Chapter 2: Chemicals, Apparatus and Unit Operations of Analytical Chemistry
Chapter 2: Chemicals, Apparatus and Unit Operations of Analytical Chemistry
Chapter 2: Chemicals, Apparatus and Unit Operations of Analytical Chemistry
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Chemicals, Apparatus and Unit
Operations of Analytical Chemistry
Goal of this chapter
• To know the glasswares and tools used in
analytical chemistry
• To learn the principle, structure and
operation of analytical balances
• To learn the unit operations used in
analytical chemistry
Chemical reagents and grade
• Chemical reagents are usually classified by their purity.
The Reagent Chemical Committee of the American Chemical
Society set the standard.
• Chemical reagents used in analytical laboratory are
usually:
Reagent grade: general use in anal. labs
Primarystandard grade: as standard materials
Specialpurpose reagents: standard solutions for calibration,
solvents for HPLC.
• Reagent purity and other information can be find on
container label, commercial company’s website.
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Clean lab ware
• New glassware must be cleaned with following
procedure before use
wash with hot detergent solution
rinse with tap water
rinse with DI water
• Organic solvents can be applied to remove
grease films.
• Good news: Most of lab wares are supplied
clean, you do not need to clean them.
• Bad news: you need to clean your lab wares in
this course.
Measurements in analytical chemistry
• Mass measurement
Sample: solid or liquid
Tools: analytical balance, weighing bottle, weighing
paper.
• Volume measurement
Sample: liquid
Tools: pipet, buret, volumetric flask.
• Chemical measurement:
Objects: element, compound
analytical instruments and chemical reagents
Equipments and operations
associated with weighing
• Balance
• Weighing bottles.
• Desiccators and desiccants.
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Balance and operation
Type of balance features
Auxiliary balance Maximum: 200 g
Precision:
Analytical balance Maximum: 160200 g
Precision: 0.1 mg
Semimicroanalytical balance Maximum: 1030 g
Precision : 0.01 mg
Microanalytical balance Maximum: 13 g
Precision : 0.001 mg
Source of errors in weighing
• Buoyancy error and correction:
Buoyancy error originated from the difference in
density between the sample and the standard masses
used to calibrate the balance.
Correct buoyancy error if the density of the sample
d air d air
W 1 = W 2 + W 2 ( d )
obj d wts
W 1 : corrected weight of the sample
W 2 : the weight obtained using the standard mass calibrated
balance
d air : density of air (0.0012 g/cm 3 )
d obj : density of sample
d wts : density of standard mass (range: 7.8 – 8.4 g/cm 3 , a
value of 8.0/cm 3 is suggested)
Source of errors in weighing
• Temperature caused error:
Materials have lower density at higher temperature
(buoyancy error).
Air density is lower at higher temperature.
Weighing a sample at higher temperature caused
negative error.
Be patient to wait your sample cooling down before
you weigh it.
• Error originated from calibration
Standard mass error.
Balance calibrated at inappropriate environment
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Weighing samples
• Weighing by difference.
Weigh a sample together with the container first, pour
out certain amount of sample and weigh the left sample
with the container again.
• Weighing exact mass of sample.
Use a spoon to transfer a solid sample from a container
to a weighing paper or weighing bottle place on a
balance pan.
• Weighing hygroscopic solid sample.
Heat sample within a weighing bottle, then use
differential weighing method.
• Weighing liquid sample
Nonvolatile liquid: use differential weighing method.
Volatile liquid: use a weighed glass ampoule
Desiccator & operation
• Desiccators are used to prevent samples from
absorbing moisture during storing or during a cooling
process.
• Certain quantity of desiccant are placed in the
desiccator to keep the low humidity level.
• Grease are applied on the ground part of the glass lid
and base edge to ensure a tight sealing.
• Slide the lid when opening or closing a desiccator.
• Hold the base and lid together with your hands when
move a desiccator to a different location.
• When a hot sample is placed in, open the lid once or
twice during the first several minutes to release the
pressure build up inside the desiccator.
Filtration in analytical chemistry
• Tools: filter paper, filtering crucible, funnel
• Applications:
Gravimetric analysis: Separate
precipitate from solution.
Separate interference species through
precipitation.
Reagent and material purification
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Measuring volume of liquids using
glassware
• How much solution will be measured
Unit: L, mL, mL, nL.
• What is the precision requirement.
• What tools are available:
Measuring liquid in Liter level: volumetric flask
Measure liquid in mL level: pipet, buret,
volumetric flask
Measure liquid in mL level: micropipet
Measure liquid in nL level: ??
Pipets
• Volumetric pipet: exact volume of solution be
delivered
• Measuring pipet: (p40, Fig. 217)
The operation and control of Eppendorf pipets
are much easier than Mohr pipets and
serological pipets.
Eppendorf pipets are presently used in most of
the analytical labs.
Advanced Eppedorf pipets can be motorized
and computer controlled.
• Precision of pipet for measuring liquid (P41).
Burets
• Burets can be considered as a special delivery
pipet.
• Burets are mostly used in titration.
• Three type burets:
Glassbead valve buret (base solution)
Glass stopcock buret (needed lubricant, used
for acid solution)
Teflon stopcock buret: can be used for acid or
base solution, no lubricant.
• Operation:
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Flask
• Volume from 5 mL to 5 L
• When filled to a line etched on the neck,
the volume of solution inside the flask is
exactly as indicated.
• Mostly used for preparing standard
solutions.
Use volumetric equipments
• Measurement at room temperature recommended.
• Read the bottom of the liquid meniscus inside the
tube.
• Keep your eyes and the liquid meniscus in the same
level.
• In using stopcock buret, do not push the stopcock
outward.
• In using glass stopcock buret, the stopcock has to be
appropriately lubricated.
• In using a buret, make sure no air buble is trapped in
the tip.
Calibrating volumetric glasswares
• Calibration can be done by measuring mass of liquid of
know density and temperature that is contained in a
volumetric ware.
Buoyancy error must be corrected in such a calibrating
measurement.
Volumetric flasks must be dried before adding solution
in the calibration process.
pipets and burets do not need to be dried.
• Calibration of the volumetric glass wares is usually done
by the makers.
• In analytical lab, calibrating a flask relative to a pipet is a
performed occasionally. This calibration ensures the
precision of partitioning a sample in a flask to aliquots.
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