Designation: C 518 – 98

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Reprinted from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Copyright ASTM

Standard Test Method for

Steady-State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of
the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation C 518; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope erties and environmental conditions. The method has been used
1.1 This test method covers the measurement of steady state at ambient conditions of 10 to 40°C with thicknesses up to
thermal transmission through flat slab specimens using a heat approximately 250 mm, and with plate temperatures from–
flow meter apparatus. 195°C to 540°C at 25-mm thickness (5, 6).
1.2 The heat flow meter apparatus is used widely because it 1.7 This test method may be used to characterize material
is relatively simple in concept, rapid, and applicable to a wide properties, which may or may not be representative of actual
range of test specimens. The precision and bias of the heat flow conditions of use. Other test methods, such as Test Methods
meter apparatus can be excellent provided calibration is carried C 236 or C 976 should be used if needed.
out within the range of heat flows expected. This means 1.8 To meet the requirements of this test method the thermal
calibration shall be carried out with similar types of materials, resistance of the test specimen shall be greater than 0.10
of similar thermal conductances, at similar thicknesses, mean m2·K/W in the direction of the heat flow and edge heat losses
temperatures, and temperature gradients, as expected for the shall be controlled, using edge insulation, or a guard heater, or
test specimens. both.
1.3 This a comparative, or secondary, method of measure- 1.9 It is not practical in a test method of this type to try to
ment since specimens of known thermal transmission proper- establish details of construction and procedures to cover all
ties shall be used to calibrate the apparatus. Properties of the contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without
calibration specimens must be traceable to an absolute mea- pertinent technical knowledge. Thus users of this test method
surement method. The calibration specimens should be ob- shall have sufficient knowledge to satisfactorily fulfill their
tained from a recognized national standards laboratory. needs. For example, knowledge of heat transfer principles, low
1.4 The heat flow meter apparatus establishes steady state level electrical measurements, and general test procedures is
one-dimensional heat flux through a test specimen between two required.
parallel plates at constant but different temperatures. By 1.10 Standardization of this test method is not intended to
appropriate calibration of the heat flux transducer(s) with restrict in any way the future development of improved or new
calibration standards and by measurement of the plate tempera- methods or procedures by research workers.
tures and plate separation. Fourier’s law of heat conduction is 1.11 Since the design of a heat flow meter apparatus is not
used to calculate thermal conductivity, and thermal resistivity a simple matter, a procedure for proving the performance of an
or thermal resistance and thermal conductance. apparatus is given in Appendix X3.
1.5 This test method shall be used in conjunction with 1.12 This standard does not purport to address all of the
Practice C 1045. Many advances have been made in thermal safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
technology, both in measurement techniques and in improved responsibility of the user of this standard to consult and
understanding of the principles of heat flow through materials. establish appropriate safety and health practices and deter-
These advances have prompted revisions in the conceptual mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
approaches to the measurement of the thermal transmission
2. Referenced Documents
properties (1-4).2 All users of this test method should be aware
of these concepts. 2.1 ASTM Standards:
1.6 This test method is applicable to the measurement of C 167 Test Methods for Thickness and Density of Blanket
thermal transmission through a wide range of specimen prop- or Batt Thermal Insulations3
C 168 Terminology Relating to Thermal Insulation Materi-
als3
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee C-16 on C 177 Test Method for Steady-State Heat Flux Measure-
Thermal Insulation and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C 16.30 on ments and Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of
Thermal Measurement.
Current edition approved May 10, 1998. Published August 1998. Originally the Guarded Hot Plate Apparatus3
published as C 518 – 63T. Last previous edition C 518 – 91.
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
3
this test method. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.06.

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 C 518
C 236 Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Performance mopile, or an equivalent, that produces an output which is a
of Building Assemblies by Means of a Guarded Hot Box3 function of the heat flux passing through it. The metering area
C 687 Practice for Determination of the Thermal Resistance usually consists of a number of differently connected tempera-
of Loose-Fill Building Insulation3 ture sensors placed on each face of a core and surface sheets to
C 976 Test Method for Thermal Performance of Building protect the assembly. A properly designed transducer will have
Assemblies by Means of a Calibrated Hot Box3 a sensitivity that is essentially independent of the thermal
C 1045 Practice for Calculating Thermal Transmission properties of the specimen.
Properties from Steady-State Conditions3 3.2.10 metering area, n—the area of the specimen(s) in
C 1046 Practice for In-Situ Measurement of Heat Flux and contact with the sensor area of the heat flux transducer.
Temperature Building Envelope Components3 3.2.11 secondary transfer standard, n—a specimen, which
C 1058 Practice for Selecting Temperatures for Evaluating has been measured in a heat flow meter apparatus, which has
and Reporting Thermal Properties of Thermal Insulation3 been calibrated with primary standards, used to calibrate
C 1114 Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission additional apparatuses.
Properties by Means of the Thin-Heater Apparatus3 3.2.12 sensitivity, n—the ratio of the heat flux passing
C 1132 Practice for Calibration of the Heat Flow Appara- through the transducer to the electrical output of the heat flux
tus3 transducer.
E 230 Temperature-Electromotive Force (EME) Tables for 3.2.13 standard reference material (SRM), n—a lot of
Standardized Thermocouples4 material that has been characterized by a national standards
E 691 Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to laboratory.
Determine the Precision of a Test Method5 3.2.14 thermal transmission properties, n—those properties
2.2 ISO Standard: of a material or system that define the ability of the material or
ISO 8301:1991 Thermal Insulation—Determination of system to transfer heat. Properties, such as thermal resistance,
Steady-State Thermal Resistance and Related thermal conductance, thermal conductivity, and thermal resis-
Properties—Heat Flow Meter Apparatus6 tivity would be included, as defined in Terminology C 168.
3.3 Symbols and Units—The symbols used in this test
3. Terminology method have the following significance:
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms and symbols used 3.3.1 l—thermal conductivity, W/(m·K).
in this test method, refer to Terminology C 168 and to the 3.3.2 C—thermal conductance, W/(m2·K)
following subsections. 3.3.3 R—thermal resistance, (m2·K)/W.
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: 3.3.4 q—heat flux (heat flow rate, Q, through area A), W/m2.
3.2.1 calibration, n—the process of establishing the calibra- 3.3.5 Q—heat flow rate in the metered area, W.
tion factor for a particular apparatus using calibration speci- 3.3.6 A—metering area, m2.
mens having known thermal transmission properties. 3.3.7 L—separation between the hot and cold plate assem-
3.2.2 calibration transfer specimen, n—(CTS) a thermal blies during testing, m.
calibration specimen that has been measured by a national 3.3.8 Tm—mean temperature, (Th+ T c)/2, K.
standards laboratory. 3.3.9 DT—temperature difference across the specimen, K.
3.2.3 cold surface assembly, n—the plate that provides as 3.3.10 r—(bulk) density of the material tested, kg/m3.
isothermal boundary at the cold surface of the test specimen(s). 3.3.11 S—calibration factor of the heat flux transducer,
3.2.4 controlled environment, n—an environment some- (W/m2)/V.
times employed in the apparatus to limit lateral heat flows. 3.3.12 E—heat flux transducer output, V.
3.2.5 edge insulation, n—auxiliary insulation used to limit 3.3.13 Th—temperature of the hot plate surface, K.
lateral heat flows, these are sometimes permanently mounted in 3.3.14 Tc—temperature of the cold plate surface, K.
the apparatus. 3.4 Subscripts:
3.2.6 guard, n—promotes one-dimensional heat flow. Pri- 3.4.1 h—hot.
mary guards are planar, additional coplanar guards can be used 3.4.2 c—cold
and secondary or edge guards are axial. 3.4.3 a, b—first and second specimen.
3.2.7 heat flow meter apparatus, n—the complete assem- 3.4.4 m—mean.
blage of the instrument, including hot and cold isothermal
surfaces, the heat flux transducer(s), and the controlled envi- 4. Significance and Use
ronment if used, and instrumentation to indicate hot and cold
4.1 This test method provides a rapid means of determining
surface temperatures, specimen thickness, and heat flux.
the steady-state thermal transmission properties of thermal
3.2.8 hot surface assembly, n—the plate that provides an
insulations and other materials with a high level of accuracy
isothermal boundary at the hot surface of the test specimen(s).
when the apparatus has been calibrated appropriately.
3.2.9 heat flux transducer, n—a device containing a ther-
4.2 Proper calibration of the heat flow meter apparatus
requires that it be calibrated using specimen(s) having thermal
4
Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 14.03. transmission properties determined previously by Test Meth-
5

6
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 1402. ods C 177, or C 1114.
Available from American National Standards Institute, 11 W. 42nd St., 13th
Floor, New York, NY 10036. NOTE 1—Calibration of the apparatus typically requires specimens that

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are similar to the types of materials, thermal conductances, thicknesses, 4.5.1.2 Where both the short and long term stability of the
mean temperatures, and temperature gradients as expected for the test apparatus have been proven to be better than 1 % of the reading
specimens. (see Section 10), the apparatus may be calibrated at less
4.3 The thermal transmission properties of specimens of a frequent intervals, not exceeding 30 days. The specimens so
given material or product may vary due to variability of the tested cannot be certified until after the calibration test follow-
composition of the material; be affected by moisture or other ing the test and then only if the change in calibration factor
conditions; change with time; change with mean temperature from the previous calibration test is less than 1 %. When the
and temperature difference; and depend upon the prior thermal change in calibration is greater than 1 %, test results from this
history. It must be recognized, therefore, that the selection of interval shall be considered void and the tests repeated in
typical values of thermal transmission properties representative accordance with 4.5.1.1.
of a material in a particular application should be based on a 4.5.2 The precision (repeatability) of measurements made
consideration of these factors and will not apply necessarily by the heat flow meter apparatus calibrated as in Section 6.6
without modification to all service conditions. normally are much better than 6 1 % of the mean value. This
4.3.1 As an example, this test method provides that the precision is required to identify changes in calibration and is
thermal properties shall be obtained on specimens that do not desirable in quality control applications.
contain any free moisture although in service such conditions
may not be realized. Even more basic is the dependence of the 5. Apparatus
thermal properties on variables, such as mean temperature and 5.1 The construction guidelines given in this section should
temperature difference. These dependencies should be mea- be understood by the user of this test method. While it is
sured or the test made at conditions typical of use. mandatory that these details be followed carefully when
4.4 Special care shall be taken in the measurement proce- constructing an apparatus, it behooves the user to verify that
dure for specimens exhibiting appreciable inhomogeneities, the equipment is built as specified. Serious errors of measure-
anisotropies, rigidity, or especially high or low resistance to ment may result from this oversight.
heat flow (see Practice C 1045). The use of a heat flow meter 5.2 General:
apparatus when there are thermal bridges present in the 5.2.1 The general features of a heat flow meter apparatus
specimen may yield very unreliable results. If the thermal with the specimen or the specimens installed are described in
bridge is present and parallel to the heat flow the results Section 6 and shown in Figs. 1-3. A heat flow meter apparatus
obtained may well have no meaning. Special considerations consists of two isothermal plate assemblies, one or more heat
also are necessary when the measurements are conducted at flux transducers and equipment to control the environmental
either high or low temperatures, in ambient pressures above or conditions when needed. Each configuration will yield equiva-
below atmopsheric pressure, or in special ambient gases that lent results if used within the limitations stated in this test
are inert or hazardous. method. There are distinct advantages for each configuration in
4.5 The determination of the accuracy of the method for any practice and these are discussed in Appendix X2.
given test is a function of the apparatus design, of the related
instrumentation, and of the type of specimens under test (see NOTE 2—Further information can be found in ISO 8301:1991, which is
the equivalent ISO standard for the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus.
Section 10), but this test method is capable of determining
thermal transmission properties within 6 2 % of those deter- 5.2.2 The exposed surfaces of the plates and the heat flux
mined by Test Method C 177 when the ambient temperature is transducer, that is, the surfaces making contact with the
near the mean temperature of the test (T (ambient) 5 T specimens, shall be painted or otherwise treated to have a total
(mean)6 1°C), and in the range of 10 to 40°C. In all cases the hemispherical emittance of greater than 0.8 at their operating
accuracy of the heat flow meter apparatus can never be better temperatures (see Note 3).
than the accuracy of the primary standards used to calibrate the NOTE 3—Hard anodizing of aluminum produces a surface with a total
apparatus. hemispherical emittance of approximately 0.85. Several paints are avail-
4.5.1 When this test method is to be used for certification able, which when applied as directed, produce a total hemispherical
testing of products, the apparatus shall have the capabilities emittance of approximately 0.86.
required in 5.8 and one of the following procedures shall be 5.3 Plate Assemblies, Hot and Cold—The two plate assem-
followed: blies should provide isothermal surfaces in contact with either
4.5.1.1 The apparatus shall have its calibration checked side of the test specimen. The assemblies consist of heat source
within 24 h before or after a certification test using either or sink, a high conductivity surface, means to measure surface
secondary transfer standards traceable to, or calibration stan- temperature, and means of support. A heat flux transducer may
dards whose values have been established by, a recognized
national standards laboratory not more than five years prior to
the certification date. The average of two calibrations shall be
used as the calibration factor and the specimen(s) certified with
this average value. When the change in calibration factor is
greater than 1 %, the standard specimen shall be retested and a
new average calculated. If the redetermined change in calibra-
tion factor is still greater than 1 % the apparatus shall be FIG. 1 Apparatus with One Heat Flux Transducer and One
calibrated using the procedure in Section 6. Specimen

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gauge blocks to generate a map over the metering area (10).
For instruments designed to be used solely for testing nonrigid
materials with a small range of resistances it has been shown
that a flatness of 0.2 % of the maximum linear dimension is
sufficient, but these instruments should be calibrated with
standards having a thermal resistance between 0.5 and 1.0
times the resistance of the tested specimens.
NOTE 4—The planeness of the surface can be checked with a straight-
edge, of a length greater than the width or diameter of the unit, held
against the surface and viewed with a light behind the straightedge.
Departures as small as 25µm are readily visible, and larger departures can
be measured using shimstock or thin paper.
5.3.4.1 It is important to maintain the parallelism of the
plates for several reasons. In most cases it is the plate
separation, which is measured in order to determine specimen
thickness. Furthermore, the plate parallelism is important in
maintaining consistent surface contact with specimens in
FIG. 2 Apparatus with One Heat Flux Transducer and Two repeat testing, such as calibration, and is required to maintain
Specimens a uniform temperature difference across the specimen(s). If the
plate temperatures are cycled continuously during testing, the
flatness needs to be checked periodically.
5.3.5 Plate flatness may become critical when measuring
specimens with less thermal resistance than the calibration
standards, irrespective of the thickness or rigidity of the
calibration standard. For rigid thin specimens the criteria given
in 5.3.4 may not be sufficient.
FIG. 3 Apparatus with Two Heat Flux Transducers and One 5.3.6 The rigidity, flatness, and parallelism of the plates may
Specimen
impede the testing of rigid specimens where it is not possible
be attached to one, both, or neither plate assembly, depending to obtain good surface contact. In such cases, the use of a thin
upon the design, (see Section 6). In all cases, the area defined sheet of suitable homogeneous material may be interposed
by the sensor of the heat flux transducer is called the metering between the specimen and the plates surfaces. This thin sheet
area and the remainder of the plate is the guard area. should have a low thermal resistance relative to the specimen.
5.3.1 The portion of each plate assembly in contact with the The resistance of the thin sheet should be determined using a
heat flux transducer, or if a heat flux transducer is not mounted Test Method C 177 apparatus. The resistance of the composite
on the plate assembly, the portion in contact with the specimen, sandwich (sheet-rigid specimen-sheet) then is determined and
shall consist of a high conductivity material, known as the the value of the sheet resistance subtracted from the total
isothermal plate. The isothermal plate shall be supported so as resistance.
to minimize temperature gradients across its surface. Devia- 5.4 Temperature Measuring and Control Systems:
tions from isothermal conditions over the plate surface of no 5.4.1 The surfaces of the plate assemblies in contact with
more than 6 0.3 K shall be allowed. the specimen(s) shall be instrumented with precision tempera-
5.3.2 A means shall be provided to maintain the temperature ture sensors such as thermocouples, platinum resistance ther-
of the plate assemblies at the desired level. Examples are fluid mometers (RTD), and thermistors. Temperature sensors shall
baths, electrical heaters, or thermoelectric coolers, or a com- be mounted in grooves so as to be flush with the surface in
bination thereof (7-9). contact with the specimen(s).
5.3.3 If a heat flux transducer is located at the midplane of 5.4.2 No strict specification is given as the number of
the specimens (see Fig. 2), then means shall be provided to temperature sensors that shall be used for each surface;
determine the average temperature of the transducer in order to however, the user shall report the uncertainty of the tempera-
apply temperature corrections to the calibration, except when ture measurement, including the component due to temperature
the test temperatures are equal to those used in calibration, in nonuniformity across the surface. In some cases where tem-
which case no correction is required. If a matched pair of perature mapping of the plate surfaces has indicated high
specimens is tested, the temperature of the transducer can be uniformity under all conditions of use, one thermal sensor per
computed from the temperatures of the plate assemblies. surface has been used satisfactorily.
5.3.4 The plate assemblies shall be sufficiently rigid to 5.4.2.1 Special precautions should be taken to ensure that
maintain flatness and parallelism. For an apparatus designed to the temperature sensors are anchored thermally to the surface
be used over wide ranges of conductivity and thickness to be measured and that the temperature gradients along the
(thermal resistances) the flatness and parallelism of the plates wires leading to the sensors are minimized. If thermocouples
should be 0.02 % of the maximum linear dimensions of the on opposing surfaces are connected differentially, they shall be
plates (see Note 4). One way to check this is to use standard electrically insulated from the plates with a resistance of 1
4

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megohm or greater (5, 6). temperature and compression conditions whenever possible.
5.4.2.2 Thermocouples mounted in the surfaces of the plates 5.7 Edge Insulation—Heat loss from the outer edges of the
or set into the surfaces of specimens should be made of wire no heat flow meter apparatus and specimens shall be restricted by
longer than 0.25 mm in diameter (No. 30 B and S gage). For edge insulation or by governing the surrounding air tempera-
highest accuracy only“ special limit” thermocouples should be ture or by both methods. The three different configuration differ
used. In addition, even these “special limit” thermocouples in their susceptibility to edge heat losses as is discussed in
should be checked for nonhomogeneities in the wire. For Appendix X2 (2, 4, 9, 10).
information concerning voltage output and accuracy of ther- 5.7.1 For all three configurations, the susceptibility to edge
mocouples in the cryogenic temperature range, and installation heat losses is related strongly to the sensitivity of the trans-
see references (7, 8). ducer to temperature differences along its main surfaces, and
5.4.2.3 Temperature sensors should be calibrated to an therefore, only experimental checks while changing environ-
accuracy equivalent to that for thermocouples conforming to mental conditions can confirm, for each operating condition,
Tables E 230. The precision of the temperature measuring the magnitude of the effect of edge heat losses on measured
system may need to be better than this to detect the effect of heat flux. This error should be smaller than 0.5 %.
drift on the results discussed in Appendix X3. The accuracy 5.8 Measuring System Requirements—The apparatus mea-
required by a heat flow meter apparatus can best be determined suring system shall have the following capabilities:
by carrying out an error analysis (see Section 8), and then 5.8.1 The uncertainty of the measurement of the tempera-
calibrating the temperature sensors to the degree required. ture difference across the specimens shall be within 6 0.5 % of
5.4.2.4 In the special case where the heat flow meter the actual temperature difference.
apparatus is used only for repetitive tests on one material and 5.8.2 A voltage accuracy of better than 0.2 % of the mini-
the same plate temperatures are used for calibration, (and mum output (from the transducer) to be measured.
where the standards are tested at the same temperatures) the 5.8.3 Sufficient linearity so that the system contributes less
accuracy of the calibration of the temperature sensors will not than 0.2 % error at all outputs.
be as critical since any errors will remain constant and be 5.8.4 Sufficient input impedance so that the system contrib-
included in the calibration. utes less than 0.1 % error for all readings. One megohm has
5.5 Heat Flux Transducer: been found adequate for many apparatuses.
5.5.1 Types of Heat Flux Transducer—The types of heat 5.8.5 Sufficient stability so that the system contributes less
flux transducers are described in Practice C 1046. The gradient than 0.2 % error during the period between calibrations, or 30
type, often used in the heat flow meter apparatus, consists of a days, whichever is greater.
slab of material, the “core,” across which the temperature 5.8.6 Adequate noise immunity so that less than 0.2 % rms
gradient is measured, normally with a thermopile. The main noise occurs in the readings.
transducer surfaces are assumed to be isothermal, so the heat 5.8.7 Where direct readout equipment is used, adequate
flow will be normal to them. Precautions shall be taken to limit provision shall be made for calibration of the electronic
the effect of heat flow through the leads on the output of the circuitry, independent of the remainder of the apparatus, and
thermopile. Often the heat flux transducer also is instrumented shall contribute no more than 0.2 % error, for each variable.
to measure one of the surface temperatures of the specimen(s). 5.9 Proven Performance—The test results obtained by this
5.5.2 Surface Sheets—Both surfaces of the transducer test method only can be assured if the limitations of the
should be covered with a layer of material as thin as is apparatus are known. See Appendix X3 for further details. To
compatible with protection from thermal shunting of the establish these limitations, one must prove the performance by
thermopile. The exposed surfaces of the heat flux transducer comparing the results with materials of similar thermal prop-
shall be finished smoothly to conform to the desired geometric erties previously tested on a guarded hot plate apparatus as
shape to within the limits of 5.3.5. those to be evaluated.
5.6 Plate Separation, Specimen Thickness—A means shall 5.9.1 A single point of reference may lead to serious errors.
be provided to determine the average separation between the It is best to select a range of transfer standards having known
heating and cooling plate surfaces during operation. Rigid thermal transmission properties, which cover the range of
specimens generally act as the spacers themselves, and plate values to be tested, in both resistance and thickness.
separation is determined by their thickness at operating tem- 5.9.2 If the apparatus is to be used at thicknesses greater
perature. In this case, a small constant force generally is than that of the available reference materials, a series of
applied to hold the plates against the specimen. It is unlikely calibration measurements shall be performed to insure that the
that a pressure greater than 2.5 kPa will be required. For easily equipment does not introduce additional errors, which may be
compressible specimens, small stops interposed between the due to lateral heat losses or gains brought about by insufficient
corners of the hot and cold plates, or some other positive means guarding (4, 10). One means of checking for these errors is to
shall be used to limit the compression of the specimens (see use multiple thicknesses of the calibration standards. If these
Note 5). Provision shall be made for checking the linearity of are stacked with a radiation blocking septum between each of
any thickness measuring system. the standards, the first approximation is that the total thermal
NOTE 5—Because of the changes of specimen thickness possible as a resistance is the sum of the individual thermal resistances.
result of temperature or compression by the plates, it is recommended that 5.10 Environmental Control—In many applications, it is
specimen thickness be measured in the apparatus, at the existing test desirable to control the environment surrounding the test
5

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specimen to reduce edge heat losses, and it is especially closely the mean temperature must be maintained. As assess-
important when the mean test temperature is below the ambient ment of the sensitivity of the calibration standard to test
temperature, in order to avoid condensation on the cold plate. conditions should be determined by the user of the transfer
A cabinet or enclosure surrounding the isothermal plates and standard to determine its limitations of use.
the specimens to maintain the ambient temperature at the mean 6.5.3 Multiple Temperature Points—If the calibration stan-
temperature of the specimen also may be used as a means to dard is tested at three or more mean temperatures, calibrate the
maintain the dew point temperature at least 5 K lower than the heat flow meter apparatus at the same temperatures using the
temperature on the cold plates, in order to prevent condensa- same temperature gradients (11). A smooth curve can be fitted
tion and moisture pickup by the specimen. Any environmental to the points such that a calibration factor can be interpolated
control system employed in conjunction with a heat flow meter for any given mean temperature. It is not permissible to
apparatus shall be capable of maintaining its set point condition extrapolate above or below the mean temperature range of the
within 6 1°C in temperature. calibration standard measurements. Changing the plate tem-
6. Calibration perature of a heat flow meter apparatus has the potential of
changing apparatus calibration. When changing plate tempera-
6.1 The calibration of a heat flow meter apparatus is a very
tures, take steps to determine if the heat flux transducer
critical operation. Since lateral heat losses or gains of heat are
not controlled or eliminated automatically, but only lessened calibration factor has changed.
by increasing the size of the guard area and edge insulation, 6.5.4 Single Thickness Point—If the original calibration
there is no guarantee that the heat losses or gains are negligible standard is tested at only one thickness, the heat flow meter
under all testing conditions. To ensure that the equipment is apparatus can be calibrated for that thickness without an
performing properly with specimens of different thermal resis- exhaustive thickness study. If tests are to be conducted at
tances, the apparatus shall be calibrated with materials having thicknesses other than the calibrated thickness, make a thor-
similar thermal characteristics and thicknesses as the materials ough study of the error of the heat flow meter apparatus at other
to be evaluated. The apparatus shall be calibrated as a unit, thicknesses. Several references on this subject are listed at the
with the heat flux transducer(s) installed in the apparatus. end of this test method (4 and 12-15).
6.2 This procedure applies to the calibration of a heat flow 6.5.5 Multiple Thickness Points—If the original standard is
meter apparatus over a wide range of heat flow rates and tested at three or more thicknesses, the heat flow meter
temperatures, which permits the testing of a wide variety of apparatus can be calibrated over the same thickness range. A
insulation materials over an extended temperature range. smooth curve can be fitted to the points such that a calibration
6.3 The following calibration procedure is used to compute factor can be interpolated for any given thickness. If tests are
the calibration factor, S (see Practice C 1132) for a heat flow to be conducted at thicknesses above or below the calibrated
meter apparatus, and must be used by anyone who desires to thicknesses, make a thorough study of the error of the heat flow
produce meaningful heat flux measurements from a heat flow meter apparatus at these thicknesses.
apparatus. 6.6 Calibration of Various Designs:
6.4 Calibration Standards:
6.4.1 Calibration standards may be good for many years if 6.6.1 There are several configurations of heat flow meter
handled carefully but shall be checked periodically to confirm apparatuses that use one or two heat flux transducers and one
lack of change. or two specimens in the apparatus. While it is not practical to
6.4.2 It is recommended that the primary standards obtained list all of the possible combinations of apparatus and specimen
from a national standards laboratory should not be used on a configurations, this section contains the equations for calculat-
daily basis, but secondary or working standards should be ing the calibration factor of three common apparatuses. The
produced. Create a record on the secondary standards with the calibration and testing configuration should be identical. The
following information. calibration factor of a heat flow meter apparatus is determined
6.4.2.1 Name of national laboratory to which it is traceable. by running the same standard specimens a number of times, not
6.4.2.2 Date the secondary standard is produced. consecutively, but over a period of time with the standard
6.4.2.3 Date the secondary standard is last tested. removed each time.
6.4.2.4 Thermal value of the secondary standard. 6.6.2 One Calibration Standard—Apparatus with one heat
6.4.2.5 Range of parameters for which it is valid. flux transducer and one standard (see Fig. 1).
6.4.2.6 Estimate of bias of the primary and secondary S 5 C·~Th – Tc!/E (1)
standards.
6.5 Calibration Procedure: 6.6.3 Two Calibration Standards—Apparatus with one heat
6.5.1 Calibrate the heat flow meter apparatus under the same flux transducer and one specimen configuration (same as that
conditions of plate temperatures, temperature gradient, speci- for 6.6.2).
men thickness, heat flow direction, and apparatus orientation as 6.6.3.1 The two calibration standards need to be the same
those for which data are available for the standard. thickness and of similar material but need not be identical.
6.5.2 Single Temperature Point—If the calibration standard With the following equation, it is not necessary to know the
is tested at a single mean temperature, conduct the calibration thermal conductance of each calibration standard, but it is
and subsequent tests near the same mean temperature. Use necessary to know the average thermal conductance of the two
engineering judgment or an error analysis to determine how standards:
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C a 1 Cb For some materials, such as cellulose, considerably longer
S D
S5 Ea Eb (2)
1
times may be required for both conditioning and testing.
~Tha – Tca! ~Thb – Tcb! 7.4 Measurements on Specimens:
6.6.3.2 Two Calibration Standards—Apparatus with one 7.4.1 Blanket and Batt-Type Materials—When specified,
heat flux transducer and two specimens (see Fig. 2). the test thickness of blankets and batt-type materials shall be
6.6.3.3 Again, the standards need to be the same thickness determined before testing in accordance with Test Methods
and of similar material but not necessarily identical. C 167, provided that good contact is maintained between the
C a 1 Cb specimen and the isothermal plates. Also, it is recommended

S D
S5 1 1 (3) highly that the thickness during the actual test be measured. At
E· 1 the conclusion of the test, the density in the metering area
~Tha – Tca! ~Thb– Tcb!
should be determined.
6.6.4 One Calibration Standard—Apparatus with two heat
flux transducers and one specimen (see Fig. 3). 7.4.2 Loose-fill Materials—These materials generally are
6.6.4.1 Assuming the two transducers physically are iden- tested in open test frames as spelled out in Practice C 687. The
tical and have similar outputs, one can sum the outputs of the requirement to measure the density in the metering area is
two transducers and then calibrate as a single transducer again critical.
apparatus. In this case, it is very important to keep the mean 7.5 Limitations on Specimen Thickness:
temperature and the plate temperatures equal to those used in 7.5.1 General—The combined thickness of the specimen or
testing the standard. specimens, the heat flux transducer and any damping material,
which in total equals the distance between the cold and hot
C·~Th – Tc!
S5 (4) plates, must be restricted in order to limit the effect of edge
~E1 1 E2!
losses on the measurements. In addition edge losses are
6.6.4.2 As an alternative, each heat flux transducer can be affected by the edge insulation and the ambient temperature, so
calibrated as an independent apparatus as in 6.6.1. the requirements on both of these parameters must be met.
7. Test Procedures 7.5.2 Maximum Spacing Between Hot and Cold Plates—
7.1 Foreword on Testing Procedures—The relative simplic- The maximum allowable distance between the hot and cold
ity of this test method may lead one to overlook very important plates during a test, is related to the dimensions of the heat flux
factors, which may affect the results. To ensure accurate transducer, the metering area, the size of the plate assembly, the
measurement, the operator shall be instructed fully in the construction of the heat meter apparatus, and the properties of
operation of the equipment. Furthermore, the equipment shall the specimen. No suitable theoretical analysis is available to
be calibrated properly with reference materials having similar predict the maximum allowable thickness of specimens. It is
heat transfer characteristics. Also it is necessary that the possible to use the results of an analysis for a similarly sized
specimen be prepared properly for evaluation. guarded hot plate as a guide (10, 16-18).
7.2 Sampling and Preparation of Specimens: 7.6 Procedure of Measurement:
7.2.1 Test Specimens—One- or two-piece specimens may be 7.6.1 Temperature Difference—For any test, make the tem-
used, depending on the configuration selected for the test. perature difference across the specimen not less than 10 K. For
Where two pieces are used, they shall be selected from the specimens that are expected to have a large thermal resistance,
same material to be essentially identical in construction, a larger temperature difference in the specimen is recom-
thickness, and density. For loose fill materials, the method mended (see Practice C 1058 for the selection of the plate
specified in the material specification or in Practice C 687 shall temperatures). The actual temperature difference or gradient is
be used to produce a specimen or specimens of the desired best specified in the material specifications or by agreement of
density. the parties concerned.
7.2.2 Selection of Specimens—The specimen or specimens 7.6.2 Edge Insulation—Enclose the edges of the specimens
shall be of such size as to cover the plate assembly surfaces and with thermal insulation to reduce edge heat losses to an
shall either be of the actual thickness to be applied in use or of acceptable level if this edge insulation is not built into the
sufficient thickness to give a true average representation of the apparatus (see 5.7).
material to be tested. If sufficient material is not available, the 7.6.3 Settling Time and Measurement Interval—Verify the
specimen shall at least cover the metering area, and the rest of existence of thermal equilibrium by observing and recording,
the plate surfaces must be covered with a mask with a thermal the emf output of the heat flux transducer, the mean tempera-
conductivity as close to that of the specimen as possible. ture of the specimens, the temperature drop across the speci-
7.3 Specimen Conditioning—Details of the specimen selec- men, and a calculated l value. Make observations at time
tion and conditioning preferably are given in the material intervals of at least 10 min until five successive observations
specification. Where such specifications are not given, the yield values of thermal conductivity, which fall within 1⁄2 % of
specimen preparation shall be conducted in accordance with the mean value for these five readings. If the five readings
the requirement that materials shall not be exposed to tempera- show a monotonically increasing or decreasing trend, equilib-
tures that will change the specimens in an irreversible manner. rium has not been attained. In this case, additional sets of
Typically, the material specifications call for specimen condi- readings shall be taken. If experience has shown that a shorter
tioning at 22°C (72°F) and 50 % R.H. for a period of time until time interval may be used, follow the same criteria for stability.
less than a 1 % mass change is observed over a 24-h period. For high density specimens (r > 40 kg/m2) or for low
7

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conductance specimens (C < 0.05 W/K·m2) the time between TABLE 1 Estimation of Random and Systematic Errors at Room
readings may have to be increased to 30 min or longer (19). Temperature
Absolute Variations Percent Variations
Variable
8. Error Analysis Random Systematic Random Systematic

8.1 A complete error analysis is complex; however, some DT 0.01 K 0.02 K 0.04 0.40
L 0 0.1 mm 0 0.40
form of error analysis is mandated for compliance with this test E 0 0.01 V 0 0.01
method. Such an error analysis is useful for estimating which S 0 2 mW 0 0.2
parameters may contribute to the overall uncertainty in the Temperature
drift 0.05 K 0.05K 0.01 0.01
measurements. It is the option of the manufacturer or user of calibration 0 0.1 K 0 0.4
the apparatus to follow the guidelines given in 8.2, 8.2.1, or 8.3 Heat flow
to determine the uncertainties. It is mandated, however, that drift 1 mW/m2 1 mW/m2 0.2 0.2
lateral 1 mW/m2 2 mW/m2 0.2 0.2
any result shall be accompanied with its uncertainty. l 0.2 mW/m2·K 0.3 mW/m2·K 0.8 1.2
8.1.1 For any one given apparatus, a careful error analysis
as outlined here, in most cases, will show up any major
difficulties, which may need correcting in order to improve the that caused by a temperature drift of the transducer itself. This
measurement accuracy of the heat flow meter apparatus. The can be estimated readily from the heat capacity of the trans-
performance of this analysis involves consideration of the ducer assembly and the drift detection limit of the measure-
following points. ment system. The error in DT, dT, can be caused by calibration
8.1.2 Estimates of errors in each individual measurement errors and measurement errors, but also by incorrect place-
procedure and propagation of these errors to the final result. ment, incorrect thermal anchoring, and disturbances introduced
8.1.3 Measurements to determine apparatus variability to by the thermocouple itself.
intentional deviations from normal operations. 8.3 Experiments should be performed to determine the
8.1.4 Measurements on reference materials and participa- variability of the test results to deviations from normal oper-
tion in round-robin programs. ating conditions. This variability combined with the estimated
8.1.5 For a more complete discussion of error analysis the control stability under normal operating conditions can be used
reader is directed to the ISO “Guide to the Expression of to estimate the error from this source. As one example, the
Uncertainty in Measurements” (20). effect of an imperfect guard balance control can be determined
8.1.6 Calibration Errors: by purposely offsetting the guard, if this is possible, by a
8.1.6.1 Heat flux transducer calibration is temperature de- sufficient DT in both directions and measuring the differences
pendent and must be considered if the transducer temperature in the measured output.
is changed. 8.3.1 Care should be taken to not use such large offsets that
8.1.6.2 Specimen temperature gradient may affect the cali- nonlinear effects occur in the specimens. These results com-
bration factor. bined with the probable value of the offset during normal
8.1.6.3 Heat flow meter apparatus calibration may be de- operation yield the error due to imperfect guard balance.
pendent on heat flux. 8.4 The total estimated imprecision can be listed in a table
8.2 To illustrate a procedure of error analysis estimation, of errors, such as shown in Table 1. This table is shown as an
consider the operational definition of thermal conductivity: example only and does not represent any one particular heat
flow meter apparatus since the errors will be specific to each
l 5 S· • E • L/DT (5) apparatus.
The uncertainties in S, E, L, and DT (dS, dE, dL, and dDT)
can be used to form the uncertainty dl by the usual error 9. Calculation
propagation formula where the total uncertainty is calculated 9.1 Density and Change in Mass—When required, calculate
from the square root of the sums of the squares of the the density of the dry specimen as tested, r, the mass change
individual standard deviations. due to conditioning of the material, and the mass change of the
specimen during test.
~dl/l!2 5 ~dS/S!2 1 ~dE/E!2 1 ~dL/L!2 1 ~dDT/DT!2 (6)
9.1.1 Density of Batt and Blanket Specimens—It has been
This equation assumes that the errors in S, E, etc., are found that it is important to measure the mass of the specimens
random and independent of each other since the convariance in contact with the metering area. The area of the specimen
terms are omitted. This is valid here if different instrumentation directly measured shall be cut out and its mass determined after
is used for measurements on each of the variables (20). In order testing, unless the specimen must be retained for further
to use Eq 6 the operator must estimate the maximum uncer- testing.
tainty for each variable and examine the sources of error to 9.2 Thermal Properties for One Specimen—When only one
determine which can occur randomly and which can occur specimen is used, calculate the thermal conductance of the
simultaneously. specimen as follows:
8.2.1 Care shall be taken to evaluate properly all of the C 5 S · E / DT (7)
uncertainties in the variables S, E, L, etc. For example, obvious
sources of error in E are those caused by extraneous transverse and where applicable, calculate the thermal conductivity, as
heat flow along leads and deviations from one dimensional heat follows:
flow; however, an often neglected but important heat leak is l 5 S · E · ~L/ DT! (8)

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9.3 Thermal Properties for Two Specimens—When two McCaa and Smith, et. al., included ten participating laborato-
specimens are used, calculate the total thermal conductance, C, ries testing a fiberglass blanket and several type of loose-fill
as follows: insulation (25). The blanket insulation had an interlaboratory
C 5 S· E / ~DTa 1 DTb! (9) imprecision of 2.8 % at the two standard deviation level. The
loose-fill interlaboratory imprecision was found to be 5.0 % for
The l factor, that is, the average thermal conductivity of the perlite, 5.8 % for cellulose, 9.4 % for unbonded fiberglass, and
specimen is calculated as follows: 10.5 % for mineral wool at the two standard deviation level.
lave 5 ~S · E / 2!·~La 1 Lb!/~DTa 1 DTb! (10) This represented a significant improvement over the 1987
where the subjects refer to the two specimens. results and is attributed to a more concise specimen preparation
9.4 Other derived thermal properties may be calculated but procedure in Practice C 687.
only under the provisions given in Practice C 1045. 11. Report
9.5 Thermal Properties for Two Transducers—All pertinent
equations of 9.2 and 9.3 apply to this configuration, provided 11.1 The report of the results of each test shall include the
S·E will be replaced by (S’·E’ + S” · E”)/2, where the following information with all data to be reported in both SI
superscripts ’ and ” refer to the first and second heat flux and inch-pound units unless specified otherwise.
transducer, respectively. 11.1.1 The report shall be identified with a unique number-
ing system to allow traceability back to the individual mea-
10. Precision and Bias surements taken during the test performed.
10.1 The precision and bias of this test method cannot be 11.1.2 Name and any other pertinent identification of the
stated quantitatively for all apparatus variations and test material including a physical description.
conditions. 11.1.3 Description of the specimen and its relationship to
10.1.1 The precision of a heat flow meter apparatus can be the sample, including a brief history of the specimen, if known.
determined by making multiple measurements on the same 11.1.4 Thickness of the specimen as received and as tested.
standard, removing and installing the specimen for each 11.1.5 Method and environment used for conditioning, if
measurement. To obtain the best estimate of the precision, this used.
study shall be done over an extended time period where the 11.1.6 Density of the conditioned specimen as tested, kg/
reference standard is treated as an unknown. It is common for m3.
a laboratory with good practices to have a heat flow meter 11.1.7 Mass loss of the specimen during conditioning and
apparatus precision with a standard deviation of less than testing, in percentage of conditioned mass, if measured.
0.5 %. 11.1.8 Mass regain of the specimen during test, in percent-
10.1.2 One excellent way to monitor the stability of the age of conditioned mass, if measured.
calibration, and thus the precision of the heat flow meter 11.1.9 Average temperature gradient in the specimen during
apparatus, is to generate and use a control chart. In this way, test as computed from the temperatures of the hot and cold
often it is easier to spot changes in the calibration, such as drift, surfaces, K/m.
or a sudden change in a transducer output. 11.1.10 Mean temperature of the test, K or °C.
10.2 A series of three round robins was conducted between 11.1.11 Heat flux through the specimen, W/m2.
1976 and 1983, as reported by Hust and Pelanne (21), and 11.1.12 Thermal conductance, W/m2· K.
employed low density fiberglass specimens from 2.54 to 11.1.13 Duration of the measurement portion of the test,
10.2/cm thick with densities ranging from 10 to 33 kg/m2. A min or h.
total of twelve laboratories was involved in these studies. The 11.1.14 For loose-fill materials, report the specimen prepa-
interlaboratory imprecision, at the two standard deviation level ration followed.
when analyzed using Practice E 691, was found to vary from 11.1.15 Date of test, the date of the last heat meter calibra-
1.92 % to 3.54 % between 2.54 and 10.2 cm. tion, and the type or types of materials used.
10.3 Interlaboratory testing carried out between nine labo- 11.1.16 Estimated or calculated uncertainty in reported
ratories under the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation values. It is optional as to which of the error analysis methods
Program currently is showing an interlaboratory imprecision of given in Section 8 is used by the laboratory.
2.12 % at the two standard deviation level based on testing of 11.1.17 Orientation and position of the heat meter apparatus
similar but not identical specimens (22, 23). during test (vertical, horizontal, etc.), and whether the meter
10.4 A round robin conducted in 1987, as reported by was against the hot or cold surface of the specimen and
Adams and Hust, included eleven participating laboratories whether the edges of the specimen(s) were sealed or open to
testing a fiberglass blanket and several types of loose-fill the ambient.
insulations (24). The blanket insulation had an interlaboratory 11.1.18 For direct reading apparatus, the results of the
imprecision of 3.7 % at the two standard deviation level. The calibration of electronic circuitry and equipment or a statement
loose-fill interlaboratory imprecision was found to be > 10 % of compliance including date, and a statement of compliance
for different materials at the two standard deviation level. It has on linearity requirements.
been suggested that the principal cause for the significant 11.2 In many cases a laboratory is requested to provide only
differences observed is the various specimen preparation tech- the thermal conductivity at a specified mean temperature and a
niques used by the various laboratories. few pertinent physical properties, such as density, and test
10.5 A round robin conducted in 1990, as reported by thickness. An abridged test report shall state “Abridged ASTM
9

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C 518 Test Report” and shall include the thermal transmission 11.4 Statement of compliance, or where circumstances or
property of interest, mean temperature, test thickness, and bulk requirements preclude complete compliance with the proce-
density. It is mandated that an uncertainty statement shall be dures of the test, agreed exceptions. A suggested wording is
transmitted with the thermal transmission property. Compli- “This test conformed with all requirements of ASTM
ance to Test Method C 518 requires that the other test param- C 518– with the exception of (a complete list of exceptions
eters specified in 11.1.1-11.4 to be recorded in the laboratory follows).”
records.
11.3 For certification testing only, the specimens used in 12. Keywords
calibration shall be identified as to the type, thermal resistance,
date of specimen certification, source of certification, expira- 12.1 calibration; error analysis; heat flow meter apparatus,
tion date of calibration, and the certification test number. thermal resistance; heat flux; instrument verification; thermal
Where applicable include a statement of the laboratory accredi- conductivity; thermal testing
tation of the test facility, including the date of the latest
inspection.

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. (SEE FIGURES.)

X2. RESPONSE OF HEAT FLUX TRANSDUCERS

ducers, equipment to measure and control temperatures, thick-

ness, and measure the output of the heat flux transducers and
equipment to control the environmental conditions when
needed. Each configuration will yield equivalent results if used
within the limitations stated in this test method (24). For a
particular heat flux transducer, the test configuration that has
the fastest response, that is the shortest settling time, is best
determined by experiment. Four specimens of different mate-
rials, such as an urethane foam, ceramic fiber board, a rubber,
and a high conductivity, low-thermal capacity material, should
be tested in each configuration. A study of these results will
allow either the selections of the proper configuration for each
type of material or the selection of a reasonable configuration
for all types.
X2.1.1 In order to predict settling times for all types of
specimens, each of the above specimens shall be retested after
being conditioned to temperatures both below and above the
mean temperature of the test.
FIG. X1.2 Schematic Designs of Transducers X2.2 Time Response of Heat Flux Transducers:
X2.2.1 High Thermal Resistance Transducer—A transducer
X2.1 Configurations—The general features of a heat flow with a high thermal resistance generally is used when the
meter apparatus with the specimen or the specimens installed transducer is attached to one or both of the isothermal plates.
are shown in Section 6. A heat flow meter apparatus consists of When the specimens are preconditioned to the mean tempera-
two isothermal plate assemblies, one or more heat flux trans- ture of the test and when the plates are capable of both heating

FIG. X1.1 Some Layouts of the Liquid Paths in Heating or Cooling Plates

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and cooling the specimens, the time response of a high apparatus regarding edge heat losses through the specimen.
resistance transducer will be more rapid than a comparable The edge heat losses in the transducer may be much more
guarded hot plate apparatus. If the heat flux transducer has significant than those in the guarded hot plate apparatus
appreciable mass, the response will not be rapid. because they may produce errors due to the temperature
X2.2.1.1 When two transducers are used and attached to the nonuniformity on the side of the transducer in contact with the
isothermal plates, these can be used to obtain a very rapid specimen.
response times if both plates are capable of heating and cooling X2.3.3 The configuration with two transducers mounted on
and if the outputs of both transducers are summed (25).
the isothermal plates is the most insensitive to edge conditions
X2.2.2 Low Thermal Resistance Transducers—The low-
if the average of the readings of the two meters is assumed to
thermal resistance, gradient-type heat flux transducer is better
be the measured heat flux per unit area through the specimen.
suited to the configuration where the transducer is not attached
to either plate. The temperature drop across the low-resistance If the plates are perfectly uniform in temperature, if the two
transducer is small enough that the two specimens can be transducers are exactly equal in the layout of the thermopile
considered as halves of a single specimen. When the specimens junctions, and if the specimen has thermal conductivity inde-
are first conditioned to the mean temperature of the test and pendent of temperature, this configuration is nearly insensitive
when the specimens are identical, the response is sufficiently to edge conditions. Even under these ideal conditions, how-
rapid to be used for quality control work. ever, the use of this configuration does not eliminate edge
X2.2.2.1 Where half thicknesses of the normal specimen losses, but only reduces the apparatus susceptibility to varia-
can be used, it can be more rapid than the single transducer tions in the boundary temperatures.
configuration, especially when each of the specimens is first X2.3.4 The configuration with the transducer between the
conditioned to the mean temperature at which it will be tested. two specimens is very sensitive to edge heat losses on the heat
flux transducer since the power that flows through the edges is
X2.3 Sensitivity of Configurations to Edge Losses:
supplied, not by a heavy isothermal metal plates, but by the
X2.3.1 Heat loss from specimen edges may be significant specimens, so that their surface temperatures may not be
under some conditions. Factors to be considered when evalu- uniform. If the transducer is sensitive to temperature differ-
ating edge losses are thickness of specimen, conductivity of ences along its main surfaces, edge heat losses may now create
specimens, width of the guard, amount of external insulation,
serious errors. Edge heat losses within the specimens are
and edge ambient temperature.
similar to those in the guarded hot plate when the surrounding
X2.3.2 The configuration with the transducer mounted on
temperature is that of the hot or cold plate.
one isothermal plate is similar to the guarded hot plate

X3. PROVEN PERFORMANCE OF A HEAT FLOW APPARATUS

X3.1 Proven Performance—Any heat flow meter apparatus operating conditions and over a range of specimen thermal
that is new or has been modified shall be tested for the resistances.
following characteristics and corrections shall be made where X3.1.1.5 Drift in the transducer due to material aging of
a change of greater than one percent occurs in the transducer delamination. If such a change is noted, this should be used to
output due to the effects of X3.1.1-X3.2 over the range of determine the required calibration frequency.
operation and are recommended for changes of 0.3 % over the X3.1.1.6 Temperature coefficient of the transducer sensitiv-
range of operation. ity. This depends on the type of temperature detectors used in
X3.1.1 Zero Offset—This condition can be achieved by the transducer (thermocouple materials used in the thermopile)
assuring that both plate assemblies are at the same temperature. and the type of material used for the transducer core. If it is
If there is any output from the transducer for zero heat flux, this found that the sensitivity is temperature dependent, a curve of
may be due to any or all of the following: sensitivity versus temperature shall be developed and used to
X3.1.1.1 Electrical contact resistance on a transducer with correct measurement data.
low output. This may be corrected if one can improve the X3.1.1.7 Heat flow down the transducer leads. One possible
connections to eliminate the problem. This type of output may way to check for this is to move one’s hand across the surface
be temperature dependent. of the transducer between the metering area and the point
X3.1.1.2 Also, check grounding circuits because such a where the leads exit the plate assembly, while observing the
signal may be due to AC pickup in the leads from the transducer output. In a well designed plate or transducer
transducer. assembly there should be no observable output from the
X3.1.1.3 If after checking X3.1.1.1 and X3.1.1.2 there is transducer except in the metering area.
still a zero off-set, it may be possible to correct for this by X3.1.1.8 Effect of the thermal conductivity of the specimen
assuring that the calibration curve of output versus heat flux is on the sensitivity of the transducer. A “thermal shorting” effect
linear over the range of operating conditions. between elements caused by low thermal resistance between
X3.1.1.4 Susceptibility to warm or cold plate temperature the sensors of the thermopile or a funneling of heat through the
nonuniformity. Check for temperature nonuniformity under all sensors can change the sensitivity of the transducer. This can
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best be tested by running specimens with widely different standards or accepted reference materials, to prove the perfor-
thermal resistances. mance of the apparatus. Care should be taken to ensure that the
X3.1.1.9 Effect of loading pressure on the transducer sensi- reference materials have characteristics similar to the speci-
tivity. This should only be a problem if the transducer core is mens to be tested, and that the uncertainties of the standards
flexible. themselves are known.
X3.2 Finally, measurements shall be performed on transfer

References

(1) Tye, R.P., Ed., Thermal Conductivity Vols I and II, Academic Press, tivity Measurements,” Journal of Thermal Insulation, Vol 18, Octo-
London and New York, 1969. ber, 1994, pp. 146–162.
(2) Degenne, M., Klarsfeld, S., Barthe, P., “Measurement of the Thermal (14) Albers, M.A., and Pellanne, C.M., “Experimental and Mathematical
Resistance of Thick Low-Density Mineral Fiber Insulation,” Thermal Study of the Effect of Thickness in Low-Density Glass-Fiber Insu-
Transmission Measurements of Insulation, ASTM STP 660, ASTM, lation,” Thermal Conductivity 17, Plenum Press, New York and
1978, p.130. London, J.G. Hust, Ed., 1983, pp. 471–482.
(3) Pelanne, C.M., “Does the Insulation Have a Thermal Conductivity? (15) Bomberg, M., Pelanne, C.M., and Newton, W.S., “Analysis of
The Revised ASTM Test Standards Require an Answer,” Thermal Uncertainties in Calibration of a Heat-Flow Meter Apparatus,”
Transmission Measurements of Insulation, ASTM STP 660, ASTM Thermal Conductivity 18, Plenum Press, New York and London, T.
1978, pp. 69–70. Ashworth and D.R. Smith, Eds., 1985, pp. 254–272.
(4) Pelanne, C.M., “Discussion on Experiments to Separate the Effect of (16) De Ponte, F. and Maccato, W., “The Calibration of Heat Flow
Thickness from the Systematic Equipment Errors in Thermal Trans- Meters,” Thermal Insulation Performance, ASTM STP 718, ASTM
mission Measurements,” DOE/ASTM C 16.00 Thermal Insulation 1980, pp. 237–254.
Conference October 22–25, 1978. Tampa, FL, ASTM STP 718, ASTM, (17) Hollingsworth, M., “Experimental Determination of the Thickness
1980, pp. 322–334. Effect in Glass Fiber Building Insulation,” ASTM STP 718, ASTM
(5) Zabawsky, Z., “Construction and Calibration of a Heat Flow Meter for 1980, pp. 255–271.
Thermal Conductivity Measurements,” Paper No. 68–520, ISA, 1968, (18) Bode, K-H., “Thermal Conductivity Measurements with the Plate
pp. 1–6. Apparatus: Influence of the Guard Ring Width on the Accuracy of
(6) Hollingsworth, M., Jr., “An Apparatus for Thermal Conductivity at Measurement,” ASTM STP 879, ASTM, 1985, pp. 29–48.
Cryogenic Temperatures Using a Heat Flow Meter,” Symposium of (19) Shirtliffe, C.J., “Establishing Steady-State Thermal Conditions in Flat
Thermal Conductivity Measurements of Insulating Materials at Cryo- Slab Specimens,” Heat Transmission Measurement in Thermal Insu-
genic Temperatures, ASTM STP 411, 1967, p. 43. lations, ASTM STP 544, ASTM, 1974, p. 13.
(7) Pelanne, C. M., and Bradley, C. B., “A Rapid Heat Flow Meter (20) Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurements”, ISBN
Thermal-Conductivity Apparatus,” Materials Research and Standards, 92-67-10188-9, 1st Ed. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, 1993.
Vol 2, No 7, July, 1962, p. 549. (21) Hust, J.G. and Pelanne, C.M., “Round Robins on the Apparent
(8) DePonte, F., and Di Filipo, P., “Design Criteria for Guarded Hot Plate Thermal Conductivity of Low-Density Glass Fiber Insulations Using
Apparatus,” Heat Transmission Measurements in Thermal Insulations, Guarded Hot Plate and Heat-Flow-Meter Apparatus,” NBSIR
ASTM STP 544, R. P., Tye, Ed., 1974, p. 97. 85–3026, May 1985.
(9) DePonte, F., and Di Filipo, P., “Some Remarks on the Design of (22) Horlick, J. and Berger, H.W., “NVLAP and the Thermal Insulation
Isothermal Plates,” Quaderno No. 37, Istituto di Fisica Tecnia, Proficiency Testing Program,” Journal of Thermal Insulations, Vol 8,
Universita di Padova, 1972. April 1985, pp. 278–297.
(10) Rennex, B., “Error Analysis for the National Bureau of Standards (23) Horlick, J., “National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program
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