Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC

Chapter 2: Limit state design of beams for flexure

General data on concrete and steel
(As per EBCS 2 – with some explanations)
Classification of concrete works
Concrete works are classified as either Class I or II depending on the quality of workmanship and the
competence of the supervisors directing the works.
Works carried out under the direction of appropriately qualified supervisors ensuring the attainment of
level of quality control as per EBCS 2 (chapter 9) are classified as Class I works.
Works with a lower level of quality control are classified as Class II works. Class II works are
permissible only for single story structures.
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
The compressive strength of a concrete member at one location may vary from that at another location in
the same member, due to many reasons like differences in extent of compaction, time of placement, batch
of concrete etc. Likewise, the strength of different specimens can also vary from one another. In order to
assess the strength of one particular mix proportion of concrete, EBCS 2 specifies the use of characteristic
compressive strength values. Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is defined as that strength
below which 5% of all possible strength measurements may be expected to fall. It means that the
characteristic strength has 95% reliability or there is only 5% probability of actual strength being less than
the characteristic strength. Thus concrete is graded in terms of its characteristic compressive cube
strength.
Table 2.1 of EBCS 2 gives the permissible grades of concrete for the two classes of concrete works as
shown below. The numbers in the grade designation denote the specified characteristic compressive
strength in MPa. Table 2.1. Permissible grades of concrete
Class Permissible Grades of Concrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II C5 C15 C20
Grade C5 shall be used only as lean concrete
As per EBCS 2, compressive strength of concrete is determined from tests on 150 mm cubes at the age of
28 days in accordance with Ethiopian Standards. Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may also
be used with conversion factors determined from a comprehensive series of tests. In the absence of such
tests, the conversion factors given in Table 2.2 (of EBCS 2) may be applied to obtain the equivalent
characteristic strength on the basis of 150 mm cubes.

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Table 2.2 Conversion factors for strength
Size and type of test specimen Conversion factor
Cube (200 mm) 1.05
Cylinder (150 mm diameter, 300 mm height) 1.25

In table 2.3 the characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck are given for the different grades of
concrete. Table 2.3 Characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete
Grades of concrete C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48
Characteristic tensile strength (fctk)
The characteristic tensile strength refers to the axial tensile strength as determined by tests in accordance
with standards issued or approved by Ethiopian Standards.
In the absence of more accurate data, the characteristic tensile strength may also be determined from the
characteristic cylinder compressive strength according to the following equations.
fctk = 0.7 fctm, where fctm is the mean value given by fctm = 0.3 fck2/3
The corresponding values of fctk and fctm for different grades of concrete are given in the table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Grades of concrete and values of fctk and fctm
Grades of concrete C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
fctm 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
fctk 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8

Modulus of Elasticity
In the absence of more accurate data, or in cases where great accuracy is not required, an estimate of the
mean value of the secant modulus Ecm can be obtained from Table 2.5 for a given concrete grade.

Table 2.5 Values of the secant modulus of elasticity Ecm in GPa

Grades of concrete C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
Ecm 26 27 29 32 35 37 39

The values given in table 2.5 are based on the following equation:
Ecm = 9.5 (fck + 8)1/3

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
Poisson’s Ratio
Any value between 0 and 0.2 can be adopted for Poisson’s ratio.
Characteristic strength of reinforcing steel
The characteristic strength fyk is defined as the 5% fractile of the proof stress fy or 0.2% offset strength,
denoted as f0.2.
If the steel supplier guarantees a minimum value for fy or f0.2 , that value may be taken as the characteristic
strength.
(In Ethiopian Iron and Steel Factory, Akaki, deformed bars and round bars of yield strength fy = 420
MPa are being produced. Diameters: 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 14mm, 16mm, 20mm, 24mm, 30mm, 32mm.
Round bars of 6mm dia are also produced)

Classification of reinforcing steel

Reinforcing steel shall be classified according to:
(a) Grade, denoting the value of the specified characteristic yield stress fyk in MPa
(b) Class, indicating the ductility characteristics
(c) Size
(d) Surface characteristics
(e) Weldability

In EBCS 2, two classes of ductility are defined. Class A refers to high ductility with εuk > 5% and with

value of (ft / fy)k > 1.08 and Class B refers to normal ductility with εuk > 2.5% and with value of (ft / fy)k >

1.05, where, εuk denotes the characteristic value of the elongation at maximum load,

ftk = Characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement

fyk = Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
Two shapes of surface characteristics are defined: (a) Ribbed bars, resulting in high bond action, (b) Plain,
smooth bars (round bars), resulting in low bond action.
Physical properties of reinforcing steel
(a) Density 7850 kg/m3
(b) Coefficient of thermal expansion 10 x 10-6 per ◦C
Design preliminaries
In the reinforced concrete design, the strength of a given mix of concrete and the imposed load that is
likely to act over a specified area cannot be provided with certainty unless actual measurements at an
instant are made. Such variables are referred to as random variables in the theory of probability. The
behavior of a random variable can be characterized by probability distribution of the random variable. In
our case of material strength and imposed load in a structure the uncertainty may be the result of the
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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
combined effect of many causes each difficult to isolate and observe. In such cases the distribution can be
developed for the variable of interest without knowing the distribution of the cause. The normal or
Gaussian probability distribution is most commonly used for this purpose. Limit state design principle
uses this for deriving the characteristic strength of materials and characteristic loads on the structures.
Design strength
Tests to determine the characteristic strengths of concrete and steel reinforcement are carried out on near
perfect specimens, which have been prepared under laboratory conditions. Such conditions will seldom
exist in practice. Therefore it is undesirable to use characteristic strengths to size the members. To take
account of differences between actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses and inaccuracies in
assessment of resistance of section, the characteristic strengths (fck and fyk) are divided by appropriate
partial safety factor for strengths (γm) taken from table 3.1 and 3.2 of EBCS 2. The resulting values are
termed as design strengths.

The difference in values for the two materials is indicative of the comparative lack of control over the
production of concrete, the strength of which is affected by such factors as W/C ratio, degree of
compaction, rate of drying etc. which frequently cannot be accurately controlled on site to that of steel
which is produced under strict control conditions in factory.

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC

In the formula for design strength of concrete in compression, the value 0.85 accounts for effect of
duration of loading.
Design loads
The load in a member may be greater than anticipated because of variability of occupancy and because of
unforeseen circumstances which may lead to an increase in the general level of loading, errors in analysis,
and errors during construction etc. Therefore, the characteristic loads which are obtained from the
standardized values given in EBCS 1, are expected to be increased by some factor to obtain the design
loads. Such factors are called partial safety factors for actions. In EBCS 2, table 3.3 gives the partial
safety factor values for actions in building structures.

Having the partial safety factor values and characteristic loads in hand, the designer will have to determine
the particular combination of loading which is likely to produce the most adverse effect on the structure in
terms of bending moments, shear forces and deflections.
Some of the load combinations for ultimate limit state and serviceability limit states with the
corresponding load factors is given below.

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
Ultimate limit state:
(a) Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qk)
Design (Factored) load = Fd = 1.3Gk + 1.6Qk
(b) Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions (Qki)
n
Design (Factored) load = Fd = 1.3Gk + 1.35  Qki
i 1

(c) Permanent action (Gk), variable action (Qk) and accidental (seismic) action (AE)
Design (Factored) load = Fd = 0.75(1.3Gk + 1.6Qk) + AE
Serviceability limit state:
(a) Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qk)
Design (Factored) load = Fd = Gk + Qk
(b) Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions (Qki)
n
Design (Factored) load = Fd =Gk + 0.9  Qki
i 1

Basis of Ultimate limit state design

Analysis of sections:
The calculation of the ultimate resistance of members for flexure and axial loads shall be basedon the
following assumptions.
(a) Plane sections remain plane
(b) The reinforcement is subjected to the same variations in strain as the adjacent concrete
(c) The tensile strength of the concrete is neglected
(d) The maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken to be :
0.0035 in bending (simple or compound)
0.002 in axial compression
(e) The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcement is taken to be 0.01
The stress strain relationships to derive expressions for flexural strength of RC members are shown below
as given in EBCS 2.

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7.1.4. Spacing of reinforcement

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
Analysis of rectangular section for flexure
Simplified rectangular stress block shown in the figure may be used for the analysis

x C
d h d Z = d - 0.4x

Cross section Strain distribution Idealised stress block

T = As fs C = 0.8x b fcd Mu = Tz = Cz

Mu = As fs (d – 0.4x) = 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x)

Three types of sections are possible such as under reinforced section, over reinforced section and
balanced section.
Traditional definitions

Tension failure: Under-reinforced section

If steel’s design stress fyd is reaching before the concrete reaches its maximum strain εcu = 0.0035 the
failure is tension failure.
From equilibrium, C = T, 0.8x b fcd = As fyd
As f yd
x
0.8bf cd
Ultimate moment of resistance
 A f  A  0 . 4 As f yd d  2
0.5f yd 
M u  As f yd  d  0 . 4 s yd   s f yd bd  d   ; M u  f yd bd 1  
 0 .8 bf cd  bd  0 . 8bdf cd   f cd 
 2M  f
From the above equation for Mu, expression for steel ratio ρ is deduced:   1  1  2 u  cd
 bd f cd  f yd
Compression failure: Over reinforced section
If As is large, concrete fails under compression prior to steel reaching its design yield value. The section is
over-reinforced.
Strength is based on concrete’s failure fs < fyd. From similar triangles in strain distribution diagram,
s 0.0035 dx (d  x)
 ;  s  0.0035 ; fs = εsEs ; f s  0.0035 Es ;
dx x x x
dx
From equilibrium, C = T, 0.8x b fcd = As fs ; 0.8x b fcd = As × 0.0035 Es
x
 0.8 xbf cd   0.8 xbf cd 
 x  x  d  0 ;  x  x  d  0
 0. 0035 A E
s s   0.0035  bdE s 

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
0.8 f cd
x 2  xd  d 2  0 ‘x’ could be obtained from the above equation
0.0035E s 
The moment capacity can be written as, Mu = 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x)

Balanced failure: Balanced section

In a balanced failure, steel reaches fyd and concrete reaches a strain of 0.0035 simultaneously.
 y d  xb f yd / E s
  ; xb fyd = d – xb (Es ×0.0035) = dEs(0.0035) – xb Es (0.0035)
 cu xb 0.0035
0.0035 E s d
xb(0.0035Es + fyd) = 0.0035 Es d; xb 
(0.0035E s  f yd )
0.8 xb bf cd 0.8 xb f cd
From equilibrium, C = T, 0.8xb b fcd = As fyd = ρbbd fyd; b  
bdf yd df yd
 0.0035 E s 
0.8 f cd
Substituting for xb, b   
f yd
 0.0035 E s  f yd 
If ρ < ρb; x < xb -------The section is under-reinforced.
If ρ >ρb; x > xb -------The section is over-reinforced.

Control over depth of neutral axis

To ensure that all beams have the desirable characteristics of visible warning, if failure is sudden as well
as reasonable ductility at failure, it is recommended that depth of neutral axis be limited.
x
In EBCS 2, article 3.7.9,  0.8(  0.44) , where δ = % moment redistribution,
d
= Moment after redistribution
Original moment
When no moment is redistributed, δ = 1.
x
In such a case,  0.45 , or, x = 0.45d
d
Mu = 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x) = 0.8(0.45d) b fcd [d – 0.4(0.45d)]
Mu = 0.2952 fcd b d2.

______________________________________________________________________________

Simplified procedure of designing beams by allowing moment redistribution

According to EBCS 2 – Part 2 (Design aid to EBCS 2)
We know, for 0% redistribution of moment, δ = 1.
& in such case, Mu = 0.2952 fcd b d2.

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Here, in EBCS 2 part 2, the value 0.2952 is given a notation μ*us
Mu
Therefore,  *us 
f cdbd 2
If the percentage redistribution is allowed, up to 30%, there can be different values of μ*us for different
percentage of redistribution permitted.
In the above derivation, x = 0.45d is a determination of neutral axis depth for zero percent redistribution
of moments.
Here the value 0.45 is given a notation kx (Neutral axis depth constant)
Similar values of kx can be possible for different values of moment redistribution.
From the preliminary principles,
Mu
M = T . Z = As fyd z , As 
z.f yd

here z is the lever arm between tension and compression forces which can be related to effective depth d
by lever arm constant kz as
z = kz* d
km is a value given in the formulations as follows

Mu
km =
b*d 2
ks is another value which is included in the equation for area of steel determination i.e.
ksM u
As 
d
Mu Mu M 1
Or As    u .
z.f yd k z .d.f yd d k z .f yd

Where, ks = 1/kz.fyd
Tabulations are made for the values of km, ks, kx and kz for different values of percentage moment
redistribution, using which the area of steel required can be easily calculated.

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Civil Engineering Department Notes on RC
Doubly Reinforced sections
d2 εc

Csc
0.8x Cc

d – 0.4x + d – d2
εsc
T2 = As2 fyd
εs T1 = As1 fyd

Mu = M1 + ΔM
M1 = Moment capacity of limiting section where (x = 0.45d)
M1 = 0.2952 bd2 fcd
 2M 1  f cd
As1 = ρ1bd; 1  1  1  
 bd 2 f cd  f yd
ΔM = As2 fyd (d – d2) = Asc fsc (d – d2)
M M
As2 = ; Asc = ;
f yd (d - d 2 ) f sc (d - d 2 )

 If εsc > εs; fsc = fyd

x  d2
 If εsc < εs; fsc = Es εsc = Es c
x
 If it is a limiting section and if εsc < εs,
0.45d  d 2
fsc = Es εsc = Es c
0.45d
For balanced section, Cc = 0.8x b fcd; Csc = Asc fyd; T = As fyd
For equilibrium, Cc + Csc = T
( As  Asc ) f yd
i.e. 0.8x b fcd + Asc fyd = As fyd; Therefore, x 
0.8bf cd
Steel has yielded if
strain in steel >= fyd/Es
x  d2 dx
or, εsc = 0.0035* >= fyd/Es and εs = 0.0035* >= fyd/Es
x x
If the above conditions hold, Mu = 0.8x.b.fcd (d – 0.4x) + Asc fyd (d – d2)
(x can be determined by the equation above)
If steel does not yield first, Cc = 0.8x b fcd; Csc = Asc fsc; T = As fs

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( As f s  Asc f sc )
Then x 
0.8bf cd
x  d2 dx
fsc = Es εsc = 0.0035 Es ; fs = Es εs = 0.0035 Es
x x
In such a case, Mu = 0.8x.b.fcd (d – 0.4x) + Asc fsc (d – d2)

T-Beams and L- Beams

When beams are monolithically cast with continuous slabs the upper part of the beam will act with part of
the slab to resist longitudinal compression in the beam. The resulting beam cross-section will become “T”
or inverted “L” as shown below.
be be

bw bw

- The section provides a large concrete cross-section of the flange to resist compressive stresses due
to large positive bending moments.

- The stress distribution varies across the width of the section, but EBCS-2, 1995/Article 3-7-8:
recommends an effective width for uniform stresses.

Effective flange width should be smaller of the following two values

a. For T- beams
le
1. be  bw 
5
2. be  Actual width of top slab extending between the centers of adjacent spans
b. For L-beams
le
1. be  bw 
10
1
2. be  bw  clear distance to adjacent beams
2
The behavior of T-sections
- The beam may be treated as a rectangular beam of width bw , if the section is subjected to negative
bending moments.
- There are also two cases when it is subjected to positive bending moment. The neutral axis of the T
beam may fall either in the flange or in the web as it depends on the proportion of the cross-
section, the amount of the tensile steel and strength of the material.
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o When the neutral axis lies within the flange it is treated as rectangular beam of width be .
o When the neutral axis lies within the web, the section acts as T or inverted L beam,
accordingly, accounting the geometry.

Analysis 1: When the N.A. falls in the flange

When 0.8 x  h f , the beam is designed as a rectangular beam with b  be
0.8 xf cd be
Cc  Ts 0.8 xf cd be  Asf yd  As 
f yd

be
0.8 x Cc
N A

Ts
bw
Analysis 2: When the N.A. falls in the web
When 0.8 x  h f , the beam is to be designed as a T- beam.
For this case, consider the compression area as shown below.

hf
0.8 x
= +

The design moment M is resisted by the overhangs of the flanges and web portion of the section. There
are respective steel areas at the bottom.
i.e. Mu = Muf + Muw
Where Muf is the moment resisted by the flange overhangs and corresponding steel As f
Muw is the moment resisted by the web section and the corresponding steel As w
hf M uf
M uf  (be  bw)h f f cd (d  ) As f  ;
2 hf
f yd (d  )
2
Asw f yd
Asw fyd = fcd bw (0.8 x) x M uw  Asw f yd (d  0.4 x)
0.8bw f cd
The total area of steel at the bottom is given by As = Asf + Asw

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