown below. Design this beam using (b/D) of 250
X 500, C-25 , S-300 , Class-I Works, and 20% support moment redistribuiton and live load
varations.
Solution
In a contineous beam such as the given one, first we need to consider Live Load varations and
then, we redistribute the specified moment by some percentage to obtain the final design
moment. With regard to live load varations, we consider the following 3 ccase:-
Case (a):- Loading For Maximum Exterior Support Moment
This case is represented by the loading and the coressponding analysis results by applying the
moment destriution methodshown as below.
For maximum exterior support moment, by using the moment distribution method, support
or end moments can be computed in tabular forms and the Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)
for both the undistributed (solid line) and distributed (dashed line) are drawn and shown in the
firure below.
Now, we increase the support moment by 20% as specifed.
= = 1.2 ∗ 108 = 130
. , = 152 − 0.5 ∗ (130 − 108) = 141
To calculate the span moment in the undistributed moment, we need first to determine the
moment equation interms of ‘x’ at any section , and this can easily be shown the moment
equation is:-
= −7.5 + 135 − 648 ;
= 0, =9 ;
., , = −7.5 ∗ 9 + 135 ∗ 9 − 648 = −41
Case (b):- Loading For Maximum Interior Span Moment

Following similar procdure as in the case (a) above, the anlysis for maximum interior span
moment and the resulting Bending Moment Diagram(BMD) for both the undistributed (solid
line) and distributed (dashed line) are drawn and shown in the firure below
Case (C):- Loading For Maximum Support Moment

Following similar procdure as in the cases (a) & (b) above, the anlysis for maximum support
moment and the resulting Bending Moment Diagram(BMD) for both the undistributed (solid
line) and distributed (dashed line) are drawn and shown in the firure below.
Summary of Analysis Results from the 3 Live Load Varations

Case (a):- Loading For Maximum Exterior Support Moment
. = 130
. , = 141
Case (b):- Loading For Maximum Interior Span Moment
. = 130
. = 73
Case (C):- Loading For Maximum Support Moment
. = 144
. = 108
. = 79
Reinforcement
We apply the Design Table Method in this problem, as per EBCS-2/1995
i. Span AB & CD
d = 500 – 35 = 465mm
, . = 141
∗
= = = 51.07 > = 48.23, hence, section needs double reinforcement!
. ∗ .
From Design Table No. 1a & 1b, for parameters C-25 & S-300 we may obtain the following:
∗ = 1.05; = 4.3 & ′ = 0.40;
Assuming d2 = 35mm, = 0.8;
= 1.00; & = 1.00

. ∗ ∗ .
= = = 1313 (Tension Reinforcement)
.
. ∗∗ ∗ .
′ = = = 123 (Compression reinforcement)
.
So, provide 3Ø + 2Ø bars for Tension Reinforcement (Bottom), and

2Ø 2Ø bars for Compression reinforcement (Top)
N.B By following similar procedure as case (i) as above, reinforcements by using the Design
Table Method have been provided for all the remaining sections and shown below
ii. Span BC(+ve)
. ∗ ∗ .
= = = 703
.
So provide, 4Ø for Tension Reinforcement (Bottom)
iii. Span BC(-ve)
. ∗ ∗ .
= = = 556
.
So provide, 3Ø for Compression Reinforcement (Top)

iv. Support BC
. ∗ ∗ .
= = = 1341
.
. ∗ ∗ .
′ = = = 188
.
So, provide 3Ø + 2Ø bars for Compression Reinforcement (Top), and

2Ø bars for Tension reinforcement (Bottom)
Detailing of the continuous beam designed is shown below.

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Arba Minch University Department of Civil Engineering

Arba Minch University

1.2 Important Features of Concrete

Characteristic Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.2.1 Characteristic strength

Table 1.2.1 Grades of Concrete

In accordance with Ethiopian Standards, compressive strength of concrete is determined from

Table 1.2.2 Conversion Factors for strength

Grades of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

Stress – Strain Curve

Tan - Secant Modulus

1.3 Reinforcing Steel

 It is high strength and high costing material.

Diameter ( mm) Area (mm2) Diameter ( mm) Area (mm2)

1.4 Behavior under Load

Figure 1.4.2 Behavior of RC beam under load

Illustrative Design Examples on the Working Stress Design (WSD) Method

Assuming Ø20 bars and 25mm cover,

And, = in this case, = and is given by

= = 0.00973 ∗ 250 ∗ 644.5 = 1567.74

Hence, provide 5 Ø20 bars!

Example #1 (Singly Reinforced Section)

Design @ Section A wii be governed by either of the maximum end moment.

Hence, design is governed by, Md = 38.93KN/m

D = d + cover + Ø20/2 = 285.3 + 25 + 10 = 320.3mm

Self-weight w = 0.325 * 0.25 * 25 = 2.03KN/m

Or, we may Ø25 In this case,

, 3 Ø25 bars are adequate enogh to sustain the load (Ok!)

2. Design @ Section C ( @ Mid span of Beam AB)

Self-weight w = 0.238 * 0.0.25 * 25 = 1.488KN/m

ℎ , , 3 Ø20 bars in a single row!

Self weights are,

Hence, Mmax = M3 = 81 / governs design @ section B!

Use, D = 450mm (2nd trial)

Or alternatively, we may also determine from:-

ℎ , Provide either 6 Ø or 4 Ø bars!

Example #3 (Singly Reinforced Section)

We know that, if K < Ksd, steel governs design, and

Or, alternatively, it may also be easier to compare ℎ , in this case,

Since, = 1.295 < = 1.913, ℎ , !

Example #4 (Singly Reinforced Section)

Now, = = , where d = 600 -3 5 = 565mm

Since, = = = 4.47 > = = 1.782 , hence, concrete governs

D = 894.9 + 35 = 929.9 > = 600 ,ℎ , !

= 947.8 + 35 = 982.8 < D = 985mm, hence, section is safe against flexure!

Example #5 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

Assuming two rows of Ø ,

Thus, we apply the method for double reinforcement.

Thus, As = + = 1717.44 + 710 = 2427.44

No. of bars required are:-

Example #6 (Doubly Reinforced Section)

M1 = = , where d = 500 – 35 = 465

M1 = ∗ 0.259 ∗ 0.914 ∗ 250 ∗ 465 = 44.79

Now, since, K =0.127 > = 0.1168, ℎ , ℎ − !

Now, the revised value of As is obtained from,

2.1 Basic Concepts of Limit State Design Method

In design the following points have to be taken into consideration:

(i). variations in materials in the structure and in test specimens

(ii). variations in loading

(iii). constructional inaccuracies